Title
Title
Transformational and Charismatic Leadership in Health Care Transformational and Charismatic Leadership in Health Care
Sub-Title
Sub-Title
A
A critcritical examinatioical examination n of of the the role of role of transtransformformationaational l and and charicharismatismatic c leadeleadership in rship in develodevelopingping health care services which are responsive to change and thus more likely to meet the needs of health care services which are responsive to change and thus more likely to meet the needs of patients, clients, other users, and those involved in
patients, clients, other users, and those involved in the delivery of such services.the delivery of such services.
Abstract
Abstract
This essay begins with an articulation of origins and developmen
This essay begins with an articulation of origins and developmen ts of transformational leadershipts of transformational leadership th
theoreory y anand d whwhililst st susupppporortiting ng ththe e asassesertrtioion n ththat at chchararisisma ma is is an an imimpoportrtant ant comcomponponenent t of of transformational leadership behaviour argues that it is not in itself a defining feature. The transformational leadership behaviour argues that it is not in itself a defining feature. The cascading effect of transformational leadership is explored in relation to contemporary research cascading effect of transformational leadership is explored in relation to contemporary research both within the
both within the US and US and UK and UK and utilutilised to ised to artiarticulate the relationsculate the relationship between transactihip between transactional andonal and transformational behaviours within health care settings which constitute an optimum change transformational behaviours within health care settings which constitute an optimum change profile.
profile. The nature of vision and charisma withiThe nature of vision and charisma within the health care setting are critically n the health care setting are critically evaluatedevaluated along with the relationship between transformational leadership and key outcomes such as felt along with the relationship between transformational leadership and key outcomes such as felt au
autotononomymy, , jojob b sasatitisfsfacactition, on, lolow w ststafaff f tuturnrnovoverer, , seservrvicice e quaqualility ty anand d ththe e achachieievevemement nt of of organisational (cultural) change.
organisational (cultural) change.
Key Words
Key Words
TraTransfnsformormatiational onal LeaLeaderdershiship, p, TraTransansactictional onal LeaLeaderdershiship, p, FulFull l RanRange ge LeaLeaderdershiship p ModModel,el, Chari
Charisma, sma, IdealIdealised ised InfluInfluence, ence, InspiInspiratirational onal MotiMotivatiovation, n, IntelIntellectulectual al StimStimulatiulation, on, IndiviIndividualdual Consideration, Contingent Reward, Management by Exception, Laissez-Faire, Empowerment, Consideration, Contingent Reward, Management by Exception, Laissez-Faire, Empowerment, Innova
Innovation, tion, CreatCreativityivity, , SysSystem tem PerspPerspectivective, e, PatiePatient nt DirecDirected ted HealtHealth h OutcomOutcomes, es, ComplComplexityexity,, Com
Compleplexitxity y of of NeeNeed, d, HumHuman an RelRelatiationsons, , NurNursinsing g ProProcescess, s, RedRedesiesign gn of of WorWorkinking g PraPracticticesces,, Process Redesign, Vision, Risk Taking, Management of Attention, Management of Meaning, Process Redesign, Vision, Risk Taking, Management of Attention, Management of Meaning,
Man
Manageagemenment t of of TruTrust, st, ManManageagemenment t of of SelSelf, f, BuiBuildilding ng RelRelatiationsonshiphips, s, TeaTeamwomwork, rk, PhyPhysicsicianian Integration, Sharing Experiences, Learning Organisation, Work Satisfaction, Job Satisfaction, Integration, Sharing Experiences, Learning Organisation, Work Satisfaction, Job Satisfaction, Staf
Staff f TurnoveTurnover, r, OccupatOccupational ional HealtHealth, h, CascadiCascading ng PhenomPhenomenon, enon, LeaderLeadership ship PractPractices ices InventInventory,ory, LPI, Nursing Development Units, NDUs, NHS.
The concept of transformational leadership is described in a seminal work by the political The concept of transformational leadership is described in a seminal work by the political sociologist James MacGregor Burns entitled
sociologist James MacGregor Burns entitled Leadership Leadership (1978). (1978). In his In his work, Burns work, Burns attempts tattempts too link the roles of leader
link the roles of leadership and followship and followershiership. p. He describHe describes leaders as those peoples leaders as those people who tap e who tap thethe motives of followers.
motives of followers.
Transactional leadership
Transactional leadership occurs when leaders set up relationships with followers that are basedoccurs when leaders set up relationships with followers that are based on
on an an exexchchanange ge fofor r sosome me reresosoururce ce vavalulued ed by by ththe e fofollllowowerers. s. InInteteraractctioions ns bebetwtweeeen n ththee transactional leader and the followers appear to be episodic, short-lived and limited to that one transactional leader and the followers appear to be episodic, short-lived and limited to that one particular transaction. A transactional leader balances the demands of the organisation and the particular transaction. A transactional leader balances the demands of the organisation and the
requirements of the people within the organisation. requirements of the people within the organisation.
Transformational leadership
Transformational leadership is much more complex and happens when people are engagedis much more complex and happens when people are engaged together in such a way that leaders and followers encourage one another to increase levels of together in such a way that leaders and followers encourage one another to increase levels of moti
motivation and moralitvation and morality. y. In such situatiIn such situations the aspirations the aspirations of leaders and followers merge toons of leaders and followers merge to become one, (
become one, (Bass, 1998Bass, 1998).).
Similarly,
Similarly, (Northho(Northhouse, use, 2001; McKenna, 2000)2001; McKenna, 2000) distinguishes between two types of leadershipdistinguishes between two types of leadership styles:
styles:
“Transactional leadership refers to the bulk of leadership models, which focus on “Transactional leadership refers to the bulk of leadership models, which focus on the exchange that occu
the exchange that occurs betweers between leaders and their foln leaders and their followerlowers. s. ManagerManagers whos who offer promotion to employees who surpass their goals are exhibiting transactional offer promotion to employees who surpass their goals are exhibiting transactional leadership.
leadership. The exchange dimension The exchange dimension of transactional of transactional leadership is leadership is very commonvery common and can be observed at many levels in the organisation." (
and can be observed at many levels in the organisation." (Northhouse P, 2001,Northhouse P, 2001, p. 132
p. 132))
"In
"In tratransfnsformormatiationaonal l lealeaderdershiship p the the empemphashasis is is is on on peopeople ple of of visvision ion who who areare creative, innovative, and capable of getting others to share their dreams while creative, innovative, and capable of getting others to share their dreams while playing down self-interest; and who are able to cooperate with others in reshaping playing down self-interest; and who are able to cooperate with others in reshaping
the
the strstrateategiegies s and and tactactictics s of of the the orgorganianisatsationion…in …in resresponsponse e to to a a fasfast-ct-changhanginging world (
of
of high standardshigh standards, , takintaking g calculcalculated ated riskrisks, s, challchallenging and enging and changichanging ng the existingthe existing com
companpany y strstructuctureure, , witwith h eveeven n the the potpotentential ial for for the the disdisplaplay y (wh(when en consconsideideredred appropriate) of directive tendencies
appropriate) of directive tendencies. (Bass, 1990). (Bass, 1990)” (” (McKenna, 2000, p.383McKenna, 2000, p.383))
Bass (1985, 1998)
Bass (1985, 1998) provides a more expanded and refined theory of transformational leadershipprovides a more expanded and refined theory of transformational leadership which develops the work of
which develops the work of Burns (1978)Burns (1978) andand House (1977)House (1977), by giving far more attention to the, by giving far more attention to the behaviour and needs of followers than had previously been given.
behaviour and needs of followers than had previously been given. Bass (1985, 1998)Bass (1985, 1998) argued thatargued that the principles of transformational leadership could be equally applied to situations where the the principles of transformational leadership could be equally applied to situations where the outcomes were not positive than those where the opposite was true and describing transactional outcomes were not positive than those where the opposite was true and describing transactional and transformational leadership as a singe continuum rather than mutually independent continua. and transformational leadership as a singe continuum rather than mutually independent continua. Bass (1985, 1998)
Bass (1985, 1998) identifies the main characteristics of transformational leadership as; charismaidentifies the main characteristics of transformational leadership as; charisma idealised influence, intellectual stimulation and consideration of the emotional needs of each idealised influence, intellectual stimulation and consideration of the emotional needs of each follower,
follower,(Hunt, 1996)(Hunt, 1996)..
Transformational Leadership Continuum Transformational Leadership Continuum Transformational Transformational Leadership Leadership Idealised Influence Idealised Influence (Charisma) (Charisma) Inspirational Inspirational Motivation Motivation Intellectual Intellectual Stimulation Stimulation Individual Individual Consideration Consideration Transactional Leadership Transactional Leadership Contingent Reward Contingent Reward Management By Management By Exception (Active) Exception (Active) Management By Management By Exception (Passive Exception (Passive)) Laissez-fair Leadership Laissez-fair Leadership Non-transactional Non-transactional (non-leadership) (non-leadership)
[Source: Adapted from
[Source: Adapted fromNorthouse P, 2001, p.136; Bass B, 1998, p.7-9Northouse P, 2001, p.136; Bass B, 1998, p.7-9]] In
In devdeveloelopinping g his his modmodel el of of tratransfnsformormatiational onal lealeaderdershishipp BasBass s (198(1985)5) buibuilt lt upon upon earearlielier r cha
charisrismatmatic ic litliteraeraturture e and and it it is is not not sursurpriprisinsing g thathatt HouHouse’s se’s (197(1977)7) modmodel el of of charcharismismatiaticc leadership is often mistakenly identified as an archetype of transformational leadership.
leadership is often mistakenly identified as an archetype of transformational leadership. WeberWeber (1947)
(1947) describes charisma as a special personality characteristic that gives a person superhumandescribes charisma as a special personality characteristic that gives a person superhuman or exceptional powers and is reserved for a few, is of divine origin, and results in the person or exceptional powers and is reserved for a few, is of divine origin, and results in the person being treated as a leader. In addition to displaying certain personality characteristics, charismatic being treated as a leader. In addition to displaying certain personality characteristics, charismatic
leaders also demonstrate specific types of behaviours: leaders also demonstrate specific types of behaviours:
they appear competent to their followers, they appear competent to their followers, they articulate ideological goals which have
they articulate ideological goals which have moral overtones,moral overtones, the
they y comcommunmunicaticate e highigh h expexpectectatiations ons for for folfollowlowersers, , and and thethey y exhiexhibit bit confconfideidence nce inin fol
followlower’er’s s abiabililitieties s to meet to meet thethese se expexpectectatiationsons. . The impacThe impact t of this behaviof this behaviour is our is toto increase followers’ sense of competence and self-efficacy, which in turn increases their increase followers’ sense of competence and self-efficacy, which in turn increases their performance,
performance,
they arouse task-relevant motives in followers that may include affiliation, power or they arouse task-relevant motives in followers that may include affiliation, power or esteem.
esteem.
Charismatic Leadership Characteristics Charismatic Leadership Characteristics P
Peerrssoonnaalliitty y CChhaarraacctteerriissttiiccss BBeehhaavviioouurrss EEffffeecctts s oon n FFoolllloowweerrss Dominant Dominant Desire to influence Desire to influence Confident Confident Strong Values Strong Values
Sets strong role model Sets strong role model Shows competence Shows competence Articulates goals Articulates goals Communicates high Communicates high expectations expectations Expresses confidence Expresses confidence Arouses motives Arouses motives
Trust in leader’s ideology Trust in leader’s ideology Belief similarity between Belief similarity between leader and follower leader and follower
Unquestioning acceptance Unquestioning acceptance Affection towards leader Affection towards leader Obedience
Obedience
Identification with leader Identification with leader Emotional involvement Emotional involvement Heightened goals Heightened goals Increased confidence Increased confidence [Source: Adapted from
[Source: Adapted fromNorthouse, 2001, p.133; Hunt 1996, p.189-190Northouse, 2001, p.133; Hunt 1996, p.189-190]] Hunt (1996)
Hunt (1996) provides a clear synopsis of the differences betweenprovides a clear synopsis of the differences between Bass’s (1985)Bass’s (1985) theory of theory of transformational leadership and the earlier work of (
transformational leadership and the earlier work of (Burns, 1978; House, 1977Burns, 1978; House, 1977):): Bass (1985)
Bass (1985) emphasised an expansion of the followers’ portfolio of needs and wants withemphasised an expansion of the followers’ portfolio of needs and wants with a firm focus on the need
a firm focus on the need for growth, development and self-actualisation,for growth, development and self-actualisation, Bass (1985)
Bass (1985) allowed for positive and negative transformations, that is transformationsallowed for positive and negative transformations, that is transformations that lead to organisational failure or ethically undesirable outcomes,
that lead to organisational failure or ethically undesirable outcomes, Bass
Bass (198(1985)5) unlikeunlike BurnBurns s (197(1978)8) does does not not view transforview transformatiomational nal and and transtransactioactionalnal leadership as opposite ends of the same continuum, but views transformational leadership leadership as opposite ends of the same continuum, but views transformational leadership as higher order (extraordinary) leadership which goes beyond the transactions found in as higher order (extraordinary) leadership which goes beyond the transactions found in everyday management,
everyday management, Bass (1985)
Bass (1985) considers that transformational leadership consists of four factors; idealisedconsiders that transformational leadership consists of four factors; idealised influence (or charisma), individual consideration, inspirational motivation and intellectual influence (or charisma), individual consideration, inspirational motivation and intellectual
stimulation. Thus charisma is an important element of transformational leadership but stimulation. Thus charisma is an important element of transformational leadership but unlike
unlike House’s (1977)House’s (1977) theory is not considered to be sufficient in itslef,theory is not considered to be sufficient in itslef, Bass
Bass (198(1985)5) consconsideiders rs thathat t tratransansactictional onal lealeaderdershiship p behabehavioviours urs are are basbased ed on on twotwo dimensions namely, contingent reward and management-by-exception.
dimensions namely, contingent reward and management-by-exception.
Con
Contemtemporporary ary heahealth lth carcare e setsettintings gs are are charcharactacterierised sed by by disdiscontcontinuinuous ous chanchange, ge, incincreareasedsed expectations from all service users, increased professional accountability and political pressure expectations from all service users, increased professional accountability and political pressure for efficiency incorporating standardised easily measurable outcomes, technologically driven for efficiency incorporating standardised easily measurable outcomes, technologically driven change, an ageing population and an increase focus on the role of management and leadership change, an ageing population and an increase focus on the role of management and leadership within clinical pract
within clinical practice. ice. Thus, despite the Thus, despite the conceptual and operational liabiliticonceptual and operational liabilities often associatedes often associated with charismatic and transformational paradigms these have become increasingly attractive to with charismatic and transformational paradigms these have become increasingly attractive to researchers and practitioners within health care and n
researchers and practitioners within health care and n ursing contexts.ursing contexts.
((Brown & Sofarelli, 1998Brown & Sofarelli, 1998) cite () cite (Davidhizar R, 1993Davidhizar R, 1993) in arguing that in today's changing and) in arguing that in today's changing and chaotic health care arena the nurse leader needs to utilise the qualities of transformational chaotic health care arena the nurse leader needs to utilise the qualities of transformational leadership which focus
leadership which focus on people and solon people and solving problems in ving problems in an ever-changing environment. an ever-changing environment. TheyThey go
go on on to to stastate te thathat t tratransfnsformormatiationaonal l nurnursinsing g lealeaderdershiship p actactiveively ly embembracraces es and and encoencourauragesges innovation and change
innovation and change and provides the skills necessary for the profession to:and provides the skills necessary for the profession to:
"… stretch its boundaries and be innovative in the way in which problems are "… stretch its boundaries and be innovative in the way in which problems are viewed and solved.
viewed and solved. This will become increasiThis will become increasingly more important as nursengly more important as nurses leaves leave the traditional hospital set
the traditional hospital setting and expand their practises iting and expand their practises into the community. nto the community. TheThe ability to find innovative solutions, to extend beyond their boundaries of comfort, ability to find innovative solutions, to extend beyond their boundaries of comfort, and to test new ways of doing old things, will move nursing further into the centre and to test new ways of doing old things, will move nursing further into the centre of the arena of the new health care services." (
of the arena of the new health care services." (Brown D & Sofarelli D, 1998,Brown D & Sofarelli D, 1998, p.203
p.203))
Trofino
Trofino, , (1995)(1995) claims that transformational leadership provides a mechanism for developing aclaims that transformational leadership provides a mechanism for developing a holistic, (bio-psycho-social), systemic perspective, which empowers nurses to make optimum holistic, (bio-psycho-social), systemic perspective, which empowers nurses to make optimum use of the enabling technologies to move “beyond even patient-centred health care to patient use of the enabling technologies to move “beyond even patient-centred health care to patient directed health outcomes.” (
((DaviDavidhizdhizar ar R, R, 19931993) ) cicitetes s ththe e wowork rk of of Barker (1991)Barker (1991) in in arguiarguing ng that; transformthat; transformationaationall leadership in health care settings place less emphasis on hierarchical structures, logical decision leadership in health care settings place less emphasis on hierarchical structures, logical decision making and that rationality becomes less prominent, and that “this transition is appropriate as the making and that rationality becomes less prominent, and that “this transition is appropriate as the world h
world has becomas become a far more a far more comple complex place” ex place” ((Davidhizar R, 1993, p.675Davidhizar R, 1993, p.675). ). Hence, Hence, scientificscientific approaches to leadership, (and presumably medically, scientifically orientated models of health approaches to leadership, (and presumably medically, scientifically orientated models of health care), which do not take into account the complexity of individual need and the contingent care), which do not take into account the complexity of individual need and the contingent relationship of an ever changing environment are not likely to provide conceptual or practical relationship of an ever changing environment are not likely to provide conceptual or practical frameworks which underpin everyday actions.
frameworks which underpin everyday actions. Davidhizar (1993)Davidhizar (1993) citingcitingBarker (1991)Barker (1991) argues:argues:
“The new transformational paradigm is characterised by mutuality and affiliation, “The new transformational paradigm is characterised by mutuality and affiliation, acknowl
acknowledging edging complcomplexity and exity and ambiguambiguity, co-operatiity, co-operation on verses competitverses competition, ion, andand emp
emphashasis is on on humhuman an relrelatiationsons, , proprocescess s verversus sus tastask, k, accaccepteptancance e of of feefeelinlings,gs, ne
netwtwororkiking ng veversrses es hihiererararchychy, , anand d rerecocognignitition on of of ththe e valvalue ue of of inintutuititioion.”n.” ((Davidhizar R, 1993, p.675Davidhizar R, 1993, p.675).).
According to
According to Davidhizar (1993)Davidhizar (1993) the techniques of transformational leadership can enable nursethe techniques of transformational leadership can enable nurse leaders to design work environments, which satisfy the needs of their followers and enhance the leaders to design work environments, which satisfy the needs of their followers and enhance the quali
quality of care ty of care given to patientsgiven to patients. . She makes the importShe makes the important point that transfoant point that transformatirmational leadersonal leaders combine a focus on nursing process (‘nursing heritage’) with redesigning the working practices combine a focus on nursing process (‘nursing heritage’) with redesigning the working practices (pr
(proceocess ss redredesiesign) gn) and and the the widwider er envienvironronmenment t in in ordorder er to to facfaciliilitattate e teateam m worworkinking g and and thethe achievements of followers.
achievements of followers.
What is interesting about
What is interesting about Davidhizar’s (1993)Davidhizar’s (1993) framework for transformational leadership inframework for transformational leadership in nursing is the emphasis and importance she places on charisma (idealised influence) almost to nursing is the emphasis and importance she places on charisma (idealised influence) almost to the exclusion of other transformational dimensions, and the lack of any guidance on how, (or the exclusion of other transformational dimensions, and the lack of any guidance on how, (or ind
indeed eed if if it it is is necnecessessaryary), ), for for nurnurse se lealeaderders s to to comcombinbine e tratransfnsformormatiationaonal l and and tratransansactictionalonal dimensions of leadership behaviour to achieve optimum influence.
dimensions of leadership behaviour to achieve optimum influence. Davidhizar (1993)Davidhizar (1993) however,however, do
does es nonot t atattetempmpt t to to prprovovidide e a a dedetataililed ed defdefininititioion n of of chchararisisma ma bebeyoyond nd lalabebellllining g it it as as aa “management quality that can empower employees and facilitate co-operation, creativity and “management quality that can empower employees and facilitate co-operation, creativity and innovation” (
According to (
According to (DaviDavidhizdhizar ar R, R, 19931993)) charicharismatismatic c leaderleadership ship can can ‘backf‘backfire’ in ire’ in the the follfollowingowing conditions:
conditions:
-- Goals of the leaders are contrary to needs of the societyGoals of the leaders are contrary to needs of the society: when followers and leaders are: when followers and leaders are bound by values which are not beneficial to society (and presumably patients) then such bound by values which are not beneficial to society (and presumably patients) then such
leadership can be regarded
leadership can be regarded as unethical as its effects are likely to be nas unethical as its effects are likely to be non-beneficial.on-beneficial.
-- Emotions become irrational: Emotions become irrational: when emotional commitment to the leader becomes so intensewhen emotional commitment to the leader becomes so intense that a wider sense of rati
that a wider sense of rationality becomes lost. onality becomes lost. At which point followers wiAt which point followers will have developedll have developed either a dependent or counter-dependent relationship with the leader to the exclusion of all either a dependent or counter-dependent relationship with the leader to the exclusion of all other influences.
other influences.
-- Leader is judged by exceptional standards: Leader is judged by exceptional standards: in such situation the strong desire amongstin such situation the strong desire amongst followers to achieve personal identity with the leader may lead to unacceptable levels of followers to achieve personal identity with the leader may lead to unacceptable levels of emotional and physical stress as followers attempt to emulate their leader’s exceptional emotional and physical stress as followers attempt to emulate their leader’s exceptional behaviour.
behaviour.
However, positive influences of charisma in transformational leadership are identified as: However, positive influences of charisma in transformational leadership are identified as:
-- Self-esteem:Self-esteem: havhaving ing a a posposititive ive selself-rf-regaegard rd is is an an impimportortant ant perpersonsonal al chacharacracterterististic ic of of leader
leadership, which is projectship, which is projected onto followered onto followers. s. ChariCharismatsmatic leaders are confideic leaders are confident, highlynt, highly ent
enthushusiasiastic and tic and havhave e a a highigh h sensense se of self-of self-worworth. th. TheThese se charcharactacterierististics cs are imporare importantantt determinants of influence as subordinates (followers) are unlikely to follow a leader who determinants of influence as subordinates (followers) are unlikely to follow a leader who app
appeaears rs lalackckining g in in seselflf-c-confonfididenencece, , pepersrsonaonal l ababililitity y or or hahas s lilittttle le ununderderststandandining g of of organisational goals and the wider environmental influences.
organisational goals and the wider environmental influences.
-- Focus on People: Within Focus on People: Within the nursing profession the ability to relate to others members of thethe nursing profession the ability to relate to others members of the team who are likely to possess high levels of interpersonal skills themselves is an important team who are likely to possess high levels of interpersonal skills themselves is an important determ
determinant of effective leaderinant of effective leadership/ship/influinfluence. ence. This is especialThis is especially importanly important given t given that thethat the ability to sustain and develop human relationships is an integral component of effective ability to sustain and develop human relationships is an integral component of effective pract
colleagues are used to foster participation in problem solving and decision-making as a basis colleagues are used to foster participation in problem solving and decision-making as a basis for sustaining commitment to shared goals.
for sustaining commitment to shared goals.
“Focus on people is one
“Focus on people is one characteristic of charismcharacteristic of charismatic leadership. atic leadership. In other words,In other words, the leader who utilises a charismatic approach is orientated to people and visibly the leader who utilises a charismatic approach is orientated to people and visibly focuses on human needs
focuses on human needs of followers. of followers. When subordinates present When subordinates present a concern, thea concern, the leader conducts an assessment to find the basis for concern.” (
leader conducts an assessment to find the basis for concern.” (Davidhizar R,Davidhizar R, 1993, p.677
1993, p.677).).
-- Vision:Vision: having a vision is an essential component of leadership for a leader who seeks tohaving a vision is an essential component of leadership for a leader who seeks to lea
lead d witwith h charcharismisma. a. HavHaving a ing a visvision for the ion for the devdeveloelopmepment of nt of prapractictice, the ce, the warward/dd/deptept,, organisation, patient/clients and other stakeholders involves “knowing where the department, organisation, patient/clients and other stakeholders involves “knowing where the department, unit or organisation is heading and how society will be served” (
unit or organisation is heading and how society will be served” (Davidhizar R, 1993, p.678Davidhizar R, 1993, p.678).). A vision allows followers to reflect on the current state, identify its shortcomings and A vision allows followers to reflect on the current state, identify its shortcomings and become committed to a desirable future state, which is attainable and predicated on known become committed to a desirable future state, which is attainable and predicated on known professional/ideological values.
professional/ideological values.
“A
“A vivisision on alallolows ws inindidivividudualals s to to sesee e bebeyoyond nd ththe e tetedidium um of of ththeieir r prpresesenentt predicament and to rise above t
predicament and to rise above the tedium of day-day he tedium of day-day events. events. A vision [if A vision [if shared]shared] pulls people together in collective purpose and provides stimulation for extra pulls people together in collective purpose and provides stimulation for extra
effort.” (
effort.” (Davidhizar R, 1993, p.678Davidhizar R, 1993, p.678).).
An
An AustrAustralian perspectivalian perspective e on on transtransformaformational nursing leadershitional nursing leadership p providprovided ed byby SofaSofarelrelli li && Brown (1998)
Brown (1998) citing (citing (Davidhizar R, 1993Davidhizar R, 1993)) argues that:argues that:
“Transformational leadership is a style which is ideally suited to the present “Transformational leadership is a style which is ideally suited to the present climate of change because it actively embraces and encourages innovation and climate of change because it actively embraces and encourages innovation and change.
change. A transfoA transformatrmational leader [by encouional leader [by encouraginraging and g and supporsupporting reasting reasonableonable risk taking] will provide the skills for the profession to stretch its boundaries and risk taking] will provide the skills for the profession to stretch its boundaries and be innovative in
be innovative in the way in the way in which problems arwhich problems are viewed an sole viewed an solved.” ved.” ((SofarelSofarelli li && Brown, 1998, p.203
In defining the nature of transformational leadership within a nursing, health care setting they In defining the nature of transformational leadership within a nursing, health care setting they cite the work of
cite the work of (Bennis 1986, 1990; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; McDaniel, 1997)(Bennis 1986, 1990; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; McDaniel, 1997) in describingin describing four leadership competencies which they view as central to the provision of transformational four leadership competencies which they view as central to the provision of transformational leadership in nursing/health care settings:
leadership in nursing/health care settings:
Management of Attention:
Management of Attention: management of attention is demonstrated by leaders who are able tomanagement of attention is demonstrated by leaders who are able to determine from events, patterns and relationships around them, what is relevant for the future determine from events, patterns and relationships around them, what is relevant for the future and then
and then communicate this communicate this to follto followers. owers. ((Sofarelli & Brown, 1998)Sofarelli & Brown, 1998) citecite McBride (1994)McBride (1994) whowho states that “transformational leaders are those who have the ability to find meaning in piecemeal states that “transformational leaders are those who have the ability to find meaning in piecemeal actions and to make those connections for others so they can see the macro level while dealing actions and to make those connections for others so they can see the macro level while dealing with
with the mthe micro icro levellevel” ” ((McBride, 1994, p.284McBride, 1994, p.284). ). WitWithin contemhin contemporary heporary health care syalth care systems tstems thehe transformational nursing leader will be constantly scanning their environment in order to use transformational nursing leader will be constantly scanning their environment in order to use relevant information in the formation and development of their vision.
relevant information in the formation and development of their vision.
“T
“The he trtranansfsforormamatitionaonal l leleadeader r wiwill ll enensusure re ththat at ththeieir r fofollllowowerers s havhave e alall l ththee information that is required to work towards the shared vision, and will give them information that is required to work towards the shared vision, and will give them the knowl
the knowledge and edge and supsupporport t to enable them to enable them to to devdeveloelop p the skilthe skills ls reqrequiruired ed toto analyse the information for themselves and to make decisions based upon that analyse the information for themselves and to make decisions based upon that information.
information. [Thus, developing their foll[Thus, developing their followers ability to owers ability to become transformationalbecome transformational leaders in
leaders in their own their own right].” right].” ((Sofarelli & Brown, 1998, p.204Sofarelli & Brown, 1998, p.204))
The management of
The management of meanimeaning ng is an is an essentessential prerequisial prerequisite of ite of indivindividualidual, , team and team and organiorganisatiosationalnal learning, as organisations strive through learning to achieve a symbiotic relationship with their learning, as organisations strive through learning to achieve a symbiotic relationship with their environments so that they are able to shape the environment as much as being shaped by in.
environments so that they are able to shape the environment as much as being shaped by in.
Management of Meaning:
Management of Meaning: transformational leaders give meaning to their actions and those of thetransformational leaders give meaning to their actions and those of the organisation primarily through expressing their vision and modelling behaviours commensurate organisation primarily through expressing their vision and modelling behaviours commensurate with that vision.
with that vision. (Sofare(Sofarelli & lli & Brown, 1998)Brown, 1998) cite research bycite research by Dunham & Klafehn (1990, 1995)Dunham & Klafehn (1990, 1995) into the
vision is a personal attribute and in order to align followers and the organisation to their vision vision is a personal attribute and in order to align followers and the organisation to their vision transformational nursing leaders must posses powerful
transformational nursing leaders must posses powerful communication skills.communication skills.
“T
“To o be be efeffefectctivive, e, a a leleadader er mumust st fufulflfil il mamany ny fufunctnctioionsns, , but but one one of of ththe e momostst important is the management of meaning and the effective articulation of their important is the management of meaning and the effective articulation of their dreams to their followers in order to inspire them to accept and be committed to dreams to their followers in order to inspire them to accept and be committed to the visi
the vision. on. EffEffectective transive transforformatmationional al lealeaderders s are able to are able to crecreate a ate a visvision andion and effectively communicate that vision to those people they lead, and throughout the effectively communicate that vision to those people they lead, and throughout the organi
organisatisation. on. This requiThis required powerfred powerful and persuasiul and persuasive communicve communication skilation skills.”ls.” ((Sofarelli & Brown, 1998, p.204Sofarelli & Brown, 1998, p.204))
((SofSofarearelllli i & & BrBrowown, n, 19919988) ) cciitte e tthhe e wwoorrk k of of KeKets ts de de ViViriries es (1(198989)9) in in ararguguining g ththatat transformational leaders use language, ceremonies and symbols in order to reinforce the meaning transformational leaders use language, ceremonies and symbols in order to reinforce the meaning of their vision, they also know how and when to make use of humour, irony and colloquial of their vision, they also know how and when to make use of humour, irony and colloquial langua
language which enhances meage which enhances meaning for theining for their follower followers. rs. They go on to argue, based on the work They go on to argue, based on the work of
of Dunham & Klafehn (1990)Dunham & Klafehn (1990) that a vision is not for the sole purpose of adding meaning to thethat a vision is not for the sole purpose of adding meaning to the leader-follower relationship; effective transformational leaders can use a vision to revitalise a leader-follower relationship; effective transformational leaders can use a vision to revitalise a whole organisation by giving people a meaning, purpose and a sense of higher value in their whole organisation by giving people a meaning, purpose and a sense of higher value in their work.
work.
Management of Trust:
Management of Trust: is essential as leaders cannot empower with trust and trust is essential inis essential as leaders cannot empower with trust and trust is essential in the transf
the transformatormational procesional process. s. Trust is commuTrust is communicatenicated to d to follofollowers in many differwers in many different ways butent ways but one of the
one of the most impmost important is throuortant is through leadershgh leadership visibilip visibility. ity. FollFollowers are not likelowers are not likely to y to trust atrust a leader who is often absent (behind closed doors), not prepared to do their share of the work, leader who is often absent (behind closed doors), not prepared to do their share of the work, av
avoioids ds dedevevellopopiing ng intteriner-p-pererssononal al rerellatatioionsnshihips ps wiwitth h fofollllowowerers, s, dodoes es nonot t ffululffilil commitments/promises and
commitments/promises and who does not model behaviour who does not model behaviour commensurate with their commensurate with their vision. vision. TheThe successful development of trust is the foundation of transformational leadership in nursing as the successful development of trust is the foundation of transformational leadership in nursing as the interrelationships that nurses develop with fellow professionals, patients/clients and the wider interrelationships that nurses develop with fellow professionals, patients/clients and the wider community is built on an ethos of care and trust.
“Leaders must fulfil their commitments, keep promises, stay on course, live what “Leaders must fulfil their commitments, keep promises, stay on course, live what they say and be supportive when necessary; they need to be seen by people as they say and be supportive when necessary; they need to be seen by people as credible and trustworthy.
credible and trustworthy. (Kouzes & Posner, 1987)(Kouzes & Posner, 1987) wrote that trust was at thewrote that trust was at the cent
centre re of of humhuman an relrelatiationsonshiphips s and and essessentential ial for for orgorganianisatsationional al effeffectectiveivenesness.s. Leaders within organisations can communicate trust to others by providing and Leaders within organisations can communicate trust to others by providing and environment in
environment in which trust which trust can develop.” can develop.” ((Sofarelli & Brown, 1998, p.205Sofarelli & Brown, 1998, p.205))
Management of Self:
Management of Self: transformational leaders have a high personal self-regard, built on hightransformational leaders have a high personal self-regard, built on high levels of self-awareness
levels of self-awareness and self-esteem. and self-esteem. They are able to communicate this They are able to communicate this to others and their to others and their interrelationships with followers will as a consequence be built on positive reinforcement whilst interrelationships with followers will as a consequence be built on positive reinforcement whilst encour
encouraging reaging reasonabasonable risk le risk takingtaking. . They ciThey citete Bennis (1986)Bennis (1986) who states that “leaders knowwho states that “leaders know themselves, they know what they are good at and they nurture those skills and competencies” themselves, they know what they are good at and they nurture those skills and competencies” ((Bennis, 1986, p.86Bennis, 1986, p.86) ) Transformational nursing Transformational nursing leaders value learning, the gaileaders value learning, the gaining of knowledgening of knowledge and the encouraging of others to view mistakes as an opportunity to learn and recognise that and the encouraging of others to view mistakes as an opportunity to learn and recognise that there is no
there is no such thing as fsuch thing as failure. ailure. They citeThey citeKouzes & Posner (1987)Kouzes & Posner (1987) who believe that:who believe that:
“..
“..the the selself-f-confconfideidence nce thathat t excexcepteptionional al lealeaderders s gaigain n thrthrough ough lealearnirning ng abouaboutt the
themsemselvelves; s; thetheir ir skiskillslls, , preprejudjudiceices, s, taltalentents s and and shoshortcrtcomiomings ngs .. .. [t[theiheir] r] selself f confidence develops as [they] build on strengths and overcome weaknesses.” confidence develops as [they] build on strengths and overcome weaknesses.” ((Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p.277Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p.277))
In conclusion
In conclusion SofarelSofarelli & li & Brown (1998)Brown (1998) argue that transformational leadership is ideally suitedargue that transformational leadership is ideally suited to context of nursing, not least because it actively embraces change and innovation within an to context of nursing, not least because it actively embraces change and innovation within an ethical framework which complements values and b
ethical framework which complements values and b eliefs of the profession.eliefs of the profession.
“A transformational nursing leader will not only be able to achieve this [change] “A transformational nursing leader will not only be able to achieve this [change] but will also provide the skills and desires for other professionals to stretch their but will also provide the skills and desires for other professionals to stretch their boundaries and become innovative in the way that they view problems and their boundaries and become innovative in the way that they view problems and their
sol
solutiutionsons….t….the he abiabilitlity y to to finfind d inninnovatovative ive solsolutiutionsons; ; to to extextend end beybeyond ond thetheir ir boundaries of comfort; and to test new ways of doing old things will move boundaries of comfort; and to test new ways of doing old things will move
nursing further into the centre of the arena of the new health care services.” nursing further into the centre of the arena of the new health care services.” ((Sofarelli & Brown, 1998, p. 206Sofarelli & Brown, 1998, p. 206))
They go on to argue that whilst traditional management skills, which emphasise transactional They go on to argue that whilst traditional management skills, which emphasise transactional components of leadership are an important and necessary dimensions of nursing leadership, it is components of leadership are an important and necessary dimensions of nursing leadership, it is only when these are combined with transformational dimensions will nurses be able to deliver only when these are combined with transformational dimensions will nurses be able to deliver the type of change and innovation so essenti
the type of change and innovation so essential to today’s health care organisatal to today’s health care organisations. ions. ((Sofarelli &Sofarelli & Brown, 1998
Brown, 1998) cite) cite Beyers (1995)Beyers (1995) in arguing that nurses are in an ideal position to influencein arguing that nurses are in an ideal position to influence change within the health care settings, given that the profession is present in all context and that change within the health care settings, given that the profession is present in all context and that nurses that nurse have a expert power base and a good, (holistic), insight into health problems; nurses that nurse have a expert power base and a good, (holistic), insight into health problems; “this places them in an ideal position to identify problems, to make recommendations and “this places them in an ideal position to identify problems, to make recommendations and implement new models of care” (
implement new models of care” (Sofarelli & Brown, 1998, p. 206Sofarelli & Brown, 1998, p. 206))
Dixon (1999)
Dixon (1999) makes the important point that within today’s health care environments which aremakes the important point that within today’s health care environments which are characterised by “discontinuity leading to a fundamental shift in the
characterised by “discontinuity leading to a fundamental shift in the ways in which patient care isways in which patient care is delivered”
delivered” (Dix(Dixon, on, 19991999, , p.17p.17)). . ShShe goee goes on to as on to argrgue thue that wiat withthin sin such auch an envn envirironmonmenentt organisations need to balance so called soft issues of human relations with harder issues of organisations need to balance so called soft issues of human relations with harder issues of budget management.
budget management. Key to such cultural change is Key to such cultural change is the “metamorphosis of tthe “metamorphosis of the leader’s ability the leader’s ability too put into action transformational leadership behaviours and characteristics” (
put into action transformational leadership behaviours and characteristics” (Dixon, 1999, p.17Dixon, 1999, p.17).).
“Leaders must posses the ability to help organisational players commit to what the “Leaders must posses the ability to help organisational players commit to what the organi
organisatisation stands for and how work is conduon stands for and how work is conducted. cted. This is the foundThis is the foundation of ation of change.
change. Without tWithout this, transfhis, transformation is ormation is doomed to doomed to failure. failure. Other key Other key behavioursbehaviours inclu
include de meanimeaningful ngful clearclear, , consiconsistent communicatstent communication ion throuthrough gh multmultiple iple formforms,s, acting with integrity and being authentic; and treating people with respect and acting with integrity and being authentic; and treating people with respect and digni
dignity. ty. These behaviThese behaviours engendours engender the trust buildier the trust building so central to teamworkng so central to teamwork.. Finally creating opportunities for innovation and risk taking provides the fuel that Finally creating opportunities for innovation and risk taking provides the fuel that propels the organisation to a new
propels the organisation to a new level of effectiveness.”level of effectiveness.” (Dixon, 1999, p.17)(Dixon, 1999, p.17)
(Dixon, 1999) argues that: (Dixon, 1999) argues that:
-- Buil Building ding relatirelationships:onships: by by ensuriensuring ng visivisibilibility ty on on shiftshifts, s, activactive e listlistening, challenginening, challengingg traditional viewpoints whilst providing support required to explore new behaviours – new traditional viewpoints whilst providing support required to explore new behaviours – new ways of working,
ways of working,
-- Creating a shared vision for the future:Creating a shared vision for the future: which emphasise a positive view of the futurewhich emphasise a positive view of the future whilst recognising the importance of professional values,
whilst recognising the importance of professional values,
-- Developing a strategy for implementing the vision: Developing a strategy for implementing the vision: involving all organisational membersinvolving all organisational members at
at all levelall levels s focfocussussing ing on on corcore e valvalues ues sucsuch h as as the recognthe recognitition ion of of expeexpert rt resresourourcesces,, consci
conscientioentiousnessusness, , willwill/can-d/can-do o attitattitude, ude, sensisensitivittivity y to to interinternal nal and and externexternal al customcustomer er needs, and creative thinking,
needs, and creative thinking,
-- Recognising the value of teamwork: Recognising the value of teamwork:
-- Developing a physician integration strategy: Developing a physician integration strategy: -- Communicating and sharing experiences:Communicating and sharing experiences: -- Creating a learning Organisation:Creating a learning Organisation:
-- Recognising Results Achieved: Recognising Results Achieved:
In a survey by
In a survey by McDaniel & Wolf (1992)McDaniel & Wolf (1992) to determine the dimensions of leadership that result into determine the dimensions of leadership that result in low
low turturnovenover r and and worwork k satsatisfisfactactionion, , utiutililisinsingg BaBass ss & & AvoAvoliolio’s ’s (19(1985)85), , MultiMulti-Funct-Functional ional--Leadership Questionnaire and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire from an earlier study by
Leadership Questionnaire and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire from an earlier study by HinshawHinshaw (1987)
(1987) aimaimed ed at at devdeveloelopinping g ‘in‘innovnovatiative ve retretentention ion strstrateategiegies s for for nurnursinsing g stastaff’ff’, , in in a a nurnursinsingg department comprising of 1 nurse executive (NCEO), 11 middle level administrators and 77 department comprising of 1 nurse executive (NCEO), 11 middle level administrators and 77 registered nurses was able to validate the following hypotheses:
registered nurses was able to validate the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: Leader self-assessment scores will be higher (p>0.05) than those of the Hypothesis 1: Leader self-assessment scores will be higher (p>0.05) than those of the respective followers;
respective followers; Hyp
Hypothothesiesis s 2: 2: LeaLeader der selself-asf-assessessmesment nt scoscores res wiwill ll be be highigher her thathan n the the folfollowlower’er’ss assessment of the leader
assessment of the leader
Hypothesis 3: (in a facility where leaders report a predominance of transformational Hypothesis 3: (in a facility where leaders report a predominance of transformational behaviour, (as illustrated by their transformational scores), staff nurse work satisfaction behaviour, (as illustrated by their transformational scores), staff nurse work satisfaction
will be average or above and correlated to staff’s leader- other scores and will be average or above and correlated to staff’s leader- other scores and Hypothesis 4: Staff turnover will be low.
The results derived from the MFLQ were as follows: The results derived from the MFLQ were as follows: Transformational and Transactional Self Score of the
Transformational and Transactional Self Score of the Nursing Chief Executive Officer (NCEO) andNursing Chief Executive Officer (NCEO) and Middle Administrators
Middle Administrators F
Faaccttoorrss NNCCEEOO MMiiddddlle e AAddmmiinniissttrraattoorrss Transformational Transformational Individual Consideration Individual Consideration Charisma Charisma Intellectual Stimulation Intellectual Stimulation Transactional Transactional Management by Exception Management by Exception Contingent Rewards Contingent Rewards 3.4 3.4 3.1 3.1 3.7 3.7 3.3 3.3 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.4 3.0* 3.0* 2.7 2.7 3.2 3.2 3.0 3.0 2.2 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.3 *Statistically Significant P < 0.05
*Statistically Significant P < 0.05 (McDaniel & Wolf, 1992, p.62)(McDaniel & Wolf, 1992, p.62)
Paired Scores Showing Self-Scores and Other Scores of NCEO, Middle Level Administrators, and Paired Scores Showing Self-Scores and Other Scores of NCEO, Middle Level Administrators, and RN Staff
RN Staff F
Faaccttoorrss NNCCEEOOSeellffS NNCCEEOO bbyy Admin Admin
A
Addmmiin n SSeellff AAddmmiin n bbyy RNs RNs Transformational Transformational Individual Consideration Individual Consideration Charisma Charisma Intellectual Stimulation Intellectual Stimulation Transactional Transactional Management by Exception Management by Exception Contingent Rewards Contingent Rewards 3.4 3.4 3.1 3.1 3.7 3.7 3.3 3.3 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.6* 2.6* 2.7 2.7 2.3 2.3 2.7 2.7 2.0* 2.0* 1.8 1.8 2.1 2.1 3.0 3.0 2.7 2.7 3.2 3.2 3.0 3.0 2.2 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.3 2.4* 2.4* 2.3 2.3 2.7 2.7 2.3 2.3 2.1 2.1 1.9 1.9 2.2 2.2 *Statistically Significant P < 0.05
*Statistically Significant P < 0.05 (McDaniel & Wolf, 1992, p.63)(McDaniel & Wolf, 1992, p.63)
The self-scores for the NCEO and Middle level administrators indicate that the nurse executives The self-scores for the NCEO and Middle level administrators indicate that the nurse executives had consistently higher self-assessment scores across all factors compared with those of middle had consistently higher self-assessment scores across all factors compared with those of middle level administrators, (hypothesis 1).
level administrators, (hypothesis 1). McDaniel and Wolf (1992)McDaniel and Wolf (1992) state that:state that:
“The score validated the
“The score validated the cascadcascading or ing or shareshared d [lead[leadershiership] p] phenomphenomenon and enon and werewere co
compmpararabable le wiwith th ththosose e reresusultlts s obobtatainined ed at at sisimimilalar r lelevevels ls of of nonon-n-nunursrsee admin
administristrators and nurse exeators and nurse executivcutives. es. As one moves down the hierAs one moves down the hierarchyarchy, it is, it is an
antiticicipatpated ed ththat at ththe e trtransansfoformrmatatioional nal scscorores es wiwill ll dedecrcreasease e slsligighthtlyly, , wiwith th aa co
conconcomimitatant nt ememphaphasisis s on on ththe e trtransansactactioional nal scscororining g rereprpresesenentiting ng ththe e dadaililyy management in an organisation.”
management in an organisation.”(McDaniel & Wolf, 1992, p.62)(McDaniel & Wolf, 1992, p.62)
They go on to argue that the higher top echelon transformational scores suggested that more They go on to argue that the higher top echelon transformational scores suggested that more attention was given to leadership interventions which directly related to the transformational attention was given to leadership interventions which directly related to the transformational
items on the MFLQ, such as developing an organisational vision or shared values of service items on the MFLQ, such as developing an organisational vision or shared values of service del
deliveivery. ry. The The decdeclinlining ing tratransfnsformormatiational onal scoscores res for for midmiddle dle gragrades des may may sugsuggesgest t thathat t “an“an increasing amount of attention would be given to the operational management of the service that increasing amount of attention would be given to the operational management of the service that parallels the decline in administrative hierarchy.”
parallels the decline in administrative hierarchy.”(McDaniel & Wolf, 1992, p.62)(McDaniel & Wolf, 1992, p.62)
The paired scores show that the self-assessment scores of the administrators were higher than the The paired scores show that the self-assessment scores of the administrators were higher than the scores given to them by the registered nurses, these differences are consistent across all factors scores given to them by the registered nurses, these differences are consistent across all factors and support hypoth
and support hypothesis 2. esis 2. The transactThe transactional scores of the administrional scores of the administrators and registeators and registered nursesred nurses were lower than the transformational scores which according to
were lower than the transformational scores which according to McDaniel & Wolf (1992)McDaniel & Wolf (1992) is is aa desirable finding.
desirable finding.
““ThThis is susuggggesests ts ththat at whwhiille e tthehesse e nunursrse e adadmmininiiststraratotorrs s ememphphasasiise se tthehe tr
tranansfsforormamatitionaonal l cocompmpononentents s of of ththeieir r worwork, k, ththey ey alalso so buibuild ld on on daday y to to dadayy management [predicated primarily on transactional dimensions of leadership] to management [predicated primarily on transactional dimensions of leadership] to encourage the nursing staff in their work and the accomplishment of their nursing encourage the nursing staff in their work and the accomplishment of their nursing goals.
goals. The transformational lThe transformational leader would support a vieader would support a vision of nursing sion of nursing and enhanceand enhance the nursing staff to share that vision and to develop their perceptive positions.” the nursing staff to share that vision and to develop their perceptive positions.” (McDaniel & Wolf, 1992, p.63)
(McDaniel & Wolf, 1992, p.63)
The results from the job satisfaction survey supported hypothesis 3, that given the high levels of The results from the job satisfaction survey supported hypothesis 3, that given the high levels of transformational leadership practised by the nurse administrators that job satisfaction among the transformational leadership practised by the nurse administrators that job satisfaction among the nursi
nursing staff would be average or above. ng staff would be average or above. Data colleData collecting relatcting relating to staff turnoveing to staff turnover supporter supportedd hypothesis 4.
hypothesis 4.
Research by
Research by Morrison et al., (1997)Morrison et al., (1997) investigating the relationship between leadership style andinvestigating the relationship between leadership style and empowerment and its effect on job
empowerment and its effect on job satisfaction amongst nursing staff in a regional medical centresatisfaction amongst nursing staff in a regional medical centre in the USA, using
in the USA, using Bass & Avolio’s (1995) MFLQBass & Avolio’s (1995) MFLQ to measure leadership and leadership style,to measure leadership and leadership style, Wa
Warr’rr’s s et et alal., ., (1(1979979)) Job Job SatiSatisfactsfaction ion QuestQuestionnaiionnaire re andand SpreizeSpreizer’s r’s (1995)(1995) psychologicalpsychological empowerment instrument, returning 275 useable questionnaires from an initial sample of n=442; empowerment instrument, returning 275 useable questionnaires from an initial sample of n=442; indicated that both transformational and transactional leadership were positively related to job indicated that both transformational and transactional leadership were positively related to job
being positively correlated to empowerment 0.26. The higher positive correlation between job being positively correlated to empowerment 0.26. The higher positive correlation between job satisfaction and transformational leadership compared with transactional leadership is argued by satisfaction and transformational leadership compared with transactional leadership is argued by Morrison et al (1997)
Morrison et al (1997) to provide evidence of theto provide evidence of the Bass’s (1985)Bass’s (1985) augmenaugmentatitation on concept concept whichwhich (D
(Dixoixon n 1991999; 9; McMcDaDanieniel l & & WolWolf, f, 1991992)2) practipracticalcally ly sumsummarmarise ise in in argarguinuing g thathat t effeffectectiveive transformational leaders build on the transactions found in everyday management.
transformational leaders build on the transactions found in everyday management.
Correlation Matrix for Leadership Style, Empowerment and job Satisfaction Correlation Matrix for Leadership Style, Empowerment and job Satisfaction V
Vaarriiaabbllee 11 22 33 44
T
Trraannssffoorrmmaattiioonnaal l LLeeaaddeerrsshhiipp --T
Trraannssaaccttiioonnaal l LLeeaaddeerrsshhiipp 00..5544** --E
Emmppoowweerrmmeenntt 00..2266** 00..0088**
--JJoob b SSaattiissffaaccttiioonn 00..6644** 00..3355** 00..4411** --N
N= = 227755, , **p p < < 00..0055 [[SSoouurrccee:: Morrison et al, 1997, p.30Morrison et al, 1997, p.30]]
Other studies by
Other studies by Laschinger & Havens (1997)Laschinger & Havens (1997),, Laschinger, Wong, Macmahon & KaufmannLaschinger, Wong, Macmahon & Kaufmann (1999)
(1999) andand McNeeMcNeese-Smith se-Smith (1997)(1997) indicaindicate te a a causal relationscausal relationship hip betweebetween n transtransformaformationaltional leadership behaviour and perceptions of staff nurse empowerment, levels of occupational health leadership behaviour and perceptions of staff nurse empowerment, levels of occupational health and organisational effectiveness.
and organisational effectiveness.
Research in the UK by
Research in the UK by Bowles & Bowles (2000)Bowles & Bowles (2000) usingusing Kouzes & Posner’s (1988, 1995)Kouzes & Posner’s (1988, 1995) Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) in a comparative study of transformational leadership in Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) in a comparative study of transformational leadership in nursing development units (NDUs) and conventional clinical settings, using a sample of 70 nursing development units (NDUs) and conventional clinical settings, using a sample of 70 nurses comprising of two equally sized sub-groups drawn from NDU and Non-NDU settings. nurses comprising of two equally sized sub-groups drawn from NDU and Non-NDU settings. The self-evaluations us
The self-evaluations using the LPI ing the LPI showed little dishowed little difference between the sub-grfference between the sub-groups. oups. However,However, th
the e dadata ta inindidicacateted d twtwo o didiffffererenenceces s in in whwhicich h leleadaderershship ip wawas s pepercrceieiveved d by by fofollllowowererss (observers/raters):
(observers/raters):
The observer (raters) score for non-NDU leaders were lower than those from NDU The observer (raters) score for non-NDU leaders were lower than those from NDU leaders across each of the five
The
The obsobserverver er (ra(raterters) s) scoscores res for for nonnon-ND-NDU U lealeaderders s are are lowlower er thathan n the the lealeaderders’ s’ selself- f-eval
evaluatuationions s acracross each of oss each of the five practthe five practicesices. . By contrBy contrast obserast observer scorever scores s for NDUfor NDU leaders were higher than the leaders’
leaders were higher than the leaders’ self-evaluations on four out of the five practices.self-evaluations on four out of the five practices.
Mean Self-evaluations for each of the five practices of exemplary leadership Mean Self-evaluations for each of the five practices of exemplary leadership R
Roollee CChhaalllleennggee the process the process Inspire a Inspire a shred Vision shred Vision Enable Enable others to act others to act Model the Model the way way Encourage Encourage the heart the heart Total Total Leadership Leadership Score Score NDU NDU Leader Leader 2 244..1144 2233..1144 2255..2299 2424..1144 2255..2299 112211..4433 Non-NDU Non-NDU Leader Leader 2 244 2222..1144 2255..3366 2244..5577 2255..2299 112211..8866
Mean observer evaluations for each of the five practices of exemplary leadership Mean observer evaluations for each of the five practices of exemplary leadership R
Roollee CChhaalllleennggee the process the process Inspire a Inspire a shred Vision shred Vision Enable Enable others to act others to act Model the Model the way way Encourage Encourage the heart the heart Total Total Leadership Leadership Score Score NDU NDU Leader Leader 2 255..7711 2255..2255 2255..6644 2424..7711 2255..2211 112255..7755 Non-NDU Non-NDU Leader Leader 2 222..9922 2211..2299 2244..6644 2323..8822 2233..3322 111155..5577
[[Source:Source: Bowles & Bowles, 2000, p.73]Bowles & Bowles, 2000, p.73] Bowles & Bowles (2000)
Bowles & Bowles (2000) state thatstate that
“NDU leaders were more highly evaluated by their observers than their non-NDU “NDU leaders were more highly evaluated by their observers than their non-NDU counterparts.
counterparts. They demonstrated a hiThey demonstrated a higher level of congruence betgher level of congruence between their self-ween their self-eval
evaluatuationions s and and obsobserverver er evalevaluatuation ion and and mormore e trtransansforformatmationional al lealeaderdershishipp behaviour than
behaviour than their their counterparts.” counterparts.” ((Bowles & Bowles, 2000, p.74Bowles & Bowles, 2000, p.74))
A review of a sample of 2,013 managers from the NHS identified a far more complex model set A review of a sample of 2,013 managers from the NHS identified a far more complex model set of behaviours than previous US research.
of behaviours than previous US research.
“The most obvious implications of these findings is the staggering complexity of “The most obvious implications of these findings is the staggering complexity of the role of leade
the role of leadershrship in ip in the NHS. the NHS. AnoAnothether r leslesson is that the transson is that the transactactionionalal competencies of management, while crucial are simply not sufficient on their competencies of management, while crucial are simply not sufficient on their own. […] what is clear is that existing us models of leadership do not encapsulate own. […] what is clear is that existing us models of leadership do not encapsulate
