TOPIC 6. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION. TYPES OF WRITTEN TEXTS. TOPIC 6. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION. TYPES OF WRITTEN TEXTS. STRUCTURE AND FORMAL ELEMENTS. RULES GOVERNING WRITTEN STRUCTURE AND FORMAL ELEMENTS. RULES GOVERNING WRITTEN TEXTS. ROUTINES AND FORMULAIC EXPRESSIONS.
TEXTS. ROUTINES AND FORMULAIC EXPRESSIONS.
Good morning, m n!m" i# I$!ni! S"rr!no !nd I !m going %o r"!d %o&i' 6. Good morning, m n!m" i# I$!ni! S"rr!no !nd I !m going %o r"!d %o&i' 6.
In ord"r %o #"% ! '("!r #%r)'%)r" o* %+i# %o&i' !nd *!'i(i%!%" +o %o *o((o i%, I +!$" In ord"r %o #"% ! '("!r #%r)'%)r" o* %+i# %o&i' !nd *!'i(i%!%" +o %o *o((o i%, I +!$" di$id"d m &!&"r in%o - &!r%#.
di$id"d m &!&"r in%o - &!r%#. INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
ONE WRITTEN COMMUNICATION ONE WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
/./ T0E INTERACTIVE NATURE OF T0E READING AND WRITING /./ T0E INTERACTIVE NATURE OF T0E READING AND WRITING PROCESSES
PROCESSES
/.1 PURPOSES OF
/.1 PURPOSES OF READING AND WRITINGREADING AND WRITING TWO TYPES OF WRITTEN TEXTS
TWO TYPES OF WRITTEN TEXTS 1./ TYPOLOGIES OF TEXTS 1./ TYPOLOGIES OF TEXTS
1. 1 GENRE AS A SOCIAL PROCESS 1. 1 GENRE AS A SOCIAL PROCESS
Arg)m"n%!%i$" %"2%#Arg)m"n%!%i$" %"2%# D"#'ri&%i$" %"2%#D"#'ri&%i$" %"2%# E2&o#i%or %"2%#E2&o#i%or %"2%# N!rr!%i$" %"2%# N!rr!%i$" %"2%#
T0REE STRUCTURE AND FORMAL ELEMENTS OF WRITTEN
T0REE STRUCTURE AND FORMAL ELEMENTS OF WRITTEN TEXTSTEXTS 3./ CONTEXT 3./ CONTEXT 3.1 TEXTURE 3.1 TEXTURE 3.3 GRAP0OLOGICAL RESOURCES 3.3 GRAP0OLOGICAL RESOURCES FOUR RULES GOVERNING WRITTEN TEXTS FOUR RULES GOVERNING WRITTEN TEXTS
4./ C0ARACTERISTICS OF T0E WRITTEN LANGUAGE 4./ C0ARACTERISTICS OF T0E WRITTEN LANGUAGE FIVE ROUTINES AND FORMULAIC
FIVE ROUTINES AND FORMULAIC EXPRESSIONSEXPRESSIONS SIX TEAC0ING IMPLICATIONS.
SIX TEAC0ING IMPLICATIONS. SEVEN CONCLUSION.
SEVEN CONCLUSION. EIG0T 5I5
EIG0T 5I5LIOGRAP0YLIOGRAP0Y..
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
I% go"# i%+o)% #!ing %+!% %+" !''"## %o %+" ri%%"n (!ng)!g" i# ! &o"r*)( in#%r)m"n% I% go"# i%+o)% #!ing %+!% %+" !''"## %o %+" ri%%"n (!ng)!g" i# ! &o"r*)( in#%r)m"n% *or *)r%+"r ("!rning !nd 'omm)ni'!%ion. I%# %o ri%%"n (ing)i#%i' #i((# !r"
*or *)r%+"r ("!rning !nd 'omm)ni'!%ion. I%# %o ri%%"n (ing)i#%i' #i((# !r"
'om&("m"n%!r #in'" r"!ding r"*"r# %o %+" d"'oding !nd )nd"r#%!nding o* m"##!g"# 'om&("m"n%!r #in'" r"!ding r"*"r# %o %+" d"'oding !nd )nd"r#%!nding o* m"##!g"# +"r"!# ri%ing in$o($"# %+" "n'oding !nd "2&r"##ion o* m"##!g"# in ri%ing. T+" +"r"!# ri%ing in$o($"# %+" "n'oding !nd "2&r"##ion o* m"##!g"# in ri%ing. T+"
/ /
7o%+ *)(*i( ! +)m!n #o'i!( !nd 'omm)ni'!%i$" n""d !nd %+" !r" )#)!(( %!)g+% in !n !(mo#% #im)(%!n"o)# !. In m '(!##room, d"$"(o&ing m #%)d"n%#8 'omm)ni'!%i$" 'om&"%"n'" in'()d"# %+" gr!d)!( !'9)i#i%ion o* i%# di#'o)r#" dim"n#ion. A''ording %o C!n!(" !nd S!in :/;-<=, %+" di#'o)r#" #)7>'om&"%"n'" r"*"r# %o %+" in%"r&r"%!%ion o* indi$id)!( m"##!g" "("m"n%# !nd %o +o m"!ning i# r"&r"#"n%"d in r"(!%ion %o %+" "n%ir" di#'o)r#" or %"2%. I% im&(i"#, %+"r"*or", %+" 'om7in!%ion o* gr!mm!%i'!( *orm# !nd
m"!ning# %o )nd"r#%!nd !nd &rod)'" di**"r"n% %"2%#, !nd i% in'()d"# %+" !7i(i% %o 'o&" i%+ %+" 'o+"#ion !nd %+" 'o+"r"n'" o* ! %"2% !''ording %o i%# 'omm)ni'!%i$" *)n'%ion !nd 'on%"2%. O)r "d)'!%ion!( (!, r"*("'%"d in %+" d"'r"" -?@1</ in %+" V!("n'i!n Comm)ni%, #%!7(i#+"# %+!% %+" *o)r%+ 7(o' o* 'on%"n%# d"!(# i%+ %+" &rod)'%ion o* ri%%"n %"2%#, i%# "2&r"##ion !nd in%"r!'%ionB n"$"r%+"("##, I i(( !(#o %!" ! (oo %o 7(o' n)m7"r 3, +i'+ r"*"r# %o %+" 'om&r"+"n#ion o* ri%%"n %"2%#.
ONE WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
/. / T0E INTERACTIVE NATURE OF T0E READING AND WRITING PROCESSES
A %"2% '!n 7" d"*in"d !# ! 'om&("%" !nd 'o+"r"n% )ni% o* (!ng)!g" in )#", "i%+"r or!( or ri%%"n. 0!((id! r"*"r# %o %"2% !# *o((o# A %"2% i# 7"#% %+o)g+% o* no% !# !
gr!mm!%i'!( )ni% !% !((, 7)% !# ! )ni% o* ! di**"r"n% ind ! #"m!n%i' )ni%. T+i# )ni% %+!% i% +!#, i# ! )ni% o* m"!ning in 'on%"2%, ! %"2%)r" %+!% "2&r"##"# %+" *!'% %+!% i% r"(!%"# !# ! +o(" %o %+" "n$ironm"n% in +i'+ i# &(!'"d :0!((id! 0!##!n, /;-; 1;1=.T+" n!%)r" o* ! %"2% r"(i"# on 7"ing ! #"m!n%i' )ni% !nd i% i#, %+"r"*or", 'omm)ni'!%i$"B %+)#, r"!ding or ri%ing ! %"2% r"9)ir"# %+" "2&r"##ion, in%"r&r"%!%ion, !nd n"go%i!%ion o*
m"!ning. In !ddi%ion, %+" ri%%"n di#'o)r#" '!n !(#o 7" #""n !# ! %&" o* #o'i!( &r!'%i'" +i'+ r"(!%"# %o %+" #o'i"% !nd %+" ')(%)r" i% 7"(ong# %o. R"!ding in$o($"# !n !'%i$" &ro'"## o* 'on#%r)'%ing m"!ning !mong %+" di**"r"n% &!r%# o* ! %"2%, 7)% !(#o 7"%""n
%+" %"2% !nd on"8# on &"r#on!( "2&"ri"n'". On %+"ir &!r%, ri%"r# !n% %o "2&r"## ! m"##!g"B %+" +!$" !n !)di"n'" in mind, !nd !%%"nd %o %+" #&"'i*i' 'on%"2% o* %+"ir
ri%ing. T+"r"*or", ! ri%%"n %"2% 'r"!%"# ! r"(!%ion#+i& 7"%""n %+" ri%"r !nd %+" r"!d"r !nd %+" m"!ning o* %+" %"2% i# 'on$""d %+ro)g+ %+i# in%"r!'%ion no% on( %+" ri%"r
ri%"#, 7)% %+" r"!d"r !(#o %!"# !n !'%i$" &!r% in %+i# in%"r!'%ion. T+i# 'r"!%"# +!% i# '!(("d %+" in%"r!'%i$" n!%)r" o* %+" ri%%"n %"2%. T+" r"!d"r +!# %o in%"r&r"% %+"
r"(!%ion#+i&# 7"%""n %"2%)!( #"gm"n%# !nd %o 9)"#%ion %+" %"2% !# i% )n*o(d#. In
!ddi%ion, %+" ri%"r i(( )#" (ing)i#%i' !nd r+"%ori'!( d"$i'"# %o r"!(i#" +i#@+"r &)r&o#", 1
%o g"% %+" m"##!g" !'ro## !nd ""& %+" r"!d"r8# !%%"n%ion. Con#"9)"n%(, ! ri%%"n %"2% o&"r!%"# on !n in%"r!'%ion!( *r!m"or.
/. 1 PURPOSES OF READING AND WRITING
W" '!n di#%ing)i#+ %o 7ro!d *)n'%ion# in ri%ing. On %+" on" +!nd, i% i# %+"
in%r!&"r#on!( *)n'%ion 7 +i'+ %+" ri%"r !nd %+" r"!d"r !r" %+" #!m" &"r#on. For "2!m&(", " m! ri%" %+" #+o&&ing (i#% 7"*or" going %o %+" m!r"%, or " #%)d 7 ri%ing #)mm!ri"# on 7oo#. On %+" o%+"r +!nd, i% i# %+" in%"r&"r#on!( *)n'%ion 7 +i'+ " ri%" %o !no%+"r &"r#on. T+" !ddr"##"" m! 7" !7#"n% 7)% non, or, on %+" 'on%r!r, %+" !)di"n'" m! 7" )nnon. Non"%+"("##, ri%ing 7"'om"# ! #o'i!(
in#%r)m"n% %o "2&r"## !nd %r!n#mi% in*orm!%ion.
T+" &)r&o#" o* %+" ri%ing, %+" in%"nd"d !)di"n'", !nd %+" %o&i' %og"%+"r in*()"n'" %+" '+oi'" o* %+" %"2% #%r)'%)r" !nd, 'on#"9)"n%( i%# "("m"n%# !nd d"$i'"#. Li"i#", %+" ! ! %"2% i# r"!d, $!ri"# !''ording %o %+" &)r&o#" o* %+" r"!ding. W" o*%"n r"!d ! no$"( or !n !r%i'(" *or &("!#)r" or in%"r"#% !nd " g"% ! g(o7!( no("dg" *rom i% %+i# i# '!(("d extensive reading. On %+" o%+"r +!nd, %+"r" !r" %im"# +"n %+" r"!d"r i# in%"r"#%"d in g"%%ing d"%!i("d in*orm!%ion *rom %+" %"2%. T+i# ind o* intensive reading i# r"(!%"d %o in#%r)'%ion#, ("%%"r# or dir"'%ion#, *or "2!m&(". I* %+" &)r&o#" o* o)r r"!ding i# )#% %o o7%!in %+" m!in id"! o* ! %"2%, " i(( )#" ! skimming technique. Fin!((, scanning i# %+" r"!ding %"'+ni9)" " )#" +"n %+" r"!ding &)r&o#" i# %o *ind ! &!r%i')(!r &i"'" o* in*orm!%ion *rom ! %"2%B i% i# +!% " do +"n " '+"' %im"%!7("#, or (oo !% (i#%ing# or o7 !d$"r%i#"m"n%#, *or "2!m&(".
TWO TYPES OF WRITTEN TEXTS 1. / TYPOLOGIES OF TEXTS
T+"r" !r" m!n ind# o* %"2%# on" )#)!(( 'om"# !'ro## (i" r"'i&"#, in#%r)'%ion#, 'omi' #%ri&#, "%'. In !ddi%ion, #om" %"2%# !r" m!in( in%"nd"d %o 7" r"!d !(on" (i" &"r#on!( ("%%"r# or no$"(#B o%+"r# !r" d"#ign"d %o 7" r"!d !(o)d %o o%+"r# :%+" n"# 7)(("%in on %+" r!dio, or ! ("'%)r" %o ! gro)& o* #%)d"n%#=B !nd #%i(( o%+"r# i(( 7" r"!d 7 %+" on ri%"r :m"mo# !nd no%"#, *or "2!m&("=. T+"r" !r" m!n %&"# o* ri%%"n %"2%# " '!n "i%+"r r"!d or ri%". I% i# *or %+!% r"!#on %+!% di**"r"n% di#'i&(in"#, i%+ di**"r"n% 'ri%"ri! !nd in%"n%ion#, !nd !% di**"r"n% %im"#, +!$" "ng!g"d %+"m#"($"# in %+" #%)d !nd
'(!##i*i'!%ion o* %"2% in%o %&"#.
A''ording %o 5+!%i! :1<<4=, g"nr" !n!(#i# !% &r"#"n%, i# %+" r"#)(% o* %+" d"$"(o&m"n% o* di#'o)r#" !n!(#i#. T+" !)%+or (oo# !% g"nr" !n!(#i# !# ! *o)r #&!'" mod"(
L!ng)!g" !# %"2%. L!ng)!g" !# g"nr".
L!ng)!g" !# &ro*"##ion!( &r!'%i'". L!ng)!g" !# #o'i!( &r!'%i'".
No!d!#, mo#% 'or&)#>7!#"d #%)di"# r"( on %+" no%ion o* g"nr", or %+" r"(!%"d
'on'"&%# r"gi#%"r, %"2% %&", dom!in, #%(", #)7(!ng)!g", %"2%)!( &!%%"rning, !nd #o *or%+, in !n im&(i'i% or "2&(i'i% !. T+"r" i# m)'+ 'on*)#ion #)rro)nding %+"#" %"rm# !nd %+"ir )#!g", !nd "%, g"n"ri' '!%"gori#!%ion /ˌkætɪgəraɪˈzeɪʃən/ +!# 7"'om" o* %+" gr"!%"#% im&or%!n'", "#&"'i!(( *or 'om&)%!%ion!( (ing)i#%i'# +i'+ !%%"m&%# %o !n!(#", d"#'ri7" !nd r"#"!r'+ on di**"r"n% %&"# o* %"2%# in %+" *i"(d o* (ing)i#%i' 'or&)#"#,
n!%)r!( (!ng)!g" &ro'"##ing !nd "ngin""ring.
T+" %"rm g"nr" m! 7" )nd"r#%ood !# ! '!%"gor /ˈkætɪɡərɪ/ !##ign"d on %+" 7!#i# o* "2%"rn!( 'ri%"ri! (i" &)r&o#" or %o&i', r!%+"r %+!n on (ing)i#%i', in%"rn!( or *orm 'ri%"ri!. G"nr" i# 'ommon( r"g!rd"d !# ! 'on$"n%ion!( !nd ')(%)r!( r"'ogni#"d gro)&ing o* %"2%#.
0!$ing di#')##"d #+or%( !7o)% %+" 'on*)#ion !ro)nd %+" )#" o* %+" %"rm# %"2%>%&"# !nd g"nr", i% m! 7" !gr""d %+!% %+" di**"r"n% g"nr"# !r" #'+"m!>(i" g(o7!( #%r)'%)r"#
'!(("d #)&"r#%r)'%)r"# 7 $!n Di, *or "2!m&(". T+"#" #uperstructures d"*in" %+" g(o7!( *orm o* %+" %"2%. T+i# g(o7!( *orm i# d"*in"d in %"rm# o* #'+"m!%i' '!%"gori"#, #)'+ !# n!rr!%i$" #%r)'%)r"# o* ! #%or, or !rg)m"n%!%ion #%r)'%)r"# in ! ("'%)r". T+)#, #%r)'%)r"# org!ni#" %+" %"2% !nd +!$" ! g(o7!( n!%)r". T+"r"*or", in ord"r %o no %+!% ! %"2% i# ! #%or, *or "2!m&(", %+" r"!d"r i(( %r %o m!& %+" in*orm!%ion in%o !
#)&"r#%r)'%)r" #'+"m! o* ! n!rr!%i$". I% i# or%+ #ign!((ing +"r" !g!in %+!% %+"#"
#)&"r#%r)'%)r"# g"nr"# !r" ')(%)r!(( d"*in"d, !nd *orm ! &!r% o* o)r no("dg" o* %+" or(d. Con#"9)"n%(, ("!rn"r# "2&o#"d %o n" or di**"r"n% g"nr"# in %+" *or"ign
(!ng)!g" o)(d n""d, no% on( %o id"n%i* %+" %"2% g"nr" or %&", 7)% !(#o %o !&&r"'i!%" %+" di**"r"n'"# !nd #imi(!ri%i"# i%+ %+o#" in %+"ir L/, !nd in %+" '!#" o* o)r 7i(ing)!( 'omm)ni%, !(#o L1.
1. 1 GENRE AS A SOCIAL PROCESS
Looing !% %+" %"2% !# 'omm)ni'!%ion, i% i# r"$"!("d %+!% %+" &)r&o#" o* %+" ri%ing, %+" in%"nd"d !)di"n'", !nd %+" %o&i' %og"%+"r in*()"n'" %+" '+oi'" o* g"nr". T+)#, !n g"nr"
i# !(#o ! #o'i!( &ro'"## %+!% +!# ! &)r&o#" !nd ! #%r)'%)r" !nd %+" di**"r"n% g"nr"# !r" %+" &rod)'% o* ! ')(%)r". T"2%# !r" #%r)'%)r"d in di**"r"n% !# %o !'+i"$" %+"ir &)r&o#"#. For
"2!m&(", i* %+" go!( o* %+" ri%"r i# %o "2&(!in +o %o 'oo ! &!"((!, %+" ri%ing i(( 7" #%r)'%)r"d in%o ! ind o* in#%r)'%i$" %"2% "2&o#i%or g"nr". T+" ri%"r#8 '+oi'"# !7o)% %+" ! %+" org!ni#" %+" %"2% !nd d"$"(o& %+" %o&i', in*()"n'" +o %+" m"##!g" i# r"!d 7 %+" r"!d"r, !nd 'on#"9)"n%(, %+" r"!d"r o)(d &r"di'% !nd !n%i'i&!%" %+" di**"r"n%
#%r)'%)r"# in %+" %"2%#, d"&"nding on %+" ri%"r#H in%"n%ion#. T+" ri%"r i(( !(#o '+oo#" %+o#" &!r%i')(!r ("2i# !nd gr!mm!%i'!( #%r)'%)r"# %+!% 7"#% *)(*i( +i#@+"r 'omm)ni'!%i$" in%"n%ion !%%"nding %o %+" #i%)!%ion !nd #&"'i*i' ri%ing 'on%"2% in +i'+ %+" %"2% i# %o 7" )#"d. T+)#, i* %+" &)r&o#" d"%"rmin"# %+" g"nr" !nd org!ni!%ion o* %+" %"2%, %+" ri%"r8# '+oi'"# r"(!%ing %o (!ng)!g" &!%%"rn# !nd $o'!7)(!r i(( #+o %+" #%(" !nd r"gi#%"r. A (imi%"d '(!##i*i'!%ion o* %"2%# in%o #"$"r!( %&"# '!n 7" &ro$id"d, 7"!ring in mind %+!% %+" r"'ogni%ion o* ! %"2% !# 7"(onging %o ! (!rg"r *orm o* di#'o)r#", i# !(#o ! 'om&on"n% o* %"2%)r", +i'+ i# %+" &ro&"r% o* 7"ing ! %"2%. T+" '(!##i*i'!%ion o* %"2%# I !m going %o &ro$id" i# 7!#"d on %+" ri%"r8# 'omm)ni'!%i$" in%"n%ion or &)r&o#".
ARGUMENTATIVE TEXTS
T+" ri%"rH# &)r&o#" i# %o %!" ! &o#i%ion on #om" i##)" !nd )#%i* i%B !n !rg)m"n%!%ion i# o*%"n !im"d !% 'on$i'%ion. In ord"r %o g"% %+i# m!in go!(, %+" ri%"r i(( #)&&or% %+" id"!# in ! (ogi'!( #"9)"n'", !nd i(( )#" !(( %+" n"'"##!r #%r!%"gi"# %o '+!ng" or modi* %+" r"!d"r8# 7"(i"*# on ! %o&i'. Arg)m"n%!%i$" %"2%# g"n"r!(( d"!( i%+ &ro7("m# !nd 'on%ro$"r#i!( id"!#. R"!#on# *or or !g!in#% #om" %o&i', !r" &)% *or!rd. T+" )(%im!%" !im i# !(!# %o &"r#)!d" %+" r"!d"r. 5)% %+" 7!#i# o* !n !rg)m"n%!%i$" %"2% +!# %o 7" &ro$id"d 7 "2&o#i%or &!##!g"#, 7 %+" "2&(!n!%ion o* *!'%#, 'on'"&%#, d"$"(o&m"n%# or &ro'"##"#.
Mo#% %&i'!( !rg)m"n%!%ion# %!" %+" *o((oing #%r)'%)r"
A statement of position !% %+" 7"ginning o* %+" %"2%. I% m! 7" %+" ri%"r8# &oin% o* $i", or %+" o&&o#i%" %o !rg)" 7 'on%r!#%.
A (ogi'!( sequence of points &ro$iding "no)g+ "$id"n'", +i'+ i# %r)#%or%+, *!'%)!( or 7 !&&"!(ing %o !)%+ori%. D"&"nding on %+" %o&i', !)%+or# #om"%im"# )#" '!)#" !nd "**"'% !rg)m"n%# %o #)&&or% %+"ir id"!#.
A summing up or #%!%ing !g!in %+" &o#i%ion !% %+" "nd.
T+"r" !r" %o 7!#i' %&"# o* r"!#oning &ro'"##"# *o((o"d in %+i# %&" o* %"2%# d"d)'%ion !nd ind)'%ion. D"d)'%ion 7"gin# i%+ ! g"n"r!( &rin'i&(" or &r"mi#" !nd dr!# ! #&"'i*i' 'on'()#ion *rom i%. Ind)'%ion #)&&or%# ! g"n"r!( 'on'()#ion 7 "2!mining #&"'i*i' *!'%# or '!#"#.
DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS
D"#'ri&%ion i# )#"d in !(( *orm# o* ri%ing %o 'r"!%" ! $i$id im&r"##ion o* ! &"r#on, &(!'", o7"'% or "$"n%. D"#'ri&%i$" %"2%# gi$" %+" r"!d"r ! m"n%!( im!g" o* !n o7"'%,
#'"n", &"r#on, or "mo%ion!( #i%)!%ion %+!% %+" ri%"r !n%# %o in*orm !7o)%. T+" do no% )#)!(( &(! ! domin!n% ro(" in ! %"2%, 7)% ! #"'ond!r on". Som" di'%ion!r d"*ini%ion#, %+" #"%%ing in ! #%or, '()"# in 'ro##ord# !nd o%+"r# !r" d"#'ri&%i$" %"2%#. Sin'" !
d"#'ri&%i$" %"2% +!# ! &+o%ogr!&+i' 9)!(i%, i% i# )#)!(( %+" m!in in#%r)m"n% o*
#'i"n%i#%#, #o mo#% d"#'ri&%i$" %"2%# !&&"!r in r"*"r"n'" 7oo# !nd m!n)!(#. T+"r"*or", %+" m!in &)r&o#" o* ! d"#'ri&%ion i# %o in$o($" %+" r"!d"r# "no)g+ #o %+!% %+" '!n !'%)!(( $i#)!(i#" %+" %+ing# 7"ing d"#'ri7"d. D"#'ri&%i$" %"2%# "ng!g" %+" r"!d"r8#
!%%"n%ion, 'r"!%" '+!r!'%"r#, #"% ! mood or !n !%mo#&+"r" !nd 7ring ri%ing %o (i*". T+"r" !r" %o m!in %&"# o* d"#'ri&%ion #)7"'%i$" !nd o7"'%i$". T+" "##"n%i!( '+!r!'%"ri#%i' %+!% di#%ing)i#+"# %+" objective description i# ! $i#)!( &+o%ogr!&+i' 9)!(i%. I% i# %+" m!in in#%r)m"n% o* %+" o7"'%i$" o7#"r$"r, +o )#"# 'on'r"%" !nd #&"'i*i' ord#. T+i# ind o* %"'+ni'!( d"#'ri&%ion %"nd# %o 7" n")%r!(, "2!'% !nd im&"r#on!(, !nd 7"'!)#" o* %+!%, !77r"$i!%ion# !nd "((i&%i'!( #n%!2 i# $"r 'ommon. On %+" o%+"r +!nd, subjective descriptions r"*("'% %+" !)%+or8# r"!'%ion#, !nd gi$" "2&r"##ion# %o %+" ri%"rH# *""(ing# or mood#. T+"#" im&r"##ioni#%i' d"#'ri&%ion# m!" id" )#" o* *ig)r!%i$" (!ng)!g" !nd 'onno%!%ion o* ord#. R"g!rding %+" #%r)'%)r" o* d"#'ri&%i$" %"2%#, #)''"##*)(
d"#'ri&%ion# 9)i%" o*%"n !r" in%rod)'"d 7 m"!n# o* ! " ord or %i%(". T+"n, %+" ri%"r i(( o**"r in*orm!%ion in +!% i# '!(("d %+" "2%"n#ion. T+" d"#'ri&%ion i(( 7" #%r)'%)r"d in #"$"r!( &!r!gr!&+# d"!(ing i%+ %+" o7"'%, &"r#on or &(!'" 7"ing d"#'ri7"d.
EXPOSITORY TEXTS
T+" &)r&o#" o* !n "2&o#i%or %"2% i# %o "2&(!in, '(!ri* or in*orm #om"%+ing %o %+" r"!d"r. T+"r" !r" ! id" $!ri"% o* ri%%"n %"2%# +i'+ *!(( in%o %+" '!%"gor o* "2&o#i%or d"*ini%ion#, +oro#'o&"#, "!%+"r *or"'!#%#, !nd #o *or%+. In *!'%, #om"
!)%+or# in'()d" %+" !rg)m"n%!%i$" %"2%# !7o$" !# ! %&" o* "2&o#i%ion. 0"r" %+" !r" no% 6
'(!##i*i"d !# 7"(onging %o %+" #!m" gro)& 7"'!)#" %+" !&&"!r %o +!$" ! di**"r"n% 'omm)ni'!%i$" &)r&o#" 'on$in'ing *or %+" !rg)m"n%!%ion, !nd "2&(!ining in %+" "2&o#i%or %"2%. T+)#, %+" !im o* !n "2&o#i%or %"2% i# %o '(!ri* !nd &ro$id"
in*orm!%ion, !nd, %+"r"*or", %+" ri%"r )#"# r"#o)r'"# %o id"n %+" r"!d"r8# no("dg" o* ! %o&i'.
T+" #%r)'%)r" o* !n "2&o#i%or %"2% i# o*%"n di$id"d in%o %+r"" &!r%#
T+" introduction i# 'ommon( *orm"d 7 ! &!r!gr!&+ +i'+ &r"#"n%# %+" %o&i' %o 7" d"$"(o&"d.
T+"n %+" %o&i' i# d"$"(o&"d in%o #"$"r!( paragraphs. E!'+ o* %+"#" &!r!gr!&+# *)n'%ion# !# ! #"m!n%i' )ni% +i'+, on %+" on" +!nd, r"'o$"r# in*orm!%ion &r"#"n%"d in %+" &r"$io)# on" %+!% i#, or# !# %+"m", !nd on %+" o%+"r +!nd, o**"r# n"
in*orm!%ion !nd or# !# r+"m" /riːm/.
T+" %+ird &!r% i# %+" conclusion, +i'+ m! 7" ! #)mm!r o* %+" in*orm!%ion, or ! 'on'()#ion d"ri$"d *rom %+" in*orm!%ion &ro$id"d.
Pro'"d)r!( /prəˈsiːdjʊrəl/ %"2%# !r" ! $!ri"% o* "2&o#i%or %"2%#. T+"ir #&"'i*i' &)r&o#" i# %o "2&(!in %+" r"!d"r +o %o do or m!" #om"%+ing. T+" m! %"(( +o #om"%+ing or# :in#%r)'%ion@o&"r!%ion m!n)!(#=B +o %o do ! &!r%i')(!r !'%i$i% :r"'i&"#, r)("# *or g!m"#...=B or %+" !r" %"2%# +i'+ d"!( i%+ +)m!n 7"+!$io)r :+o %o #)''""d, +!% %o do in '!#" o* "!r%+9)!"...=. T+"#" %"2%# !r" )#)!(( ri%%"n in %+" &r"#"n% %"n#", or in %+" im&"r!%i$" !nd %+" r"!d"r i# o*%"n r"*"rr"d !# 'o(("'%i$" :o), on"=.
NARRATIVE TEXTS
A n!rr!%i$" i# %+" %"((ing o* ! #%or, %r)%+ or *i'%ion. N!rr!%i$"# !r" ! %&" o* !'%ion di#'o)r#", !''ording %o $!n Di, +o !(#o "2&(!in# %+!% %+" ri%"r !##)m"# %+!% %+" r"!d"r do"# no% no %+" "$"n%#. In n!rr!%ion#, mor" %+!n on" !'%ion %!"# &(!'", !nd %+" #"9)"n'" o* "$"n%# i# '!)#!(( or r!%ion!(( 'onn"'%"d. A# n!rr!%ion i# in%im!%"(
'onn"'%"d i%+ %im", %+" "("m"n%# in %+i# #or% o* %"2%# 'o+"r" 7 m"!n# o* %im"
'on)n'%ion#. N!rr!%i$"# '!n 7" 'on#id"r"d !# ! mi2"d g"nr" in +i'+ #"9)"n'"# o* r"&or%, #&""'+, d"#'ri&%ion, !nd 'omm"n% '!n 7" !n!(#"dB non"%+"("##, " i(( 'on#id"r +"r" n!rr!%i$" %"2%# !# ! g"nr" +i'+ !%%"nd %o ! #&"'i*i' 'omm)ni'!%i$" &)r&o#", #+o ! g(o7!( *orm!% or #%r)'%)r", !nd !n#"r %o ! ')(%)r!(( #+!r"d #'+"m!.
T+" 7!#i' &)r&o#" o* n!rr!%i$"# i# %o "n%"r%!in, %o g!in !nd +o(d ! r"!d"r8# in%"r"#%. T+"r" !r" m!n %&"# o* n!rr!%i$"#. T+" '!n 7" im!gin!r, *!'%)!( or ! 'om7in!%ion o* 7o%+. T+" m! in'()d" *!ir #%ori"#, m#%"ri"#, m%+#...
T+" &ro%o%&i'!( #%r)'%)r" *or %r!di%ion!( n!rr!%i$"# 'on#i#% o* %+r"" m!in &!r%# Orientation or introduction: %+" '+!r!'%"r#, #"%%ing !nd %im" o* %+" #%or !r" "#%!7(i#+"d J i% )#)!(( !n#"r# +oK +"nK +"r"K
Complication or problem: T+" 'om&(i'!%ion )#)!(( in$o($"# %+" m!in '+!r!'%"r:#=. T+i# 'om&(i'!%ion 'om"# *rom !n !'%ion or "$"n% +i'+ i# )n"2&"'%"d, #)r&ri#ing or d!ng"ro)#.
Resolution T+"r" n""d# %o 7" ! r"#o()%ion o* %+" 'om&(i'!%ion.
V!n Di !dd# ! *o)r%+ "("m"n% i%+in %+i# g(o7!( #%r)'%)r" '!(("d evaluation. I% i# !7o)% %+" n!rr!%or gi$ing +i#@+"r !%%i%)d" !7o)% %+" "$"n%#, ! mor!( in +i'+ %+"
'on#"9)"n'"# or 'on'()#ion# !r" dr!n *or &r"#"n% !nd *)%)r" !'%ion# o* %+" !)di"n'" :r"!d"r#=.
C+!r!'%"r# in n!rr!%i$"# #+o d"*in"d &"r#on!(i%i"# !nd id"n%i%i"#, !nd, in !ddi%ion, di!(og)"# !nd d"#'ri&%ion# *orm &!r% o* %+" n!rr!%i$", +i'+ m! '+!ng" %+" #%or>%im", 'r"!%" im!g"# in %+" r"!d"r8# mind# !nd "n+!n'" %+" #%or.
T0REE STRUCTURE AND FORMAL ELEMENTS OF WRITTEN TEXTS
T+" mo#% 7!#i' org!ni#!%ion!( &rin'i&(" o* %"2% i# %+!% i% i# (in"!r /ˈlɪnɪə/ !nd i% )n*o(d# in ! (in"!r !. T+i# (in"!ri% gi$"# %"2%# ! &ro#&"'%i$"@r"%ro#&"'%i$" d)!(i% 7"#id"# (ooing *or!rd, ! r"!d"r !(#o (oo# 7!' %o +!% +!# 7""n gi$"n !nd %o +!% +"@#+" !(r"!d no# !7o)% %+" %"2%. In !ddi%ion %o %+i# (in"!ri%, ! %"2%, "i%+"r or!( or ri%%"n, i# *orm"d 7 %+" 'on%"2%, i%# r+"%ori'!( #%r)'%)r", !nd i%# 'o+"#ion, +i'+ %og"%+"r gi$" *orm !nd m"!ning %o ! &i"'" o* ri%ing.
3. / CONTEXT
No %"2% i# 'r"!%"d in ! $!'))mB on %+" 'on%r!r, !n %"2% i# &!r% o* ! 'on%"2%. T+" 'on%"2% in$o($"# &!r%i'i&!n%#, %+" 'omm)ni'!%ion #"%%ing !nd go!(, %+" &r!gm!%i' gro)nd r)("#, %+" #)7"'% m!%%"r no("dg", !nd mo#% o* o%+"r 'om&on"n%# %+!% #i%)!%" %+" %"2% "$"n%. Fo((oing 5(oor, !% %+" %im" o* !n!(#ing %+" 'on%"2% o* ! %"2%, %+r"" m!in "("m"n%# '!n 7" 'on#id"r"d 'o>%"2%, 'on%"2% o* #i%)!%ion, !nd 'on%"2% o* ')(%)r".
-Co-text 'on#%i%)%"# %+" mi'ro>("$"(. I% r"*"r# %o %+" #)rro)nding %"2% o* ! #%r"%'+ o* (!ng)!g", ! *" ord# or ! +o(" &!r!gr!&+. T+" m"!ning o* ! '+)n o* (!ng)!g" i# in &!r% d"&"nd"n% on %+" ord# !nd &!r!gr!&+# !ro)nd i%.
The context of situation i# m!d" )& o* !(( %+" &+"nom"n! +i'+ !**"'% %+" di#'o)r#" %o&i', &!r%i'i&!n%#, !nd "%'"%"r!. In %+" '!#" o* ! ri%%"n %"2%, %+" #i%)!%ion i# mor" 'om&("2 !# %+" ri%"r o*%"n ri%"# *or !n im!gin"d r"!d"r.
T+" context of culture r"*"r# %o %+" 'om&("2 o* $!rio)# #o'i!( &+"nom"n! in$o($ing +i#%ori'!( !nd g"ogr!&+i'!( #"%%ing#, 7)% !(#o mor" g"n"r!( !#&"'%# (i" %+" r"!d"r8# !nd ri%"r8# "d)'!%ion or &o(i%i'!( ori"n%!%ion, *or "2!m&(".
3. 1 TEXTURE
T"2%)r" i# ! %"rm in%rod)'"d 7 0!((id! +i'+ r"*"r# %o %+" &ro&"r% o* 7"ing ! %"2%. I% i# !7o)% %+" "("m"n%# +i'+ %i" %og"%+"r, #%r)'%)r" !nd gi$" m"!ning %o %"2%#. T"2%)r" m!in( in'()d"#
Co+"#ion.
T+" in%"rn!( #%r)'%)r" o* %+" #"n%"n'"#.
T+" m!'ro#%r)'%)r" o* %+" %"2% %+!% "#%!7(i#+"# i% !# ! %"2% o* ! &!r%i')(!r ind.
T+" (in"!ri% o* %+" ri%%"n %"2% !nd i%# cohesion !&&"!r %o 7" %+" mo#% 7!#i' org!ni!%ion!( &rin'i&(" o* ! %"2%. T+" no%ion o* 'o+"#ion r"*"r# %o %+" #"m!n%i' r"(!%ion# i%+in %+" "("m"n%# o* ! %"2%. In ! id"r $i", 'o+"#ion "m7r!'"# (ing)i#%i' d"$i'"# !nd %+" !##)m&%ion# or in*"r"n'"# %+!% 7o%+ %+" ri%"r !nd %+" r"!d"r m!". T+"#" &r"#)&&o#i%ion# !nd im&(i'!%ion# 'onn"'%"d %o or(d no("dg" !r" on" o* %+" " !# in +i'+ 'o+"r"n'" i# !'+i"$"d.
T+" cohesive devices %+!% %+" (!ng)!g" ##%"m o**"r# +!$" 7""n '(!##i*i"d in%o %+r"" m!in %&"# #"m!n%i', ("2i'!( !nd gr!mm!%i'!(. Cohesive grammatical resources in$o($" '(o#"d ##%"m# &rono)n# or d"mon#%r!%i$"#, *or "2!m&(", !nd !r" r"(!%"d %o *orm. T+" lexical devices in$o($" !n o&"n>"nd"d '+oi'" on %+" ri%"r8# &!r%, #)'+ !# %+" #"("'%ion o* ! #nonm. T+"r" i# ! %+ird %&" o* 'o+"#i$" d"$i'"# o* ! semantic relation !nd +i'+ i# in %+" 7ord"r(in" o* %+" gr!mm!r !nd %+" ("2i'!( on"# 'on)n'%ion#.
T+"#" r+"%ori'!( d"$i'"# !((o ! %"2% %o 7" org!ni"d !nd 'o+"r"n%( d"$"(o&"d #o %+!% %+" ri%ing *)(*i(# %+" !)%+or8# 'omm)ni'!%i$" &)r&o#"B !nd %+" "#%!7(i#+ %+r"" %&"# o*
r"(!%ion#+i&# !mong %+" di#'o)r#" "("m"n%# gr!mm!%i'!(, #"m!n%i', !nd ("2i'!(, +i'+ !r" "#&"'i!(( 'on'"rn"d i%+ %+" *(o o* in*orm!%ion in ! %"2%. T+" )nd"r#%!nding !nd )#" o* 'o+"#i$" d"$i'"# i# $i%!( *or %+" d"$"(o&m"n% o* o)r #%)d"n%#8 'omm)ni'!%i$" 'om&"%"n'" >in or!(, !# "2&(!in"d in %o&i' , !nd ri%%"n (!ng)!g".
3. GRAP0OLOGICAL RESOURCES
D)" %o %+" in%rin#i' *"!%)r"# o* %+" ri%%"n (!ng)!g", gr!&+o(og r"#o)r'"# !r" o* %+" gr"!%"#% im&or%!n'". T+"#" in'()d" or%+ogr!&+, &)n'%)!%ion, &!r!gr!&+ing, !nd %"2% (!o)% or *orm!%. T+" &"r*orm %+" *)n'%ion# %+!% $oi'" 9)!(i%, in%on!%ion, or &!)#"# r"!(i" in or!( #&""'+.
I% m! 7" in%"r"#%ing %o no%i'" %+!% #&"((ing !(#o *orm# &!r% o* %+" gr!&+i' r"#o)r'"# o* %+" (!ng)!g". For "2!m&(", i% i# 7 %+" ri%"r8# d"(i7"r!%" mi##&"((ing %+!% %+" r"!d"r m! ("!rn !7o)% %+" #o'i!( #%!%)# or g"ogr!&+i'!( origin o* ! '+!r!'%"r in ! no$"(. Li"i#", !7norm!( #&"((ing i# id"( )#"d in %+" or(d o* m!r"%ing %o '!%'+ %+" r"!d"r8# !%%"n%ion, or %o !$oid 'on*)#ion 7"%""n ! 'ommon &+r!#" !nd ! 7r!nd n!m".
T+" En''(o&!"di! o* %+" Eng(i#+ L!ng)!g" #ign!(# %+" 'ri%i'!( ro(" %+!% &)n'%)!%ion &(!# in ri%ing
Gr!mm!%i'!( i% "n!7("# #%r"%'+"# o* ri%%"n (!ng)!g" %o 7" r"!d 'o+"r"n%(, 7 di#&(!ing %+"ir gr!mm!%i'!( #%r)'%)r" 7 %+" )#" o* #"n%"n'">"nding &"riod#, '(!)#"> di$iding 'omm!#, !nd &!r!gr!&+#. Among %+" &)n'%)!%ion m!r# +i'+ #"&!r!%" gr!mm!%i'!( #%r)'%)r"# !r" &"riod#, #"mi>'o(on#, 'o(on#, 'omm!#, ro)nd 7r!'"%#, d!#+"#, in$"r%"d 'omm!#, +&+"n#, or #&!'"#.
Pro#od P)n'%)!%ion gi$"# r"!d"r# '()"# !7o)% &ro#od "("m"n%# %+ro)g+ *"!%)r"# !# 9)"#%ion m!r#, "2'(!m!%ion m!r#, !nd 7r!'"%#, *or "2!m&(". T+" r"&r"#"n% %+" in%on!%ion !nd "m&+!#i# o* %+" #&o"n di#'o)r#".
S"m!n%i'# P)n'%)!%ion i# !(#o )#"d %o +ig+(ig+% #"m!n%i' )ni%# or 'on%r!#%# +i'+ !r" &r"#"n% in %+" %"2% 7)% +i'+ !r" no% dir"'%( r"(!%"d %o %+" gr!mm!%i'!( #%r)'%)r", *or
"2!m&(" 7 )#ing 'o(on# or #"mi>'o(on#. In !ddi%ion, 9)"#%ion !nd "2'(!m!%ion m!r# /<
!(#o !n#"r %o ! #"m!n%i' in%"n%ion. On %+" o%+"r +!nd, in$"r%"d 'omm!# !r" #om"%im"# )#"d %o 'on$" ! di**"r"n% m"!ning %o %+" !'%)!( ord, !# in ... !nd %+!% !# +i#
7ir%+d! dinn"r !n o$"rri&" !&&(".
Other graphic resources (i" %i%("#, +"!ding# or ind"2"#, *or "2!m&(", !r" m!in( )#"d %o +"(& ri%"r !nd r"!d"r $i#)!(i#" %+" org!ni#!%ion o* %+" *(o o* in*orm!%ion. On %+" o%+"r +!nd, ! *oo%no%" i# )#)!(( !im"d %o '(!ri* !nd@or "2%"nd %+" ri%"r8# m"##!g"B !nd i% m! 'o$"r ! &r"#)&&o#"d (!' o* r"!d"r8# 7!'gro)nd no("dg" in %+" '!#" o* %r!n#(!%or8# no%"#.
I% go"# i%+o)% #!ing, %+"r"*or", %+!% %+"#" gr!&+i' d"$i'"# &(! ! 'omm)ni'!%i$" ro(", !nd %+"ir '+oi'" r"#&ond# %o %+" #"n#" o* ! %"2%. O)r #%)d"n%#, !''ording %o LOMCE !nd %+" V!("n'i!n d"'r"", n""d %o )nd"r#%!nd !nd )#" %+"#" d"$i'"# in ord"r %o in%"r&r"% !nd &rod)'" ri%%"n %"2%# in ! 'orr"'% !nd !&&ro&ri!%" !.
FOUR RULES GOVERNING WRITTEN TEXTS
5"ing %"2%# !'%# o* 'omm)ni'!%ion %+ro)g+ %+" ri%%"n (!ng)!g", !(( %+"
'omm)ni'!%ion "("m"n%# i(( 7" in%"r'onn"'%"d !nd !**"'%"d 7 "!'+ o%+"r %+" ri%ing #i%)!%ion, %+" &)r&o#" o* %+" ri%ing, %+" (i"( !)di"n'" :on" !@ in%"r!'%i$"@ r"mo%"=, %+" ri%"r8# on go!(#, %+" %o&i', %+" ri%"r8# no("dg" o* %+" i##)"... E!'+ !nd !(( %+"#" "("m"n%# i(( d"%"rmin" %+" *orm !nd m"!ning o* ! %"2%. I* " +!d %o "$!()!%" %+" '+!r!'%"ri#%i'# o* ! ri%%"n %"2%, %+" *o((oing i%"m# o)(d +!$" %o 7" !n!(#"d
!''ording %o %+" ri%ing 'on%"2%
Corr"'%ion.
Co+"#ion !nd 'o+"r"n'". A&&ro&ri!%"n"##.
S%(".
Pr"#"n%!%ion !nd (!o)%.
In #+or%, %+" &ro&"r%i"# o* ! ri%%"n di#'o)r#" i(( 7" d"%"rmin"d 7
T+" 'on%"2% o* )#" ')(%)r", +i#%ori'!( &"riod, #o'i!( #i%)!%ion, in%"nd"d r"!d"r, !nd "%'"%"r!.
T+" gr!mm!%i'!( #%r)'%)r" r"gi#%"r, #n%!2, #"m!n%i' 'onn"'%ion#, 'o+"r"n'" r"(!%ion#, %+"m"#, !nd #o *or%+.
O%+"r di#'o)r#" #%r)'%)r"# (i" g"nr" !nd #%(i#%i' r"#o)r'"#. T+" in%"r!'%ion!( &ro&"r%i"#.
T+" &r"#"n%!%ion #%r)'%)r"#.
On'" " +!$" !n!(#"d, %+o)g+ 7ri"*(, %+" m!in r"#o)r'"# o* %+" ri%%"n (!ng)!g", %+" #%r)'%)r", r)("# !nd "("m"n%# %+!% 'on#%i%)%" ! %"2%, !nd %+" di**"r"n% '(!##i*i'!%ion o* %+" ri%%"n di#'o)r#", %+i# #"'%ion n)m7"r 4 i(( m!in( *o')# on %+" '+!r!'%"ri#%i'# o* %+" ri%%"n (!ng)!g".
4./ C0ARACTERISTICS OF T0E WRITTEN LANGUAGE
A''ording %o C+!*" :/;-=, ri%ing i# ! #(o, d"(i7"r!%", "di%!7(" &ro'"##, +"r"!# #&"!ing i# don" on %+" go. T+i# ("!d# %o %+" in%"gr!%"d 9)!(i% o* %+" ri%%"n (!ng)!g", !# o&&o#"d %o %+" *r!gm"n%!r 9)!(i% o* %+" #&o"n di#'o)r#". In !ddi%ion, ri%ing i# ! (on"( !'%i$i% 7)% #&"!ing %&i'!(( %!"# &(!'" in !n "n$ironm"n% o* #o'i!(
in%"r!'%ion.
Written language is secondar to spoken language historicall! "t is not onl that it appeared later in the time# but also that literac is not universal! "n fact# not all the languages have a $ritten representation% secondl# not all the speakers of a
language ma have access to the $ritten code as the ma be illiterate% and# thirdl# using correctl all the different registers and genres of the $ritten language implies an extremel complete education# $hich is restricted to a fe$ persons &for example# legal documents or novels'! "n addition# most humans spend more time speaking than $riting! (oreover# the $ritten language $as founded on the resources of the spoken sstem# although it has developed certain expanded possibilities!
Wri%ing i# #%!%i', &"rm!n"n% !nd #&!'">7o)nd. T+" 'ommon"#% ri%ing #i%)!%ion i# %+!% o* ! ri%"r di#%!n% *rom %+" r"!d"r, +o i# o*%"n )nnon. T+"r"*or", ri%"r# m)#% !n%i'i&!%", on %+" on" +!nd, %+" "**"'%# o* %im">(!g 7"%""n &rod)'%ion !nd r"'"&%ion o*
%+" m"##!g"B !nd on %+" o%+"r, %+" &ro7("m# &o#"d 7 %+" in%"r&r"%!%ion o* %+" ri%ing 7 di**"r"n% r"!d"r# !nd #"%%ing#.
Sin'" ri%%"n (!ng)!g" '!n 7" &"rm!n"n%, %+"n i% do"# no% %"nd %o '+!ng" r!&id(. T+i# '!n 7" #+on in $o'!7)(!r !nd #n%!2. For "2!m&(", d!%! !n!(#i# #+o# %+!% #&o"n (!ng)!g" &r"*"r# ord# (i" #%)**, #'!r, or %o #+o, +"r"!# ri%%"n (!ng)!g" '+oo#"# m!%"ri!(, *rig+%"ning !nd di#&(!, r"#&"'%i$"(.
Sin'" %+" &ro'"## o* ri%ing i# no% )#)!(( 'on#%r!in"d 7 %im", i% &romo%"# %+"
d"$"(o&m"n% o* '!r"*)( org!ni#!%ion !nd "2&r"##ion, i%+ 'om&("2 #"n%"n'" #%r)'%)r". In !ddi%ion, %+" ri%"r '!n r">r"!d !nd '+"' %+" &i"'" o* ri%ing %o "n#)r" %+" (ing)i#%i' o&%ion# !nd %+" m"##!g" i%#"(*. T+"r"*or", "rror# !nd in!d"9)!'i"# '!n 7" "(imin!%"d 7"'!)#" ri%ing g"n"r!(( +id"# i%# &ro'"## o* 'r"!%ion !nd #+o# )# %+" &o(i#+"d &rod)'%. T+i# %)rn# in%o &r"'i#ion.
A# i% !# m"n%ion"d !7o$", #om" 'on#%r)'%ion# !r" '+!r!'%"ri#%i' o* %+" ri%%"n (!ng)!g", !mong +i'+ %+" *o((oing m! 7" 'on#id"r"d
Sn%!2 i# )#)!(( "(( #%r)'%)r"d, i%+ 'om&("%" #"n%"n'"# !nd ! id" r!ng" !nd !mo)n% o* #)7ordin!%ion.
T+" )#" o* nomin!(i#!%ion#, 'om&("m"n% '(!)#"#, r"#%ri'%i$" r"(!%i$" '(!)#"#, !d$"r7i!( !nd &!r%i'i&(" '(!)#"#, or indir"'% 9)"#%ion#, !r" d"$i'"# %o "n(!rg" !nd "(!7or!%" 'om&("2 id"!#.
An "2%"n#i$" #"% o* m!r"r# !r" )#"d %o 'onn"'% !nd m!r %+" r"(!%ion#+i&# 7"%""n '(!)#"# !nd (!rg" #%r"%'+"# o* di#'o)r#".
T+" )#" o* &!##i$" #%r)'%)r"# +i'+ !((o non>!%%ri7)%ion o* !g"n' o'')r# in %+" ri%%"n (!ng)!g" mor" o*%"n 'om&!r"d %o %+" #&o"n (!ng)!g".
Fin!((, %+" visual nature o* %+" ri%%"n (!ng)!g" m)#% 7" %!"n in%o 'on#id"r!%ion. T+"r" !r" ri%%"n %"2% $!ri"%i"# +i'+ +!$" %o 7" !##imi(!%"d $i#)!(( !nd '!nno% 7" r"!d !(o)d "**i'i"n%( 7)% in%"r&r"%"d di**"r"n%( in%o %+" #&o"n (!ng)!g" #)'+ !# %im"%!7("#,
gr!&+#, or 'om&("2 *orm)(!". In !ddi%ion, ri%ing on# #om" )ni9)" *"!%)r"# (i" &!g"#, (in"#, '!&i%!(i!%ion, or #&!%i!( org!ni#!%ion, *or "2!m&(".
FIVE ROUTINES AND FORMULAIC EXPRESSIONS
A# i% !# "2&(!in"d in o%+"r #"'%ion# o* %+i# &!&"r !nd in %o&i' !7o)% or!(
'omm)ni'!%ion, (!ng)!g" )#"r# org!ni#" +!% %+" +!$" %o 'omm)ni'!%" in %&i'!( &!%%"rn#. T+"#" &!%%"rn# 'orr"#&ond mor" or ("## %o %&i'!( ind# o* m"##!g", !nd #o
%+" d"!( i%+ r"')rring &ro7("m#. T+" +!$" 7""n '!(("d ro)%in"# :*or "2!m&(" 7 Widdo#on, /;-3= 'on$"n%ion!( !# o* &r"#"n%ing in*orm!%ionB !nd in'()d" #%ori"#, d"#'ri&%ion#, or in#%r)'%ion#, !nd !r" &r"#"n% 7o%+ in %+" or!( !nd %+" ri%%"n (!ng)!g". 5"'!)#" %+" !r" conventional, ro)%in"# !r" predictable !nd +"(& "n#)r" '(!ri%.
In*orm!%ion ro)%in"# m! 7" id"n%i*i"d !# "2&o#i%or or "$!()!%i$". )xpositor routines in$o($" *!'%)!( in*orm!%ion d"&"nding on 9)"#%ion# o* #"9)"n'ing or id"n%i% o* %+" #)7"'%#. T+" o)(d 'orr"#&ond %o n!rr!%ion#, d"#'ri&%ion#, !nd &ro'"d)r!( %"2%#. On %+"ir &!r%, %+" evaluative routines !r" 7!#"d on "2&o#i%or ro)%in"#. T+" in$o($" %+" dr!ing o* 'on'()#ion#, )#)!(( r"9)iring %+" "2&r"##ion o* r"!#oning, in !ddi%ion %o "2&(!n!%ion#, &r"di'%ion#, )#%i*i'!%ion, &r"*"r"n'"# !nd d"'i#ion#. T+" 'o)(d 7" *o)nd in !rg)m"n%!%i$" %"2%#, *or "2!m&(". T+" r"'ogni%ion o* in*orm!%ion ro)%in"# i# " %o %+" )nd"r#%!nding !nd &rod)'%ion o* %"2%#.
A% %+" #!m" %im", %+"#" in*orm!%ion ro)%in"# !r" '(o#"( r"(!%"d %o %+" %+r"" 'ommon"#% &!%%"rn# o* &ro7("m #o()%ionB '(!im >'o)n%"r'(!imB !nd, g"n"r!( #&"'i*i'. T+" *orm
%+" #%r)'%)r" o* %+" di**"r"n% g"nr"# !nd %"2% $!ri"%i"#, !# i% !# di#')##"d in #"'%ion 3 o* %+i# %o&i'.
T+" *ir#% &!%%"rn, problem * solution i# id"n%i*i"d !# "2&o#i%or !nd i% i# &r"di'%!7(" in #%ori"#, !n"'do%"#, or o&"r!%ion m!n)!(#, *or "2!m&(". T+" &ro7("m>#o()%ion &!%%"rn 'on#i#%# o* *o)r 7!#i' "("m"n%# #i%)!%ion, &ro7("m, r"#&on#" or #o()%ion, !nd "$!()!%ion o* %+" r"#&on#" or #o()%ion.
T+" &!%%"rn claim * counterclaim i# on" o* ! #"ri"# o* '(!im# !nd 'on%r!#%ing 'o)n%"r'(!im#, m!in( o* !n "$!()!%i$" %&", +i'+ m! *o((o ! 'om&(!in #+""%, ! &o(i%i'!( !n#"r in %+" P!r(i!m"n%, or ! ("%%"r %o %+" Edi%or, *or "2!m&(".
Fin!((, %+" &!%%"rn general * specific i# on" in +i'+ ! g"n"r!(i#!%ion i# *o((o"d 7 mor" #&"'i*i' #%!%"m"n%#, !nd &"r+!&# mig+% "nd i%+ ! 7ro!d"r g"n"r!(i#!%ion. I% 'om7in"# %+" "2&o#i%or !nd "$!()!%i$" ro)%in" %&"#. I% 'o)(d 7" ! r"&or% o* !n "2&"rim"n%, or %+" in%"r&r"%!%ion o* ! #)r$", *or in#%!n'".
N"$"r%+"("##, i% #""m# im&or%!n% %o r"mind %+!% in*orm!%ion ro)%in"#, "2&o#i%or !nd "$!()!%i$", !r" (i"( %o 7" 'om7in"d in %+" m!ori% o* %"2%#. On %+" o%+"r +!nd, #%)di"# +!$" #+on %+!% %o d"mon#%r!%" %"2%)!( &!%%"rn#, !nd %o #ign!( $o'!7)(!r !nd 'o+"#i$" d"$i'"# r"(!%"d %o "!'+ &!%%"rn, im&ro$" o)r #%)d"n%#8 ri%ing#, !nd m!" %+"m 7"'om" 7"%%"r r"!d"r#. In !ddi%ion, %+i# +"(&# ("!rn"r# 7" !!r" !nd d"$"(o& %+"ir learning to
learn ke competence.
0o"$"r, %+"r" !r" o%+"r g"n"r!( 'on$"n%ion# " *ind in ri%%"n %"2%# +i'+ #+o)(d !(#o 7" !ddr"##"d in %+" %"!'+ing o* ! *or"ign (!ng)!g". On" o* %+"m i# %+" )#" o* formulaic
expressions. T+"#" !r" idiom!%i' "2&r"##ion# or &+r!#"# (i"( %o 7" *o)nd in %+" di**"r"n% %"2% $!ri"%i"#B %+" 'on#%i%)%" 0!((id!8# ro)%ini"d di#'o)r#", !nd %+" &romo%" *()"n' !nd !&&ro&ri!%"n"##.
Wri%ing 'on$"n%ion# !r" !(#o "##"n%i!( *"!%)r"# o* "**"'%i$" ri%ing. Con$"n%ion# m!" ri%ing "!#i"r %o r"!d 7 &)%%ing i% in ! *orm %+!% %+" r"!d"r "2&"'%# !nd i# 'om*or%!7(" i%+. G"n"r!(( #&"!ing, i% 'o)(d 7" #!id %+!% ri%ing 'on$"n%ion# in'()d" %+r"" 7ro!d !#&"'%# m"'+!ni'#, #"n%"n'" *orm!%ion, !nd )#!g". (echanics in'()d"# 'on$"n%ion# !7o)% #&"((ing, &)n'%)!%ion, '!&i%!(i!%ion, !nd &!r!gr!&+#B %+"#" or%+ogr!&+i' d"$i'"# in+"r"n% %o %+" ri%%"n (!ng)!g" !r", o7$io)#(, o* %+" gr"!%"#% im&or%!n'". !nd #+o)(d 7" +ig+(ig+%"d in o)r %"!'+ing. Conventions about usage in'()d" ord ord"r, $"r7
%"n#", &rono)n r"*"r"n'", "%'. O)r #%)d"n%# m)#% #%!r% %o "2%"nd %+"ir no("dg" 7 )#ing di**"r"n% r"gi#%"r# !nd %"2% %&"#. +entence formation r"*"r# %o %+" #%r)'%)r" o* #"n%"n'"# o)r #%)d"n%# !r" r"!d %o )#" ! $!ri"d #"n%"n'" ("ng%+ %o !'+i"$" #&"'i*i' "**"'%# on !n !)di"n'" 7 'om7ining #im&(" !nd 'om&("2 #"n%"n'"#.
A% 'om&)(#or #"'ond!r "d)'!%ion, #%)d"n%# #+o)(d +!$" 'on%ro( o* 'on$"n%ion# #)'+ !# #&"((ing, &)n'%)!%ion, !nd &!r!gr!&+ing in %+"ir L/ !nd L1 #in'" " 7"(ong %o ! 7i(ing)!( 'omm)ni% in +i'+ in%"gr!%"d (!ng)!g" %"!'+ing i# "#%!7(i#+"d. T+"r"*or",
%+" #+o)(d #%!r% !&&(ing #&"'i*i' 'on$"n%ion# %o %+" Eng(i#+ (!ng)!g" %oo. For "2!m&(", " %"!'+"r# '!n #+o 'on$"n%ion# !nd *orm)(!i' "2&r"##ion# *or *ri"nd( ("%%"r# !nd 7)#in"## ("%%"r#, +"!ding# !nd #)7+"!ding# in in*orm!%ion!( r"&or%#, 'on$"n%ion# *or 9)o%!%ion#, !nd "%'"%"r!... T+i# in'()d"# !(#o (!ng)!g">#&"'i*i' 'on$"n%ion# r"(!%"d %o %+" presentation of texts and formats (i" in*orm!(@*orm!( ("%%"r# %+" d!%", %+" #"nd"r8# !nd r"'"i$"r8# n!m" !nd !ddr"##B '!&i%!(i!%ion o* mon%+#, !nd #o *or%+.
On %+" o%+"r +!nd, i% i# in%"r"#%ing %o no%" %+!% n" 'on$"n%ion# +!$" !ri#"n i%+ %+" !rri$!( !nd development of on-line discourse. Som" (ing)i#%# n!m" "("'%roni'
di#'o)r#" %o %+i# n" ! o* in%"r!'%ing in ri%ing, +i'+ in'()d"# "("'%roni' m!i( !nd !(#o on>(in" 'o)r#"#.
E("'%roni' di#'o)r#" +!# i%# on #ing)(!ri%i"#. On %+" on" +!nd, i% in'()d"# features of the oral language (i" m!r"r# o* &"r#on!( in$o($"m"n%, r"&"%i%ion#, or dir"'% !ddr"##. 5)% i% #+o# '+!r!'%"ri#%i'# o* %+" ri%%"n (!ng)!g", #)'+ !# %+" !7#"n'" o* *i(("r#. In !ddi%ion, !(%+o)g+ %+" ri%"r '!n &(!n !nd org!ni#" %+" ri%%"n m"##!g", mo#% o*%"n %+i# on>(in" di#'o)r#" #+o# )n'on$"n%ion!( &)n'%)!%ion, mi##&"((ing !nd (!' o* r"$i#ion. W" 'o)(d 7" d"!(ing i%+ ! %&" o* ,$ritten talk!
Non"%+"("##, "("'%roni' di#'o)r#" +!# !(#o i%# on graphic features. 5"#id"# &!r!gr!&+#, &)n'%)!%ion, '!&i%!(i#!%ion or i%!(i'#, '+!%%"r# !nd ">m!i( ri%"r# +!$"
'r"!%"d %+"ir on gr!&+i' r"#o)r'"# !nd 'on$"n%ion#. For "2!m&(", %+" )#" o* "mo%i'on# %o #ign!( +)mo)r, iron or in%im!' +!# 7""n "2%"nd"dB or, i% +!# 7""n !gr""d %+!% ord# !nd #"n%"n'"# in%o '!&i%!( ("%%"r# #+o !ng"r, +"r"!# )nd"r(ing !nd '!&i%!(i#!%ion m"!n# "m&+!#i#.
SIX TEAC0ING IMPLICATIONS.
A*%"r +!$ing d""&( !n!(#"d %+" ri%%"n 'omm)ni'!%ion, " n""d %o 7ring i% %o o)r '(!##room %o m!" o)r #%)d"n%# 7"'om" "**i'i"n% 'omm)ni'!%ing in ! ri%%"n *orm!%.
5rn" :/;?;= #!id %+!% ri%ing #"r$"# ! $!ri"% o* &"d!gogi'!( &)r&o#"# %o 7" (i#%"d !# *o((o#. Fir#%, ri%ing "n!7("# )# %o &ro$id" *or di**"r"n% ("!rning #%("#, n""d# !nd
#&""d#. E#&"'i!(( ("!rn"r# +o do no% ("!rn "!#i( %+ro)g+ or!( &r!'%i'" !(on" *""( mor" 'on*id"n% i* %+" !r" !((o"d %o r"!d !nd ri%" in %+" %!rg"% (!ng)!g". S"'ond(, i% !(#o #!%i#*i"# ! &#'+o(ogi'!( n""d #in'" ri%%"n or #"r$"# %o &ro$id" %+" #%)d"n%# i%+ #om" "$id"n'" %+!% %+" !r" m!ing &rogr"## in %+" (!ng)!g". T+ird(, 7"ing "2&o#"d %o mor" %+!n on" m"di)m i# (i"( %o 7" $"r "**"'%i$".
5 d"#igning 'omm)ni'!%i$" !'%i$i%i"# +i'+ in$o($" %+" !&&(i'!%ion o* r"!ding !nd ri%ing #i((# !nd #%r!%"gi"#, " %"!'+"r# i(( 7" d"$"(o&ing o)r #%)d"n%#8 'om&"%"n'" in %+" Eng(i#+ (!ng)!g". In !ddi%ion %o %"2%# &rin%"d in &!&"r, o)r #%)d"n%# i(( !(#o n""d %o 'o&" i%+ %+" d"$"(o&m"n% o* ri%%"n %"2%# in %+" digi%!( m"di)m. In *!'%, m"di)m !nd %"2%>%&"# !r" '(o#"( r"(!%"d !nd 7o%+ !r" d"%"rmin"d 7 %+" *)n'%ion %+" &"r*orm. A# %+" E)ro&"!n Comi##ion &oin%# o)% i%+ %+" in'r"!#ing #o&+i#%i'!%ion o* 'om&)%"r #o*%!r", in%"r!'%i$" m!n>m!'+in" 'omm)ni'!%ion i# 'oming %o &(! !n "$"r mor" im&or%!n% &!r% in %+" &)7(i', o'')&!%ion!(, "d)'!%ion!( !nd "$"n &"r#on!( dom!in. T+"r"*or", !&!r% *rom %"!'+ing !nd ("!rning %+" *or">m"n%ion"d %&"# o* %"2%# %+!% %+" '!n ri%", 7(og# !nd &o#%# i(( 7" in%rod)'"d in m %"!'+ing ro)%in"#, #in'" #%)d"n%# in g"n"r!( #""m %o *""( mor" !%%r!'%"d 7 %&ing %+!n %o ri%ing no!d!#.
SEVEN CONCLUSION
T+" &)r&o#" o* %+i# &!&"r i# %o #%!%" +!% ri%%"n 'omm)ni'!%ion i#, 7)% no% in i#o(!%ion. I +!$" %!"n in%o 'on#id"r!%ion di**"r"n% &oin%# !# i%# in%"r!'%i$" n!%)r" !nd +!%
&)r&o#" ! %"2% m! +!$" in ord"r %o 7" in%"r&r"%"d 'orr"'%( 7 %+" r"!d"r. T+"n I
'on%in)"d "2&(!ining %+" %&o(ogi"# o* %"2%# " '!n %"!'+ in o)r '(!##room in !ddi%ion %o %+" #o'i!( &ro'"## %+!% !''om&!ni"# "!'+ %"2%. A*%"r +!$ing gon" %+ro)g+ !nd %+" %"2%#, I +!$" *o')#"d on %+" *orm!( "("m"n%# %+" m)#% +!$" in ord"r %o 7"(ong %o ! %&",
in'()ding %"rm# (i" 'on%"2%, %"2%)r" !nd no% *org"%%ing %+" $i%!( im&or%!n'" o* %+"
gr!&+o(ogi'!( r"#o)r'"#. To mor" i##)"# +!$" 7""n d"!(% i%+ in #"'%ion# *o)r !nd *i$". Fir#% I +!$" !n!(#"d %+" r)("# !nd '+!r!'%"ri#%i'# o)r #%)d"n%# n""d %o no in ord"r %o ri%" 'orr"'% %"2%#B !nd (!#% 7)% no% ("!#%, %+" ro)%in"# !nd "2&r"##ion#, %og"%+"r i%+ %+" "##"n%i!( 'on$"n%ion#, &()# %+" !&&"!r!n'" o* %+" #o>'!(("d "("'%roni' di#'o)r#" !nd +o i% !**"'%# o)r %"!'+ing !nd o)r #%)d"n%#. A# ! r!&, I +!$" "2&(!in"d +o im&or%!n% %"!'+ing ri%ing i# %o )# %"!'+"r#, !nd +o %o 7ring %+" ri%ing %!## %o o)r '(!##room.
EIG0T 5I5LIOGRAP0Y.
In ord"r %o ri%" %+i# %o&i', #"$"r!( r"*"r"n'"# +!$" 7""n )#"d, !mong +i'+ I o)(d (i" %o +ig+(ig+%
> 5rn", D. :/;?;=. T"!'+ing Wri%ing Si((#. Longm!n.
> C!n!(" S!in :/;-<=. T+"or"%i'!( 7!#i# o* 'omm)ni'!%i$" !&&ro!'+"# %o #"'ond (!ng)!g" %"!'+ing !nd %"#%ing. CUP.
> 0!((id! 0!##!n :/;-;=. Co+"#ion in Eng(i#+. Longm!n.
> V!n Di :1<<4=. From T"2% Gr!mm!r %o Cri%i'!( Di#'o)r#" An!(#i#.
