literary terms.pdf

Absolute: word, phrase, or construction that is isolated syntactically from the rest of the sentence. “The referee having finally arrived, the game began.”

Ad hominem fallacy: An error in reasoning pointed “to the individual.” The target person’s characteristics are attacked instead of the argument. “Nick Jacobson is not a worthy candidate for vice president of the senior class because he is short and frowns too much.”

Abstraction: a theoretical concept, idea, or term. Nouns, such as joy, envy, and cowardice are examples of abstract nouns.

Allegory: a literary work in which characters, objects, or actions represent abstractions. “In Pilgrim’s Progress, the protagonist, Christian, represents all Christians, and physical obstacles represent inner struggles.”

Alliteration: the repetition of initial consonant sounds in successive or neighboring words. “…while I nodded, nearly napping.” Although common in older literature, this technique is so obvious that it is rarely used in modern prose. Today it is mostly used for special effects for slogans or for a humorous effect.

Allusion: indirect reference to something literary, mythological, historical, or historical. Using an allusion allows the writer to say a great deal with only a word or short phrase. “Patrick Henry urged his listeners not to be ‘betrayed with a kiss.’”

Anachronism (uh NAK ruh niz uhm): something or someone that is out of its proper chronological or historical order. In Julius Caesar, Caesar asks “if the clock struck three.”

Anadiplosis (an uh duh PLO sis): repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the next clause. “The crime was common, common be the pain.”

Analogy: a comparison between two different things which are similar in some way. “By comparing conducting to politics, Igor Stravinsky helped non-musicians understand his feelings about orchestra conductors.”

Anaphora (uh NAF or uh): the repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of consecutive lines or sentences. “‘We have petitioned; we have remonstrated; we have supplicated; we have prostrated ourselves.’” When anaphora occurs, the author has used it deliberately. Since the repetition of the words helps to establish a marked rhythm in the sequence of clauses, this scheme is usually reserved for those passages where the author wants to produce a strong emotional effect.

Anastrophe (uh NAS tro fee): inversion of the natural or usual word order. “People that he had known all his life he didn’t really know.” Anastrophe can be an effective device for gaining attention, but its chief function is to secure emphasis.

Anecdote: a brief personal narrative which focuses on a particular incident or event. “Sylvia emphasized Sam’s kindness by telling the story of the time he stopped to help a stranded motorist in the pouring rain.”

Anomaly: a change or deviation from what is considered typical.

Antagonist: a principal character in opposition to the protagonist. Sometimes the antagonist is not a character, but something else, like a force of nature, some aspect of society, or an internal force within the protagonist. If the protagonist is “good,” the antagonist will be “bad.” If the protagonist is “bad,” the antagonist will be “good.”

Anthimeria (an thuh MARE ee uh): the substitution of one part of speech for another. “I’ll unhair thy head.” This is very common in Shakespeare; however, today our language is rich and flexible and anthimeria should be used sparingly. If used creatively, though, it can be pungent, evocative, witty, or memorable.

Antimetabole (an tee muh TAB oh lee): repetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order. “One should eat to live, not live to eat.” “Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.” Similar to chiasmus. It can be used to reinforce antithesis.

Antithesis (an TITH i sis): a statement in which two opposing ideas are balanced grammatically. “‘It was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness.’” Antithesis can produce the effect of aphoristic neatness and can win the author a reputation for wit.

Antithetical sentence: the phrases or clauses contrast each other in meaning but are stated in a balanced structure “Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country.”

Aphorism: a concise statement which expresses succinctly a general truth or idea, often using rhyme or balance. “‘Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.’” Also known as adage.

Apostrophe: the act of speaking directly to an absent or imaginary person, or to some abstraction. “‘O death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is thy victory?’”

Appeals: the manner in which evidence is presented to establish credibility to the argument. • Logical Appeals (logos)

• Incorporates inductive (moving from observation about particular things to generalizations) reasoning

• Uses deductive (moving from generalizations to valid inferences about particulars) reasoning

• Creates a syllogism

• Cites traditional culture

• Alludes to history, religious texts, great literature, or mythology

• Manipulates the style

• Employs various modes of discourse for specific effects

• Provides testimony

• Draws analogies/creates metaphors

• Orders chronologically

• Provides evidence

• Classifies evidence

• Cites authorities

• Quotes research

• Uses facts

• Theorizes about cause and effect

• Argues from precedent

• Emotional Appeals (pathos)

• Uses language that involves the senses

• Includes a bias or prejudice

• Includes an anecdote

• Includes connotative language

• Explores euphemisms

• Uses description

• Uses figurative language

• Develops tone

• Experiments with informal language

• Ethical Appeals (ethos)

• Shows written voice in the argument

• Makes the audience believe that the

writer is trustworthy

• Demonstrates that the writer put in

research time

• Supports reasons with appropriate,

logical evidence

• Presents a carefully crafted and edited argument

• Demonstrates that the writer knows and

respects the audience

• Shows concern about communicating

with the audience

• Convinces the audience that the

Apposition: placing side by side two coordinate elements, the second of which serves as an explanation or modification of the first. “John Morgan, the president of the Sons of the Republic, could not be reached by phone. Apposition is a very common method of expansion in modern prose. Although it does not disturb the natural flow of the sentence as violently as parenthetical expressions do, it does interrupt to supply some gratuitous information or explanation.

Archetype (AR ki type): a symbol, theme, setting, or character-type that recurs in different times and places in literature so frequently or prominently as to suggest that it embodies some essential element of universal human experience.

Argumentation (persuasion): traditional form of discourse that functions by convincing or persuading an audience or by proving or refuting a point of view or an issue. See also appeals.

Aside: dramaticdevice in which a character speaks his or her thoughts aloud, in words meant to be heard by the audience but not by the other characters.

Assonance: repetition of accented vowel sounds in a series of words. The words cry and side have the same vowel sound and so are said to be in assonance. Most often found in poetry; prose writers should avoid this technique.

Asyndeton: deliberate omission of conjunctions in a series of related clauses. “I came, I saw, I conquered.” The

principal effect of asyndeton is to produce a hurried rhythm in the sentence. It is especially appropriate for the conclusion to create an emotional reaction that can be stirred by rhythm.

Atmosphere: see mood

Auxesis (awk SES is): magnifying the importance or gravity of something by referring to it with a disproportionate name. “ The lawyer tried to impress the jury by referring to a scratch on the arm as a wound.”

Balanced sentence: the phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness or structure, meaning, or length. “He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still water.”

Bathos: unintended bad humor in poetry and prose.

Blank Verse: unrhymed poetry written in iambic pentameter. That is, each line of blank verse has five pairs of syllables. In most pairs, an unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed syllable. The most versatile of poetic forms, blank verse imitates natural rhythms of English speech. Shakespeare’s plays are written in blank verse.

Catharsis (kuh THAHR sis): a release of emotional tension, as after an overwhelming experience, that restores or refreshes the spirit. Most often experienced by the protagonist in drama.

Character: people who take part in the action of a piece of literature. Sometimes characters can be animals or imaginary creatures, such as beings from another planet. See also main character, minor character, protagonist, antagonist, dynamic character, static character, round character, and flat character.

Characterization: refers to the methods that a writer uses to develop or reveal characters. See also direct and indirect characterization.

Chiasmus (ky AZ mus): a statement consisting of two parallel parts in which the second part is structurally reversed. “‘Out went the taper as she hurried in.’” Similar to antimetabole, yet it differs because it does not involve a repetition of words. It can be used to reinforce antithesis.

Climax: also called turning point or crisis (in literature), the climax is the moment when the reader’s interest and emotional intensity reaches the highest point. It is the moment when the conflict is decided one way or another. The climax usually occurs toward the end of a story, after the reader has understood the conflict and become emotionally involved with the characters. It sometimes, but not always, points to the resolution of the conflict. Climax as a scheme: arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing importance. “I think we’ve reached a point of great decision, not just for our nation, not only for all humanity, but for life upon the earth.”

Colloquialism: informal words or expressions not usually acceptable in formal writing. “Huck Finn says, ‘I got the fantods’ to describe his nervousness and says ‘shin’ instead of ‘run.’”

Comic Relief: humorous scene, incident, or speech that is included in a serious drama to provide a change from emotional intensity. Because it breaks the tension, comic relief allows an audience to prepare emotionally for events to come. The sharp contrasts afforded by comic relief may intensify the themes of a literary work.

Conceit: a fanciful, particularly clever extended metaphor. “Using an elaborate metaphor, Donne compares himself and his wife to the two legs of a compass, one staying in place while the other circles around and eventually joins it.”

Concrete examples: specific details.

Conflict: some sort of struggle between opposing forces.

• External conflict: involves a character pitted against an outside force • Person vs. Person

• Person vs. Nature

• Person vs. Physical Obstacle • Person vs. Society

• Person vs. Fate/Destiny

• Internal conflict: involves a character with a struggle within himself or herself (Person vs. Him/Herself)

Connotation: the implied or associative meaning of a word. “‘Odor’ and ‘fragrance’ literally mean the same thing, but good things have fragrance, bad things, odor.”

Consonance: repetition of a consonant sound within a series of words to produce a harmonious effect. “And each slow dusk a drawing-down of blinds.” The “d” and “s” sounds are in consonance.

Cumulative Sentence: see loose sentence.

Deductive reasoning: the process of reasoning from the general to the specific.

Denotation: the literal meaning of a word. “Although the word ‘home’ may suggest safety and comfort, it’s really simply ‘one’s residence.’”

Dénouement: see falling action.

Details: facts revealed by the author or speaker that support the attitude or tone in a piece of poetry or prose.

Diction: word choice intended to convey a certain effect. “Hemmingway uses few polysyllabic words; Dickens uses many polysyllabic words.”

Direct Address: name used to call a person directly and set off by commas when written.

Direct Characterization: the author tells the reader directly about a character. • describing how the character looks and dresses

• telling the reader directly what the character’s personality is like, such as cruel, kind, sneaky, brave

Dramatic Monologue: lyric poem in which a speaker addresses a silent or absent listener in a moment of high intensity or deep emotion, as if engaged in private conversation. The speaker proceeds without interruption or argument, and the effect on the reader is that of hearing just one side of a conversation. This technique allows the poet to focus on the feelings, personality, and motivations of the speaker.

Dynamic Character: one who changes as a result of the events of the story. This change is not a physical change, but one in which the character now looks at “life” in a different way and adjusts his/her life accordingly.

Ellipsis: the omission of a word or phrase which is grammatically necessary but can be deduced from the context. “Kathleen wants to be a firefighter; Sara, a nurse.” Ellipsis can be an artful and arresting means of securing economy of expression. It is necessary to see to it that the understood words are grammatically compatible.

Epanalepsis (uh pon uh LEP sis): repetition at the end of a clause of the word that occurred at the beginning of the clause. “Business forms are as various as people forms.” Mostly used in poetry.

Epic: a literary genre that is a long narrative poem celebrating the great deeds of one or more legendary heroes in a grand ceremonious style.

• Two types:

o folk epic: written by an unknown or unsure author(s) and deal with tradition closely associated with the people or folk for whom they were written. Both the Iliad and Odyssey are folk epics.

o art/literary epic: written by a known author and is more sophisticated with a didactic purpose for a literate society. Aeneid is an example of this type of epic.

• Common characteristics:

o hero is a figure of imposing stature, of national or international importance, and of great historical importance. See also epic hero.

o setting is vast in scope, covering great nations of the world

o actions consist of deeds of great valor or those requiring superhuman courage o supernatural forces interest themselves in the action and intervene from time to time o recounts deeds of a hero

• Common conventions:

o invocation to the Muse: an appeal made by the poet to the muse of epic poetry (Calliope) for help in composing the poem

o in medias res: the common technique of storytelling when the storyteller begins at some exciting point in the middle of the action

o catalogs: long lists of warriors, ships, and/or armies o long formal speeches by the main characters

o Homeric epithet: a compound adjective, defining a characteristic quality or attribute, repeatedly used for the same thing or person

o epic meter: the rhythm of the poem. Most epics are written in dactylic hexameter, 6 metrical feet containing either dactyls (a long, short, short rhythm) or spondees (two long rhythms).

Epic cycle: a group of epics that tell the entire story of the Trojan War from the Judgment of Paris through a sequel to the Odyssey. There were eight in total, all now lost except for the Iliad and Odyssey.

Epic hero: a main character around which an epic is written. The hero may be a quest hero, a role model hero, a crisis hero, or a founding/national hero.

Epigram: a short, witty poem expressing a single thought or observation.

Epiphany: a moment of sudden revelation or insight. “Toward the end of the play, Othello suddenly realizes that he has been misled.”

Epistrophe: repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses. “We cannot learn from one another until we stop shouting at one another.” Epistrophe not only sets up a pronounced rhythm but secures a special emphasis, both by repeating the word and by putting the word in the final position in the sentence.

Epithet: a hyphenated adjectival phrase preceding a noun, which describes a characteristic. “rosy-fingered Dawn” This type of epithet was first used by Homer in his epics. A noun or short phase that replaces a name but is clearly understood as its representation. “The Great Emancipator” for Abraham Lincoln.

Ethos: an appeal to another person’s character or sense of fairness. It targets a person’s sense of justice (or at least the desire to be perceived as an individual of character). See appeals.

Eulogy: a speech or writing in praise of a person or thing, especially one recently deceased. Eulogies may be given as part of funeral services.

Euphemism: an indirect, less offensive way of saying something

that is considered unpleasant.

Exclamation: a type of interruption where the speaker or writer stops a sentence midway and addresses an individual who may or may not be present.

Exhortation: a strong, often stirring argument, admonition, advice, or appeal.

Exposition: in fiction, the structure of the plot usually begins with the exposition. Its purpose is to • set the tone

• establish the setting (see also setting)

• introduce the initial characters and initial conflict • give the reader important background information

Falling Action: also called resolution, it occurs after the climax. The conflict is usually resolved at this time, and any loose ends of the story are tied up. If the story ends as a “cliff hanger,” there is no falling action.

False Analogy: A false analogy is an unjustified inference drawn on the basis of similarities between two items or types of items. “The universe is like an intricate watch. Many early watches were designed by locksmiths. Therefore, the universe may have been designed by some kind of locksmith.”

Figurative Language: also called figures of speech, it is language that communicates ideas beyond the ordinary, literal meanings of words.

Flashback: conversation, episode, or event that happened before the beginning of a story. Often a flashback interrupts the chronological flow of a story to give the reader information to help in understanding a character’s present situation.

Foil: character who provides a striking contrast to another character. By using a foil, a writer can call attention to certain traits possessed by a main character or simply enhance a character by contrast.

Foreshadowing: writer’s use of hints or clues to indicate event and situations that will occur later in a plot. The use of this technique creates suspense while preparing the reader for what is to come. It is placed early in a plot’s or sub-plot’s development.

Functional structure: the four sentence types of declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory.

Generalization: reasoning from detailed facts to general principles. “Families around the world have common needs and meet them in different ways.”

Genre: a major category or type of literature. “Paradise Lost is an epic poem; The Scarlet Letter is a novel; Into This Air is nonfiction.”

Grammatical structure: the four sentence types of simple, compound, complex, and compound/complex.

Hero: see epic hero or tragic hero

Hyperbole (hy PUR buh lee): intentional exaggeration to create emphasis or heightened effect. There were at least a million people at the mall when I went shopping Saturday.” Since hyperbole is so common today, it should be used with restraint and for a calculated effect. Also known as overstatement.

Iambic Pentameter: metrical line of five feet, or units, each of which is made up of two syllables, the first unstressed and the second stressed. Iambic pentameter is the meter used in blank verse.

Imagery: descriptive words and phrases that re-create sensory experiences for the reader. Imagery usually appeals to one or moreof the five senses—sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch—to helpthe reader imagine exactly what is being described. Sensorydetails contribute to the themes or ideas of a work. “The smoothshell curved gently in his hands, a pristine white shading gradually to a pearly, glistening shine.”

Imperative: acommand sentence. “Open your books.”

Indirect Characterization: the readers have to use their own judgment to decide what a character is like, based on the evidence the writer gives. See Analysis for more details.

Inductive reasoning: the process of deriving general principles from particular facts or details. "Every time I've seen a red-tinted sunset, the next day's weather has been beautiful. Today had a red-tinted sunset, so tomorrow will be beautiful."

Interior monologue: a conversation with oneself; a thinking to oneself in words.

Invective: an intensely vehement, highly emotional verbal attack. “‘My opponent is a lying, cheating, immoral bully!’”

Irony: special kind of contrast between appearance and reality—usually one in which reality is the opposite from what it seems. There are generally three types:

• Situational irony – the contrast between what a reader or character expects and what actually exists or happens. • Dramatic irony – where the reader or viewer knows something that a character does not know

• Verbal irony – when someone knowingly exaggerates or says one thing and means another.

“For Brutus is an honorable man.” In addition, there is a special kind of irony called paralipsis—the kind of irony in which one proposed to pass over some matter, yet managed subtly to reveal the matter anyway. An example of this is Antony’s discussion of Caesar’s will.

Juxtaposition: the placing of two characters, events, or scenes side by side for the sake of contrast.

Litotes (LY tuh teez; ly TOE teez): a type of understatement in which something affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite. “My parents were not overjoyed when I came home three hours past my curfew.”

Logical Fallacies: Errors in reasoning that render an argument invalid.

• Ad hominem fallacy: “to the individual,” the target person’s characteristics are attacked instead of the argument • “Nick Jacobson is not a worthy candidate for vice president of the senior class because he is short and frowns too

much.”

• Ad populum fallacy: “to the crowd.” A misconception that a widespread occurrence of something is assumed to make an idea true or right

• “The parents of Sylvia’s friends allow their daughters to stay out until 2:00 a.m. on a school night, so Sylvia’s parents should allow her to stay out as well.”

• Begging the question: taking for granted something that really needs proving

• “Free all political prisoners” begs the question of whether some of those concerned have committed an actual crime, like blowing up the chemistry building in a political protest.

• Circular reasoning: trying to prove one idea with another idea that is too similar to the first idea; such an error moves logic backward in its attempt to move forward

• “A writer is a person who writes.”

• Either/or reasoning: the tendency to see an issue as having only two sides • “The possession of firearms should be completely banned or completely legal.”

• Hasty generalization: drawing a general and premature conclusion on the basis of only one or two cases • “Dallas Police Chief Christopher Michaels suggested that all dogs be muzzled because two Golden Retrievers

have been disturbing the peace in Fritz Park.”

• Non sequitur: “it does not follow,” an inference or conclusion that does not follow established premises or evidence

• “He is certainly sincere; he must be right.” or “He’s the most popular: he should be president.”

• Pedantry: a display of narrrow-minded and trivial scholarship; an arbitrary adherence to rules and forms. • “Mary prides herself in knowing so much about grammar, but she never earns high grades on essays because she

cannot thing of—let alone organize—insightful ideas.”

• Post hoc, ergo propter hoc (false causality): “after this, therefore because of this,” assuming that an incident that precedes another is the cause of the second incident

• “Antonietta worked on her written argument longer than she had for any other essay; therefore, she felt she must earn an ‘A’.”

Logos: an appeal to an audience’s rationality or logic. It relies on facts and a closely ordered organization such as cause and effect. See appeals.

Main Characters: the most important characters.

Malapropism: the substitution of one word for another, incorrect, word with a similar sound, usually to comic effect. “I really dig Hannibal. Hannibal had real guts. He rode elephants into Cartilage." (i.e. Carthage). "I can shoot with my left hand, I can shoot with my right hand, I'm amphibious." (i.e. ambidextrous)

Metaphor: a comparison between two things that are basically unlike but that have something in common. A metaphor, unlike simile, does not use the words like or as. The comparison is often connected by a linking verb (the world is a stage) or the word of (the stage of the world)

• Dead metaphor: one that has been overused and does not delight or surprise

• Mixed metaphor: combination of images that seems absurd, such as “Her dreams have wings and are the foundation for her beliefs.”

• Extended metaphor: comparison of two essentially unlike things at some length and in several ways. “In The GreatGatsby Daisy tells Nick, ‘You are a rose.’”

Metonymy (muh TAHN uh mee): substituting the name of one object for another object closely associated with it. “The White House issued a statement today.” Other common examples include crown for royalty, wealth for rich people, brass for military officers, bottle for wine, pen for writers. Often confused with synecdoche.

Minor Characters: those who interact with the main characters and help the story move forward.

Modes of Discourse: writing concerned with factual presentation and development of reasonable and logical conclusions.

Monologue: an extended, uninterrupted speech by a single person. The person may be speaking his or her thoughts aloud or directly addressing other persons, e.g. an audience, a character, or a reader.

Mood: 1) the feeling or atmosphere that the writer creates for the reader. Descriptive words, the setting, and figurative language contribute to the mood of a work, as do the sound and rhythm of the language used. Describe the mood as the story makes you feel. A good story should elicit several moods. 2) indicative, subjunctive, and imperative verb forms (See details in verbs in the parts of speech section of your LN.)

Motif: a situation, incident, idea, image, or character-type that is found in many different literary works that is elaborated into a more general theme. “In Shakespeare’s plays, mistaken identity and the fall of the mighty occur with great

regularity.”

Motivation: circumstance or set of circumstances that prompts a character to act in a certain way or that determines the outcome of a situation or work.

Narration: telling of a story in writing or speaking.

Non sequitur: “it does not follow.” An inference or conclusion that does not follow established premises or evidence.

Nuance: a subtle or slight degree of difference, as in a word meaning. Similar to connotation in some ways, it further separates words with similar emotional overtones.

Onomatopoeia (on uh mat uh PEE uh): use of words such as pow, buzz, and crunch whose sounds suggest their meanings. “The firecrackled in the fireplace. We could hear the buzzing of the bees inthe hive.” Whenever sound effects can be used to set theemotional or ethical tone of a passage, this can make acontribution.

Oxymoron (ahk see MORE on): an expression in which two words that contradict each other are joined. “jumbo shrimp, sweet sorrow, little giant” This often produces a startling witty effect.

Paean (PEE uhn): a song of joyful praise or exultation.

Parable: a simple story illustrating a moral or religious lesson.

Paradox: an apparently contradictory statement which actually contains some truth. “Sometimes you have to be cruel to be kind.”

Parallelism: use of similar grammatical constructions to express ideas that are related or equal in importance. The parallel elements may be words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs. Parallelism is one of the basic principles of grammar and rhetoric. When this principle is ignored, not only is the grammar of coordination violated, but the rhetoric of coherence is wrenched. Violations of parallelism are serious because they reflect disorderly thinking.

Parenthesis: see exclamation.

Parody: a humorous imitation of a serious work. “Spaceballs and the space epic genre. Hot Shots and action films. Thin Thighs inThirty Years and exercise books.”

Pathos: the quality in a work that prompts the reader to feel pity or sorrow. “Acknowledging how he has wronged the faithful, gentle Joe, Pip tearfully asks his forgiveness.” See also appeals.

Periphrasis: substitution of a descriptive word or phrase for a proper name or of a proper name for a quality associated with the name. “They do not escape Jim Crow; they merely encounter another, not less deadly variety.” “She may not have been a Penelope, but she was not as unfaithful as the gossips made her out to be.”

Periodic sentence:

makes sense fully only when the end of the sentence is reached. “That morning, after a turbulent flight

Personification: human qualities are attributed to an object, animal, or idea. “The smiling, friendly sun was about to be swallowed by the angry clouds moving in from the south.”

Persuasion: see argumentation.

Plot: the sequence of events in a story. Generally built around a conflict, the plot tells what happens, when, and to whom. A story’s plot usually includes four stages: exposition, rising action, climax, and falling action.

Point of View:

method of narrating a short story, novel, narrative poem, or work of nonfiction. See for additional

• First-person point of view: the narrator is a character in the story and uses the pronouns I, me, and my. The reader knows what the narrator is feeling and thinking but must infer from the narrator’s descriptions what other characters are feeling or thinking.

• Third-person point of view: the story is told by a narrative voice outside the action, not by one of the characters. • Third-person omniscient: the “all-knowing” point of view. The narrator sees into the minds of more than

one character. The characters are referred to by name of by the pronouns he, she, and they.

Polyptoton (pole LIP tuh than): repetition of words derived from the same root. “The Greeks are strong, and skillful to their strength. Fierce to their skill, and to their fierceness valiant.”

Polysyndeton: deliberate use of many conjunctions for special emphasis—to highlight quantity or mass of detail or to create a flowing, continuous sentence pattern. It also slows up the rhythm and produces an impressively solemn note. “The meal was huge—my mother fixed okra and green beans and ham and apple pie and green pickled tomatoes and ambrosia salad—but no matter how I tried, I could not consume it to her satisfaction.”

Propaganda: writing or images that seek to persuade through emotional appeal rather than through logical proof; written or visual texts that describe or depict using highly connotative words or images—favorable or unfavorable—without justification. “Roger’s infatuation with the model’s ruby red lips, beautiful teeth, sparkling eyes, and streaming hair made him believe that Optident is the best toothpaste.”

Propaganda Techniques:

• Bandwagon: a persuasive technique that attempts to get people to follow the crowd using the ad populum fallacy • Card or deck stacking: persuasive talk in which only the good side of the issue or person is presented.

Unfavorable facts are not presented and listeners will need additional information to make an informed decision. • Doublespeak: persuasive talk in which language is used purposefully to hide important facts, such as calling

slums or ghettos an “inner city community,” or calling a garbage collector a “sanitation engineer.” Doublespeak is closely aligned to using euphemisms.

• Glittering generalities: persuasive talk filled with such broad, polished generalities that they appear attractive and genuine, but often miss communicating anything of substance. People easily get caught up in generalities and the “fluff” of terms like patriotism, motherhood, apple pie, and American values.

• Loaded words: words that are slanted for or against a topic; words with strong positive or negative connotations. • Name calling (mud slinging): the propaganda approach in which bad labels or loaded words are attached to a

product or a person in an effort to get people to dislike intensely the object of viewer attention.

• Plain folks appeal: persuasive technique that features down-to-earth, everyday people supporting or sponsoring a cause, or using a selected product. The “every person” motif is believed to speak to larger segments of the viewing public.

• Positive association: a propaganda devise that equates the use of the product or the person with pleasurable experiences or intrinsic gratification.

• Rewards: the persuasive approach that attaches a pay off for participating, such as free gifts, a rebate, a toy enclosed, money off the next purchase, a reduced interest rate, or a change to be included in a drawing for big prizes.

• Snob appeal: a persuasive technique which counters the plain folks idea by appealing to people who want to become part of the elite, sophisticated, attractive crowd. Expensive clothing lines, certain car lines, and many cosmetic firms use this approach to attract customers. To do this means to be part of the “in” crowd.

• Testimonials: persuasive talk in which a celebrity or well-known figure is associated with the usage of the product, or is actively speaking on its behalf.

• Transfer: propaganda technique that attempts to win acceptance by association. Good feelings or prestige felt about one object or person are transferred to another object or person. (e.g., a fabric softener advertisement set in beautiful, clear scenery , implying freshness)

Prosody: study of sound and rhythm in poetry.

Protagonist: the main character, whether “good” or “bad.”

Pun: joke that comes from a play on words.

• Antanaclasis (an tuh NAK luh sis): repetition of a word in two different senses. “Your argument is sound, nothing but sound.”

• Paronomasia (pear uh no MAY zha): use of words alike in sound but different in meaning. “The end of the plain plane, explained.”

• Syllepsis: use of a word understood differently in elation to two or more other words, which it modifies or governs. “The ink, like our pig, keeps running out of the pen.” Grammatical structure is compatible with both of the words that it governs.

Repetition: technique in which a sound, word, phrase, or line is repeated for effect or emphasis.

Rhetoric: most often references the art of using words to persuade in writing or speaking. Although fiction writers do employ persuasion in their stories, the study of rhetoric most often applies to nonfiction essays.

Rhetorical Fragment: used deliberately for a persuasive purpose or to create a desired effect. “Something to consider.”

Rhetorical Question: requires no answer and is used to draw attention to a point and is generally stronger than a direct statement. “If Mr. Ferchoff is always fair, as you have said, why did he refuse to listen to Mrs. Baldwin’s argument?”

Rhetorical structure: loose, periodic, balanced and antithetical sentence structure.

Resolution: see falling action.

Rhyme: repetition of sounds in two or more words or phrases that appear close to each other in a poem. • End rhyme occurs at the end of lines.

• Internal rhyme occurs within the line • Slant rhyme is approximate rhyme

• Reverse rhyme occurs at the beginning of the word • Rhyme scheme is the pattern of end rhymes

Rising Action: refers to the events in a story that move the plot along by adding complications or expanding the conflict. Rising action usually builds suspense to a climax.

Round Character: one who shows many personality traits.

Sarcasm: harsh, cutting language/tone designed to ridicule. “Asked if he liked blue, Joel answered, ‘No, I hate it. That’s why I drive a blue car and wear mostly blue clothes.’”

Setting: the historical time and place and the social circumstances that create the world in which characters act and make choices. In other words, it is “the world of the work.” Readers who are sensitive to this world are better able to understand and judge the behavior of the characters and the significance of the action. The social circumstances of a story will often illuminate and provide insights into the meaning of a literary piece. If you accustom yourself to carefully reading the descriptions of setting and other background matters, your experience with the book will be that much richer, and you will soon grow aware of the reasons for the selection of detail. The setting can be revealed through the author’s use of details about one or more of the following:

• Geographic location—topography (landscape), scenery, room layout (type and position of furniture), buildings, stage set or design; the physical dimensions of the place.

• Cultural backdrop/social context/time period— occupation/working conditions, way of life, way of talking and behaving, clothing, gender roles, traditions, habits, attitudes, customs, beliefs, values, speech patterns, laws, past, present, future.

• Artificial environment—rooms, buildings, cities, towns, villages, futuristic settings, etc. • Props—tools, implements, gadgets, clothing/costumes, furniture

Shift: also called turn. Reference to a change or movement in a piece resulting from an epiphany, realization, or insight gained by the speaker, a character, or the reader.

Simile: a comparison between two unlike things using the words like or as. See also epic > epic simile.

Soliloquy: speech in which a character speaks thoughts aloud. Generally, the character is on the stage alone, not speaking to other characters and perhaps not even consciously addressing the audience.

Sound Devices: stylistic techniques that convey meaning through sound. Some examples are rhyme, assonance, consonance, alliteration, and onomatopoeia.

Static Character: one who remains the same throughout the story. This does not refer to things, such as aging, but to attitudes and to the way he or she views life.

Stereotype: simplified or stock characters who conform to a fixed pattern or are defined by a single trait. Such characters do not usually demonstrate the complexities of real people.

Stichomythia: dialogue in which the endings and beginnings of each line echo each other, taking on a new meaning with each new line. “Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended.” “Mother, you have my father much offended.”

Stock Character: see character.

Structure: framework or organization of a literary selection. • Fiction – plot and chapter divisions

• Drama – acts and scenes • Essay – organization of ideas

• Poetry – rhyme scheme and stanzaic form

Style: the overall manner in which an individual writer expresses ideas. “The assignment was for each student to rewrite the story ‘Goldilocks and the Three Bears’ in the style of a well-known author.”

Subjunctive: one of three moods of verbs. See details in verbs in the parts of speech section of your LN.

Syllepsis: See pun.

Syllogism: a logical argument in which a conclusion is based on a major premise and a minor premise. “We get paid on Friday. Tomorrow is Friday; therefore, we will get paid tomorrow.”

Symbol: person, place, activity, or object that stands for something beyond itself. There are two types of symbolism.

•

dove is conventionally used to represent peace by many different authors. “the dove – peace; the hawk – war” • Contextual symbol – those that are used to represent something specific in that one piece of literature. For

example, the scarecrow in A Tale of Two Cities represents the common people, but that only applies in that piece of literature.

Synaesthesia (sin ees THEE zia): a blending or confusion of different kinds of sense-impression, in which one type of sensation is referred to in terms more appropriate to another. Common synaesthetic expressions include the descriptions of colors as “loud” or “warm” and of sounds as “smooth.”

Synecdoche (si NECK duh key): using one part of an object to represent the entire object. “Sam finally traded in his old jalopy and got himself a new set of wheels.” Similar to metonymy, yet different, these examples may help you to see the difference.

• genus substituted for the species: vessel for ship, weapon for sword, creature for man, arms for rifles, vehicle for bicycle

• species substituted for the genus: bread for food, cutthroat for assassin

• part substituted for the whole: sail for ship, hands for helpers, roofs for houses

• matter for what is made from it: silver for money, canvas for sail, steel for sword

Syntax: arrangement of words and the order of grammatical elements in a sentence. “A single sentence in a Faulkner work can sometimes be longer than an entire page, but Steinbeck tends to use simpler, shorter sentences.”

Tautology: needless repetition which adds no meaning or understanding. “widow woman; free gift; close proximity”

Theme: main idea in a work of literature. It is a perception about life or human nature that the writer shares with the reader. In most cases, the theme is not stated directly but must be inferred. A statement of theme may, but does not usually, tell one how to live and should not be confused with a moral. There can be several themes in one literary work.

Tone: the attitude a writer takes toward a subject. Unlike mood, which is intended to shape the reader’s emotional response, tone reflects the feelings of the writer toward the topic about which he/she is writing. “sardonic, apologetic, light-hearted, somber.”

Tragedy: dramatic work that presents the downfall of a dignified character or characters who are involved in historically or socially significant events. The events in a tragic plot are set in motion by a decision that is often an error in judgment. Succeeding events are lined in a cause-and-effect relationship and lead inevitably to a disastrous conclusion, usually death.

Tragic Flaw: the defect of poor judgment, pride, weakness, or an excess of an admirable quality possessed by the tragic hero.

Understatement: the deliberate representation of something as less in magnitude than it really is. “‘This is quite a shower we’re having,’ said Noah, poking his head out the door of the ark.”

Voice: the relationship between the subject and verb of a sentence shown by using active or passive forms of the verb. See details in verbs in the parts of speech section of your LN.