1
Environmental Protection
and Transitions from Conflict
to Peace
Edited by
CARSTEN STAHN
JENS IVERSON
and
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom
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C.S.
For Kate, Freya, and Ada
J.I.
For many years, the Jus Post Bellum Project has updated and further enlightened prac-titioners and researchers on the theoretical framework and practical consequences of
jus post bellum and its link to sustainable peace. Within the context of this discourse, the environment and the exploitation of natural resources have not been the centre of attention.
In this volume, Carsten Stahn, Jens Iverson and Jennifer S. Easterday have chosen to focus on environmental protection as a more visible part of jus post bellum. This is an important and welcome choice. Not only is post bellum environmental protection
a conditio sine qua non for the rebuilding of a war- torn society, it is still an overlooked matter, only occasionally dealt with by the international community on a case- by- case basis. UN Environment (formerly UNEP) is doing crucial work through its Disasters and Conflicts programme, but as a UN program, it needs a mandate from States when choosing which steps to take — and those steps need to be financed. That said, we see a light on the horizon. In the recently proposed Global Pact for the Environment, the proposed Article 19 provides that “States shall take pursuant to their obligations under international law all feasible measures to protect the environment in relation to armed conflicts.”1
In an attempt to corroborate that post- war environmental protection is not solely a policy matter but also a legal matter, a seminar was arranged by the Jus Post Bellum Project in the Hague in 2014. I was privileged to attend that seminar and listen to the interesting and pioneering research presented. This volume is in part a further elabora-tion of some of the research presented there. But it also contains more recent research that assists us to deepen our understanding of this complex issue.
The result is a comprehensive and impressive volume that presents up- to- date research and comments on environmental protection of jus post bellum. It is fair to say that this volume is the first of its kind. It is needed and welcome.
Following an excellent and helpful introduction, the volume is divided into four parts: Foundations, Legal Norms and Frameworks, Tension and Dilemmas and Remedying and Preventive Damage and Harm. It contains valuable tables of legal cases, treaties and other documents as well as a list of abbreviations. It is a proper piece of aca-demic work. But it is more than that. It fills a gap.
When the United Nations International Law Commission (ILC) decided to place the topic Protection of the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflicts on its agenda, it did so as a result of a growing environmental apprehension among States, interna-tional organizations, such as the ICRC and civil society, the latter represented for exam-ple by the Environmental Law Institute. It was out of concern “that the environment
continues to be the silent victim of modern warfare” that UNEP and the Environmental Law Institute “undertook a joint assessment of the state of the existing legal framework protecting natural resources and the environment during armed conflict” in 2009. The result was the UNEP’s report, Protecting the Environment During Armed Conflict – An Inventory and Analysis of International Law (2009). The report suggested that the ILC “examine the existing international law for protecting the environment during armed conflict and recommend how it can be clarified, codified and expanded”.2
Although the title of the UNEP Report indicates that the focus of the report is envi-ronmental protection “during” armed conflict, the innovative approach of the report was to look at other areas than international humanitarian law, namely environmental law, human rights and international criminal law. While the report does not refer to jus post bellum, the references to the post- war consequences for the environment and natu-ral resources were plentiful. The jus post bellum was ever- present.
When the ILC takes up a new topic, it does so on the basis of its mandate. The focus must be on progressive development of international law or its codification. At the same time the Commission should not restrict itself to traditional topics, but should also consider those that reflect new developments in international law and pressing con-cerns of the international community as a whole. It was on this basis the Commission took up the topic of Protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict.
When I was appointed Special Rapporteur for the topic I suggested that the work should focus on three temporal phases: before, during and after armed conflict. It seemed to be the only practical way to move the topic forward. At the same time it was evident that the temporal phases could not be entirely separated from each other. The pre- conflict phase and the post- conflict phase had much in common if viewed through a legal lens. The “during armed conflict phase” was already regulated through the law of armed conflict. Even if the existing environmental protection was not strong enough, there was little prospect of modifying that particular body of law.
Concurrently the Commission had recognised that [t] he existence of an armed con-flict does not ipso facto terminate or suspend the operation of treaties as between States parties to the conflict or as between a State party to the conflict and a State that is not.3 The Commission had presented an indicative list of treaties that involves an implica-tion that they continue in operaimplica-tion, in whole or in part, during armed conflict.4 This list included treaties for the international protection of human rights, international protection of the environment, international watercourses and related installations and facilities, and treaties relating to aquifers and related installations and facilities among others. It was clear that the law applicable during armed conflict was wider than merely the lex specialis on the law of armed conflict. Legal principles and rules are often inter-linked throughout all phases of a conflict.
2 UNEP, Protecting the Environment During Armed Conflict – An Inventory and Analysis of International Law (2009), Recommendation 3, p. 53.
3 ILC, Draft articles on the effect of armed conflict on treaties, Article 3. Available at http:// legal.un.org/ docs/ ?path=../ ilc/ texts/ instruments/ english/ draft_ articles/ 1_ 10_ 2011.pdf&lang=EF, last accessed 31 July 2017.
From a more practical perspective every topic the ILC places on its agenda needs to be confined. It cannot cover all angles or all aspects. The ILC decided not to address root causes of armed conflict, natural resources, protection of cultural property per se, or peacebuilding, to give but a few examples. Many of these issues are dealt with by other UN bodies, such as the Security Council and the Peacebuilding Commission. It is still an open question whether the Commission will proceed to define “environment” or to address in more detail issues of liability and responsibility.
In addressing environmental protection in relation to armed conflicts, the pre- and post- armed conflict phases are of crucial importance. A post- war situation is legally complex: matters such as establishing the critical time and dates of conduct, clarifying applicable legal subjects, liability, responsibility, compensation, remediation, statutes of limitation — these are but a few matters that need to be addressed. At the same time it is obvious that the environment will not be repaired through a lengthy court proce-dure — as important as that may be. Innovative jus post bellum is required.
Sustainable peace cannot be achieved if environmental consequences are disre-garded. In this context, women play a crucial role and need to be actively involved. This is a matter of law and justice. This comprehensive volume will add to the debate, and provide a space for further discussions on approaches in transitions from conflict to peace. The contributions show that jus post bellum clearly links into the pre- conflict and during armed conflict phases. I envy those who have not yet read the book, but will shortly be enlightened by it.
Ambassador Marie G. Jacobsson Former Member of the United Nations International Law Commission
This volume is the continuation of a collaborative research effort led by the editors, known as the Jus Post Bellum Project. This project investigates whether and how a con-temporary jus post bellum may facilitate greater fairness and sustainability in conflict termination and peacemaking.
Many of the contributions grew out of expert seminars on jus post bellum and the environment organized by the Project at the Peace Palace in June 2014. The conference and the project were made possible by the kind support of the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) who provided the funding for this research through a Vidi grant for the Jus Post Bellum Project. The research is part of the broader research programme of the Leiden Law School on ‘Exploring the Frontiers of International Law’.
We would like to thank all contributors to this volume for their care, dedication, and efforts to provide fresh thinking on the theme of jus post bellum, and their openness to editorial suggestions. We would also like to express our gratitude to other individu-als who contributed to the creation of this volume, particularly Marie Jacobsson. This work would not be possible without the support of the Grotius Centre for International Legal Studies at Leiden University, which hosts the Project. In particular we would like to thank Jordan Hawthorne for her invaluable assistance.
At Oxford University Press we would like to thank Emma Endean- Mills and Merel Alstein for supporting this project and ensuring publication of this volume. We hope that this work will contribute to broader discourse and concrete improvements in envi-ronmental protection and transitions to peace.
Preface vii
Marie G. Jacobsson
Table of Cases xix
Table of Legislation xxv
Abbreviations xxxvii
List of Contributors xli
Introduction: Protection of the Environment and Jus Post Bellum:
Some Preliminary Reflections 1
Carsten Stahn, Jens Iverson, and Jennifer S. Easterday
I.1 State- of- the- Art 1
I.2 Jus Post Bellum and Environmental Protection 5 I.3 The ILC Draft Principles on the Protection of the Environment
in Relation to Armed Conflicts 11
I.4 Content of the Book 15
I.5 Not a Conclusion 24
I. FOUNDATIONS
1. Considerations in Framing the Environmental Dimensions
of Jus Post Bellum 29
Carl Bruch
1.1 Introduction 29
1.2 Jus Post Bellum and Environmental Peacebuilding 30
1.3 Challenges Ahead 38
2. Defining the Environment: Environmental Integrity 40
Cymie R. Payne
2.1 Introduction 40
2.2 The Classic Approach in International Law 44
2.3 Environmental Integrity 62
2.4 Lessons for Jus Post Bellum 68
II. LEGAL NORMS AND FRAMEWORKS
3. The Ability of Environmental Treaties to Address Environmental
Problems in Post- Conflict 73
Britta Sjöstedt
3.1 Introduction 73
3.2 Problems in Environmental Protection Work Related to Armed Conflicts 74 3.3 Environmental Treaties’ Alternative Approach 77
4. The Environment and Armed Conflict: Employing General Principles to
Protect the Environment 93
Kirsten Stefanik
4.1 Introduction 93
4.2 The Power of Principles: General Principles of International Law 95 4.3 The Role of General Principles in International Law 98
4.4 International Environmental Law 102
4.5 The Precautionary Principle 106
4.6 Precaution and Proportion: The Precautionary Principle Versus
International Humanitarian Law 113
4.7 Principles of IEL in Jus Post Bellum 115
4.8 Conclusion 117
5. Using a Framework of Human Rights and Transitional Justice
for Post- Conflict Environmental Protection and Remediation 119
Karen Hulme
5.1 Introduction 119
5.2 Post- Conflict Legal Frameworks 120
5.3 Environmental Damage as a Human Rights Issue 123 5.4 Environmental Damage as a Post- Conflict Human Rights Issue 126
5.5 Conclusions 141
6. The Law of Pillage, Conflict Resources, and Jus Post Bellum 143
Olivia Radics and Carl Bruch
6.1 Introduction 143
6.2 Background 146
6.3 The Law of Pillage and Jus Post Bellum 151 6.4 Conclusion: Alternative Avenues for Accountability and Prevention 167
7. Standard- setting Practices for the Management of Natural Resources in
Conflict- Torn States: Constitutive Elements of Jus Post Bellum 169
Daniëlla Dam- de Jong
7.1 Introduction 169
7.2 The Role of Natural Resources in Fuelling Armed Conflict
in West Africa and the DRC 170
7.3 Standards Developed in UN Security Council Resolutions 175 7.4 Implementation of Standards in the Mandates
of Peacekeeping Operations 185
7.5 Implementation of Standards in Management Reform Programmes 188
7.6 Lessons for Jus Post Bellum 190
8. Environmental Implications of Disarmament: The CWC Case 192
Ayṣe- Martina Böhringer and Thilo Marauhn
8.1 The CWC Obligation to Disarm 192
8.2 Environmental Implications of Chemical Disarmament 194
8.3 From Fragmentation to Integration 195
8.4 The Syrian Case 199
9. Legal Protection of the Environment: The Double Challenge of
Non- International Armed Conflict and Post- Conflict Peacebuilding 203
Dieter Fleck
9.1 Introduction 203
9.2 Environmental Obligations in Non- International Armed Conflict 205 9.3 Environmental Obligations Post- Conflict 215
9.4 Conclusions 218
10. Eco- Struggles: Using International Criminal Law to Protect the
Environment During and After Non- International Armed Conflict 220
Matthew Gillett
10.1 Introduction 220
10.2 Environmental Harm During and After Armed Conflicts 222 10.3 The Application of International Criminal Law to Environmental
Harm During Non- International Armed Conflicts 224 10.4 Extending Environmental Protections to Non- International
Armed Conflicts 234
10.5 Accountability for Environmental Harm as a Facet of Jus Post Bellum 248
10.6 Conclusion 252
III. TENSIONS AND DILEMMAS
11. Reparation for Environmental Damage in Jus Post Bellum:
The Problem of Shared Responsibility 257
Ilias Plakokefalos
11.1 Introduction 257
11.2 The Bundle of Primary Obligations and their Relevance to Shared
Responsibility and Reparation 259
11.3 Shared Responsibility and Reparation 265
11.4 Concluding Remarks 272
12. Conflict, Cash, and Controversy: Protecting Environmental Rights
in Post- Conflict Settings 274
Jennifer S. Easterday and Hana Ivanhoe
12.1 Introduction: Sustainable Development, Environmental
Protection, and Jus Post Bellum 274
12.2 Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Degradation 277 12.3 Ensuring Corporate Social Responsibility and Respect
for Human and Environmental Rights in Post- Conflict Countries 279 12.4 UN and International Financial Organizations 290 12.5 Challenges and Gaps in Existing Frameworks Addressing
Environmental Degradation Resulting from External Involvement
in Post- Conflict Settings 293
13. Private Security Companies and Other Private Security Service Providers (PSCs) and Environmental Protection
in Jus Post Bellum: Policy and Regulatory Challenges 299
Onita Das and Aneaka Kellay
13.1 Introduction 299
13.2 PSCs and Environmental Issues: An Overview 300 13.3 PSCs: Law and Policy and its Relevance to Environmental
Protection— an Overview 305
13.4 Law and Policy in Practice: Attaching Liability for PSC Wrongdoing 315
13.5 Conclusion 323
IV. REMEDYING AND PREVENTING DAMAGE AND HARM
14. Developments in the Law of Environmental Reparations:
A Case Study of the UN Compensation Commission 329
Cymie R. Payne
14.1 Introduction 329
14.2 Constitution of the UNCC and Choice of Civil or Criminal Law 333 14.3 Structure, Procedures, and Substantive Law 337 14.4 UNCC Environmental Reparations and Jus Post Bellum 360 14.5 What Jus Post Bellum Adds to Environmental Integrity 364
14.6 Conclusion 365
15. Victims of Environmental Harm During Conflict:
The Potential for ‘Justice’ 367
Merryl Lawry- White
15.1 Introduction 367
15.2 The Environmental Imperative 369
15.3 The Patchwork of Relevant Protections 371
15.4 The Parameters of Reparation 379
15.5 Implementation: Institutions, Considerations, and Precedents 387
15.6 Conclusions 394
16. Post- Conflict Mine Action: Environment and Law 396
Ursign Hofmann and Pascal Rapillard
16.1 Introduction: Nexus Between Peacebuilding, Mine Action,
and the Environment 396
16.2 Normative Framework 398
16.3 Environmental Impact of Remnants of Conflict on Land 404 16.4 Environmental Impact of Mine Clearance on Land 406 16.5 Measures to Ensure Mine Clearance on Land Does
No Harm to the Environment 408
16.6 Challenges and Ways to Address Liability for Environmental Degradation and Damage to Individuals from Remnants
of Conflict and their Removal 409
17. ‘After the War is Before the War’: The Environment, Preventive Measures Under International Humanitarian Law, and their
Post- Conflict Impact 420
Anne Dienelt
17.1 Introduction 420
17.2 Preventive Measures Under IHL 422
17.3 Preventive Measures Under IHL and their Post- Conflict Impact 431
17.4 Conclusion 436
18. Reframing the Remnants of War: The Role of the International Law
Commission, Governments, and Civil Society 438
Doug Weir
18.1 Introduction 438
18.2 Context 439
18.3 The Historic Decoupling of the Environment from Mine Action 440 18.4 The Emergence of the Toxic Remnants of War Framing 442 18.5 The ILC’s Draft Principle on the Toxic and Hazardous
Remnants of War 444
18.6 The ILC’s Other Post- Conflict Draft Principles that Intersect
with Toxic Remnants of War 450
18.7 Conclusion 453
n denotes a footnote reference
PERMANENT INTERNATIONAL COURTS
International Court Of Justice (ICJ)
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v Democratic Republic of the Congo), 19 June 2012, ICJ Reports 639 . . . .128n64
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, 26 February 2007, ICJ Reports 43 . . . 242n123, 270 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (DRC v Uganda), Judgment, 19 December
2005, ICJ Reports 168 . . . .123n29, 145, 147, 158– 9, 173– 4, 173n21, 231– 2, 237, 373, 376, 382 Case Concerning the Gabčikovo- Nagymaros Project (Hungary v Slovakia), Judgment, 25
September 1997, ICJ Reports 7 . . . 197, 354, 369, 379n69
Certain Activities carried out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v Nicaragua),
Judgment, 16 December 2015, ICJ Reports 358 . . . .197, 387 Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v Costa Rica),
Judgment, 16 December 2015, ICJ Reports 358 . . . .197, 387 Corfu Channel (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland v Albania) Merits
[1949] ICJ Rep 4 . . . 266, 415– 16 Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South
West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory
Opinion, 21 June 1971, ICJ 16 . . . .158 Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory,
Advisory Opinion, 9 July 2004, ICJ Reports 136 . . . .123n29, 361n209, 376n43
Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, 8 July 1996, ICJ Reports 1996 . . . 2n12, 9, 9n55, 16, 40– 1, 46, 68, 93– 4, 105, 123n29, 197,
229n53, 259– 60, 377, 378, 426 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v USA)
(Merits), Judgment of 27 June 1986, ICJ Reports 147 . . . .415– 16 North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany v Denmark; Federal
Republic of Germany v Netherlands) Judgment, 20 February 1969, ICJ Reports 3 . . . . 96, 96n20, 238n102
Nuclear Tests Case Order (New Zealand v France), Order, 22 September
1995 [1995] ICJ Rep 288 . . . .106, 112 Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v Uruguay), Judgment, 20 April 2010, ICJ
Reports 113 . . . 70, 112– 13, 197, 260n28, 379n69
Right of Passage Over Indian Territory (Portugal v India), Judgment, 12 April 1960, ICJ
Reports 6 . . . 100, 100n59
South- West Africa Cases (Ethiopia v South Africa; Liberia v South Africa), Judgment, 18 July 1966 (Second Phase) ICJ Reports 6 . . . 96
International Criminal Court (ICC)
Decision on the Prosecution’s Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan
Ahmad Al Bashir, ICC- 02/ 05– 01/ 09, 4 March 2009 . . . .126n56
Prosecutor v Katanga, Judgment Pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, Trial Chamber II,
ICC- 01/ 04- 01/ 07, 7 March 2014 . . . .165, 237 Prosecutor v Lubanga Dyilo, Judgment Pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, Trial
Chamber I, ICC- 01/ 04- 01/ 06- 2842, 14 March 2012 . . . .223, 224 Prosecutor v Lubanga Dyilo, Judgment, Appeals Chamber, ICC- 01/ 04- 01/ 06- 3129, 3
March 2015 . . . 384, 385– 386 Prosecutor v Mbarushimana, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges,
(ICC- 01/ 04- 01/ 10- 465- Red, Pre- T.Ch. I, 16 December 2011) 2 . . . .36n92
Prosecutor v Ntaganda, Public redacted version of Prosecutor’s Pre- Trial Brief,
Trial Chamber VI, ICC- 01/ 04- 02/ 06- 503- Conf- AnxA, 9 March 2015 . . . .223 Situation in Darfur, The Sudan, ICC- 02/ 05-152, Summary of Prosecution’s Application
under Article 58, 14 July 2008 . . . 225, 225n31, 226
International Tribunal of the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)
Advisory Opinion on Responsibilities and Obligations of States Sponsoring Persons and
Entities with Respect to Activities in the Area, ITLOS Reports, 1 February 2011 . . . 70
Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA)
Iron Rhine Railway (Belgium v Netherlands) (2005) 27 RIAA 35 . . . .113
Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ)
Case Concerning the Factory at Chorzow, PCIJ Series A No. 9, 26 July 1927 . . . .8– 9n49, 42, 265, 265n56, 352, 354, 380, 382 Diversion of Water from Meuse (Netherlands v Belgium), PCIJ Series A/ B No. 70, 28 June 1937 . . .97
World Trade Organization (WTO)
EC - Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products (Hormones) (Canada and United States v European Community), 16 January 1998, AB- 1997- 4, WTO Doc WT/ DS26/ AB/ R and WT/ DS48/ AB/ R . . . 108n123
AD HOC INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNALS
International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
Prosecutor v Boškoski, Case No. IT- 04- 82- T, Judgment, Trial Chamber, 10 July 2008 . . . .224 Prosecutor v Delalić et al, Case No. IT- 96- 21- T, Trial Judgment, 16 November 1998 . . . .147n32
Prosecutor v Furundžija, Case No. IT- 95- 17/ 1- T, Judgment, 10 December 1998 . . . .101, 102 Prosecutor v Karadžić, Case No. IT- 95- 5/ 18, Judgment, 24 March 2016 . . . .226n32
Prosecutor v Kunarać and Others, Case No. IT- 96- 23- A, Appeals Chamber, 12 June 2002 . . . .153 Prosecutor v Kupreškić, Case No. IT- 95- 16- T, Judgment, 14 January 2000 . . . 95 Prosecutor v Kupreškić, Case No. IT- 95- 16- T,Judgment, 14 January 2000 . . . 24n137, 97 Prosecutor v Naletelić and Martinović, IT- 98- 34- A, Judgment, Appeals Chamber, 3
May 2006 . . . .226n33
Prosecutor v Popović et al, Case No. ICTY- 05- 88, Trial Judgment, 10 June 2010 . . . .226n32
Prosecutor v Simic, Case No. IT- 95- 9- T, Judgment, 17 Oct 2003 . . . .147n27
Prosecutor v Tadić, Case No. IT- 94- I- AR72, Decision on the Defence Motion for
Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, Appeals Chamber, 2 October 1995 . . . 2n4, 13, 220nn1– 2, 228n42, 235n87, 243 Prosecutor v Tolimir, Case No. IT- 05- 88/ 2, Trial Judgment, 12 December 2012 . . . .226n32
Eritrea– Ethiopia Claims Commission
Partial Award: Western Front, Aerial Bombardment and Related Claims— Eritrea’s
Claims, 19 December 2005, RIAA XXVI, 291 . . . 373, 382– 3
International Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
Prosecutor v Barayagwiza et al, ICTR- 99- 52- T, Judgment and Sentence,
Trial Chamber I, 3 December 2003 . . . .160 Prosecutor v Musema, ICTR- 96- 13- A, Judgment and Sentence,
Trial Chamber I, 16 November 2001 . . . .160, 161 Prosecutor v Nahimana, ICTR- 99- 52- T, Judgment, Trial Chamber I, 3 December 2003 . . . .160
Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL)
Case Against New TV S.A.L. Karma Mohamed Tahsin Al Khayat, STL- 14- 05/ PT/ AP/ ARI26.1, Decision On Interlocutory Appeal Concerning Personal Jurisdiction In
Contempt Proceedings, 2 October 2014 . . . .224n25
Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL)
Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu
(the AFRC Accused), Judgment (SCSL- 04- 16- T, 20 June 2007) . . . .151 Prosecutor v Charles Ghankay Taylor, Judgment Summary, SCSL- 03- 1- T, 26 April 2012 . . . .161
International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg (and subsequent tribunals)
Hostages case (US v List et al), US Military Tribunal V, 19 February 1948 . . . .154n94
IG Farben case (US v Krauch et al), US Military Tribunal VI, 29 July 1948 . . . 147n29, 150, 150nn61– 2, 159, 160, 318– 19 In re Krupp and Others, US Military Tribunal, Judgment of 30 June 1948, 15 AD 620,
Case No. 214 . . . 155, 159, 160 Major War Criminals Trial, International Military Tribunal, 1 October 1946, 6
Fed. Rules Dec. (1947) 69 . . . .157 Trial of Alois and Anna Bommer and their Daughters, Permanent Military Tribunal,
Metz, 19 February 1947, 9 Law Report of Trials of War Criminals 64 . . . 160, 160n145
Trial of Erich Heyer and Six Others (Essen Lynching case), British Military Court for the Trial of War Criminals, Essen, 22 December 1945, 1 Law Reports
of Trials of War Criminals 88– 92 . . . 160n145
US v Flick et al, US Military Tribunal IV, 22 December 1947 . . . 157, 159, 160 Zyklon B case (Trial of Bruno Tesch and Two Others), British Military Court,
Hamburg, 8 March 1946, Law Report of Trials of War Criminals 93 . . . .161
Other Ad Hoc Tribunals
Lac Lanoux Arbitration (France v Spain), Arbitral Tribunal (1957)
12 RIAA 281, 24 ILR 101 . . . .61n114
Trail Smelter case (United States v Canada), Arbitral Tribunal, Montreal (1941) 3
RIAA 1907 . . . .18n114, 61n114, 196, 357, 379
REGIONAL COURTS
European Court of Human Rights
Akdivar et al v Turkey, Judgment, App no. 99/ 1995/ 605/ 693, ECtHR,1 April 1998 . . . 388n127
Al- Skeini and Others v the United Kingdom, App no. 55721/ 07, ECtHR, 7 July 2011 . . . .123n29
Oneryildiz v Turkey, App no. 48939/ 99, ECtHR, 30 November 2004 . . . .124 Taşkin and Others v Turkey, App no. 46117/ 99, ECtHR, 10 November 2004 . . . .136, 376
African Commission on Human Rights
COHRE (Sudan Human Rights Organisation & Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions) v Sudan, AHRLR 153, 27 March 2009 . . . 124, 135, 141 Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights and Interights v Egypt, AHRLR 90, 1 March 2011 . . . .135 SERAC (Social and Economic Rights Action Centre) and Another v Nigeria, Communication
no. 155/ 96 (Ogoni case), AHRLR 60, 27 October 2001 . . . . .124, 125, 135, 136, 309– 10, 377, 385
Inter- American Court of Human Rights
Case of the Plan de Sanchez Massacre v Guatemala, Judgment (Series C no. 105),
IACHR, 29 April 2004 . . . .376– 7 Case of the Saramaka People v Suriname (Series C no. 185), IACHR, 28
November 2007 . . . 136, 377, 393 Case of Velasquez- Rodriguez v Honduras (Series C no. 4), IACHR, 29 July 1988 . . . .381 Case of the Yakye Axa Indigenous Community v Paraguay (Series C no. 125),
IACHR, 17 June 2005 . . . .124 Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v Nicaragua, Judgment (Series C no. 79),
IACHR, 31 August 2001 . . . 376– 377 Rio Negro Massacres v Guatemala, Judgment (Series C no. 250), IACHR, 4
September 2012 . . . 384– 385
NATIONAL COURTS
Netherlands
Prosecutor v Kouwenhoven, Netherlands, LJN: AY5160, Rechtbank’s- Gravenhage,
09/ 750001- 05 (28 July 2006) . . . .160 Prosecutor v Van Anraat, Netherlands, LJN: BA6734, Gerechtshof’s- Gravenhage,
2200050906- 2 (9 May 2007) . . . .160
Pakistan
Shehla Zia v WAPDA, PLD, 1994 Supreme Court 693 . . . 111n157
Singapore
NV de Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschaap v The War Damage Commission, 23 ILR 810
(Court of Appeal, Singapore 1956) . . . 155, 155n101, 157
South Africa
Mazibuko and Other v City of Johannesburg and Others (06/ 13865) 30 April 2008,
ZAGPHC 491 . . . .132
United Kingdom
Rustomjee v The Queen (1876) II QBD 74 . . . 48n44, 359n192
United States
Doe v Unocal Corporation, US Federal District Court, 110 F. Supp. 2d. 1294
(C.D. Cal. 2000), Judgment of 31 August 2000 . . . .319 Fantham v RONCO (2011) 1:2011cv00762 (DC District Court, April 20 2011) . . . .418 Jobes v KBR, US District Court for the District of Maryland (5 April 2010) 7 . . . 303, 317– 18 Re KBR Inc Burn Pit Litigation, US District Court for the District of Maryland,
Re KBR Inc Burn Pit Litigation, US Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, no. 13- 143,
Judgment of 7 March 2014 . . . .317– 18 Presbyterian Church of Sudan v Talisman Energy, US District Court for the Southern
District of New York, 224 F.Supp.2d289, 19 March 2003 . . . .319 Presbyterian Church of Sudan v Talisman Energy, US Court of Appeals for the Second
Circuit, 582 F.3d 244, 2 October 2009 . . . .319 Vietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/ Dioxin et al v Dow Chemical Co. et al, 517
INTERNATIONAL LEGISLATION
INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS
Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision- making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters 1998 . . . .136, 344 Art 9(4) . . . 345 Additional Protocol I to the Geneva
Conventions 1977. . . 29, 46, 50– 2, 57, 63, 160n145, 219, 228, 239– 40,
261– 2, 422 Art 1 . . . 152– 3n83
(2) . . . 213, 224n24
Art 4(2)(g) . . . 148 Art 6 . . . 422n12, 423n19
Art 15 . . . 239– 40n108
Art 18 . . . .422n12
Art 33 . . . 420n3, 432n74
Art 34 . . . 420n3, 432n74
Art 35 . . . .3– 4, 4n22, 50– 1, 50– 1n56, 311, 404, 441– 2 (3) . . . . . 2, 16, 45, 52, 57– 8, 203, 206,
218, 229, 239– 40, 239n107, 243, 245, 247, 261, 307, 372, 399, 410, 424, 424n26, 425– 6, 425nn29– 30, 427, 435– 6, 437 Art 36 . . . 420n2, 421– 2, 422n12,
430– 1, 431n71, 433– 6, 437 (1) . . . 23 Art 43 . . . .422n12
Art 51 . . . 404 (1) . . . . . . 431n71
Art 52(2). . . 427 Art 53 . . . .307– 8 Art 54 . . . 2, 232n72, 373, 382 Art 55 . . . .3– 4, 4n22, 13, 16, 45,
50– 1n56, 51– 3, 55, 58– 9, 239n107, 243, 247, 307, 336– 7, 399,
424n26, 441– 2 (1). . . . . 51, 203, 206, 218,
229, 261, 372, 410, 423n16, 424, 425– 6, 427, 437
(2). . . . . 2, 51 Art 56 . . . .47, 47nn37– 8,
239– 40n108, 422n12
(1). . . . . .239– 40n108
(2). . . . . .239– 40n108
Art 57 . . . 421 Art 58 . . . .422n12
Art 59 . . . 23n132, 428– 9, 430 (2). . . . . 428 Art 60 . . . .23n132, 428, 429– 30,
431, 432– 3, 5437 Art 66 . . . .422n12
Art 74 . . . 420n3, 432n74
Art 78 . . . 420n3, 432n74
Art 79 . . . .422n12
Art 80 . . . .422n12
Art 81 . . . .422n12
Art 82 . . . 422n12, 423n19
Art 83 . . . .420n2, 422n12, 423n19
Art 84 . . . 422n12, 423n19
Art 85 . . . 239– 40n108, 420n3, 432n74
Art 86 . . . 420n3, 432n74
Art 87 . . . 420n3, 432n74
(2). . . . . 423n19
Art 88 . . . 420n3, 432n74
Art 89 . . . 420n3, 432n74
Art 90 . . . 420n3, 432n74
Art 91 . . . 251, 382, 420n3, 432n74
Annex I. . . .422n12
Annex II . . . .422n12
Additional Protocol II to the Geneva
Conventions 1977. . . .240, 373, 422 Preamble, para 4 . . . 213 Art 1(1). . . .207n14
Art 4(2)(g) . . . .207, 214 Art 14 . . . 207, 232– 3, 232n72
Antarctic Treaty 1959 . . . .238n101
Anti- Personnel Mine Convention
1997 . . . .2– 3n12, 11, 23, 137, 212, 401, 401n28, 410– 11, 417, 445 Art 5 . . . .138, 410 Art 6 . . . .410– 11 Art 7(1)(f) . . . 401 Art 8 . . . 410 Cartagena Plan of Action for 2010– 14. . . . 401
Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa 1991 . . . .197– 8 Barcelona Convention for the Protection
of the Mediterranean Sea Against
Pollution 1976 . . . 200 Basel Convention on the Control of
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their
Disposal 1989 . . . .197– 8 Protocol on Liability and
Compensation 1999. . . 198, 265– 6n59
Biodiversity Convention 1992 . . . 103n80, 275 Art 3 . . . .196n21
Charter of the International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg) 1945
Art 6(b). . . 148 Charter of the United Nations
1945 . . . .29, 175– 6 Art 24 . . . 175n27, 199 Art 41 . . . 176 Art 103 . . . 199 Chemical Weapons Convention
1993 . . . 2– 3n12, 18– 19, 192– 202, 262, 374 Art I . . . .193– 4 Art II. . . .193– 4 (5). . . . . 193n9
Art IV . . . .193– 4 (6). . . . . 194 (10). . . . . 195 (11). . . . 194– 5 (12). . . . . 194 (16). . . . 194 Art V. . . .193– 4 (11). . . . 195 Art VII . . . .193– 4 (3). . . . . 195 Annex on Implementation and
Verification . . . .193– 4 Pt IV(A) . . . 193– 4 para c.13 . . . 196 CITES (Convention of International Trade
in Endangered Species) 1973 . . . 105 Art 2(1). . . 74– 5n8
App 1. . . 74– 5n8
Cluster Munitions Convention
2010 . . . 23, 137– 8, 401, 401n28, 410– 11, 445 Art 2(2). . . .138n143
Art 3(2). . . 401 Art 4 . . . 410 (1). . . . . 11 (2). . . . . 138 (4). . . . . 11, 138 Art 5 . . . .410– 11 Art 6 . . . .410– 11 Art 7(1)(f) . . . 401 Art 8 . . . 410 Convention Concerning the Protection
of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage see World Heritage Convention 1972
Convention on Long- range Transboundary Air Pollution 1979 . . . 198 Art 2 . . . .378n59
Art 7 . . . .378n59
Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons 1980 (CCW). . . 62n116, 240– 1,
262, 374, 401, 442, 445 Preamble. . . .240n113
Art 1 . . . 241 Protocol II on the Use of Mines,
Booby- Traps and Other Devices (Amended 1996) . . . 374 Art 10 . . . .2– 3n12, 138 Protocol III on the Use of Incendiary
Weapons . . . .62n116
Art 2(4) . . . 240n113
Protocol V on Explosive Remnants
of War 2003. . . 401– 2, 447, 448, 449, 453 Convention on Supplementary
Compensation for Nuclear Damage 1997 Annex, Art 3(5). . . .214– 15 Convention on the Law of the
Non- Navigational Uses of
International Watercourses 1997 . . . 379 Convention on the Prohibition of
Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques see ENMOD Convention Convention on the Prohibition of
the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction
see Chemical Weapons Convention Convention on the Prohibition on the Use,
Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy 2004
Amending Protocol, Art 9 . . . .214– 15 Convention relative aux transports
internationaux ferroviaires 1980 . . . 198 ENMOD Convention 1977 . . . . 2, 16, 29, 45, 46, 47n37, 50, 57, 59– 60, 105, 206, 218, 219, 228, 244– 5, 262, 373– 4, 424, 425– 6, 442 Art 1 . . . 2n6, 53, 229, 245, 425– 6 (1). . . . . 203, 245n133
Art 2 . . . 53, 245n133
European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Inland
Waterways 2000 . . . .198– 9 European Agreement Concerning the
International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road 1957 . . . .198– 9 Framework Convention on Climate
Change . . . 275 Art 5 . . . 41 Art 91 . . . 41 Geneva Convention I for the Amelioration
of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field . . . 422 Art 47 . . . 420n2, 423n19
Geneva Convention II for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea . . . 422 Art 48 . . . 420n2, 423n19
Geneva Convention III relative to the
Treatment of Prisoners of War . . . 422 Art 127 . . . 420n2, 423n19
Geneva Convention IV relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War 1949 . . . .46, 373, 422 Art 15 . . . .23n132
Art 33 . . . 23n132, 148, 231n70
Art 53 . . . .23n132
Art 144 . . . 420n2, 423n19
Art 147 . . . 154n95, 307, 336, 375 Geneva Conventions I- IV
(Common Articles) . . . 160n145, 307 Art 2 . . . 152– 3n83, 422 Art 3 . . . 61– 2, 152– 3n83, 207n14, 413 (3). . . . . 212
see also Additional Protocol I; Additional Protocol II
Hague Convention IV respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land 1907 Art 3 . . . .214, 251, 382
Art 22 . . . .47n37
Hague Convention IX concerning Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War 1907 . . . 148 Hague Convention X for the Adaptation to
Maritime Warfare of the Principles of the Geneva Convention 1907 . . . 148 Art 21 . . . .148n40
Hague Declaration (IV, 3) concerning
Expanding Bullets 1899 . . . 212 Hague Regulations 1907, Annex to Hague
Convention IV . . . 46, 154– 8, 373 Art 22 . . . 47n37, 49n50
Art 23 . . . 47n37, 49n50
(g). . . . . 336 Art 25 . . . 49 Art 28 . . . .49, 148 Art 46 . . . 154n95, 155, 155n98
Art 47 . . . 148, 154n95, 231n70, 319 Art 52 . . . .154n95
Art 53 . . . 154n95, 156 (1). . . . . 155 Art 55 . . . .49, 49n51, 155– 7, 308n64
Art 56 . . . 49 International Convention on Civil Liability
for Oil Pollution Damage 1969. . . 379 Art 1(6). . . 265– 6n59
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966
(ICCPR) . . . 122n21, 128 Art 1(2). . . .236– 7 Art 4 . . . 376 Art 6 . . . .124, 309 Art 17 . . . 311 Optional Protocol I. . . 412 International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights
1966 (ICESCR) . . . .120, 128, 141 Art 1(2). . . .236– 7 Art 2(1). . . 130 Art 11 . . . 130, 132n93
(1). . . . . 123– 4 (2). . . . . 123 Art 12 . . . .124, 310 (2)(b) . . . 124, 133– 4 Optional Protocol . . . 128 Art 8(4) . . . 130 International Whaling Convention
1946 . . . 105 Iraqi Special Tribunal Statute 2003
Art 2(b)(17) . . . 149 Ottawa Convention 1997 see Anti-
Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare 1925 . . . .230n60
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance 1971. . . 68, 79, 89– 90, 378– 9 Art 3 . . . 83 Art 4(1). . . .83n52
Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development 1992 . . . .103nn81– 2,
275, 378n58
Principle 3 . . . .260n28
Principle 10 . . . .136, 344, 394 Principle 15 . . . .107, 108 Principle 17 . . . 136 Principle 18 . . . .356n173
Principle 24 . . . .2, 222 Rome Statute of the International Criminal
Court . . . 46, 57, 239n104, 252 Preamble. . . .234n79
Art 6 . . . 225 (c). . . . . 225 Art 7 . . . 226 (1)(k) . . . 226 Art 8(2). . . 213– 14, 220n2
(a)(iv) . . . 149 (b)(iv) . . . 16, 19– 20, 45, 52– 3,
52– 3n66, 58– 9, 145– 6, 221, 228– 30, 234, 237– 8, 237n97, 239– 40, 244, 245, 246– 7, 248, 253, 335n39, 375 (b)(xiii) . . . .149, 230n55, 232, 233 (b)(xvi) . . . . 149, 149n52, 151, 230n57, 231 (b)(xvii) . . . 230n58
(b)(xviii) . . . 230n59
(b)(xxv) . . . 232 (e). . . . . 234 (e)(v) . . . 149– 50, 149n52, 230, 231 (e)(xii) . . . 149, 230 (e)(xiii) . . . 230, 238n98
(e)(xiv). . . 230, 238n98
(e)(xv) . . . 238n98
(f). . . . . 224n24
Art 8 bis . . . .227– 8 (2)(a) . . . 227 Art 9(1). . . .149n56
Art 10 . . . 239 Art 12 . . . .224n24
Art 13 . . . .224n24
Art 25 . . . .251n167
(1). . . . . 159 (3). . . . . 161
Art 28 . . . .251n167
(a). . . . . 160– 1 (b). . . . . 160– 1 Art 38 . . . 45 (1). . . . . 95 (a). . . . . 95 (b). . . . . 95 (c). . . . . .95, 96– 7 (d). . . . . 95 Statute of the International Court of Justice
Art 38(1). . . 242 (d). . . . . 242n123
Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 1994
Art 3 . . . 375 (1). . . . . 226 Art 4(f) . . . 149 Art. . . . . 6 (1). . . . . 251n167
(3). . . . . 251n167
Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia 1993
Art 2(d). . . 375 Art 3 . . . 375 (e). . . . . 149 Art 5(i) . . . 226 Art 7
(1). . . . . 251n167
(3). . . . . 251n167
Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone 2002
Art 3(f) . . . 149 Stockholm Declaration on the Human
Environment 1972
para 1 . . . 124 Principle 1 . . . .124, 376 Principle 21 . . . 18– 19n114, 196 Principle 26 . . . 50 Tlatelolco Treaty for the Prohibition of
Nuclear weapons in Latin America 1967 . . . .238n101
Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere 1963 . . . .238n101
Treaty on the Prohibition of the Emplacement of Nuclear Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction on the Sea- Bed and the Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil Thereof 1971 . . . .238n101
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS). . . 200, 208– 9 Art 32 . . . .379n67
Art 60(3). . . 209 Art 194 . . . .356n173
(2). . . . . 208 (3). . . . . 208 (4). . . . . 196n21
Art 234 . . . 209 Art 236 . . . 208, 259n16
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 . . . 412 Art 3 . . . 309 Vienna Convention for the Protection of
the Ozone Layer 1985 . . . 107 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for
Nuclear Damage 1963 . . . .379n66
Amending Protocol, Art IV(3) . . . .214– 15 Art IV(3) . . . .214– 15 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969 Art 12(2). . . .248n151
Art 13(b). . . .248n151
Art 31(3). . . 101 Art 34 . . . .248n151
Waigani Convention to Ban the importation into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous wastes within the South Pacific Region . . . .198n34
World Heritage Convention 1972 . . . 4, 17, 57, 64n129, 74, 74n6, 77– 92, 378– 9 Art 2 . . . .50, 78 Art 4 . . . .78, 81 Art 5 . . . .81, 82 Art 6(3). . . .50, 78 Art 11
(2). . . . . 78 (4). . . . . 78– 9, 79n30
Art 13
(1). . . . . 84n57
(7). . . . . 87 Art 15 . . . 84 Art 22 . . . 84 Operational Guidelines . . . .80n34
UNITED NATIONS INSTRUMENTS Security Council Resolutions
Resolution 232 (1966) concerning an import ban on certain natural
resources . . . .176n29
Resolution 253 (1968) concerning an import ban on all commodities and products . . . .176n29
Resolution 660 (1990) on the Iraq- Kuwait situation . . . 330, 333n29
Resolution 661 (1990) on the Iraq- Kuwait situation . . . 330, 333n29
Resolution 674 (1990) on the Iraq- Kuwait situation . . . 330, 333n29
Resolution 678 (1990) on the Iraq- Kuwait situation . . . .333n29
Resolution 686 (1991) on the Iraq- Kuwait situation . . . 330, 333n29
Resolution 687 (1991) on the Iraq- Kuwait situation . . . 2, 2n8, 60– 1,
222, 262– 3, 270, 330, 333– 4, 337, 339, 340, 345, 347, 355– 6, 391– 2, 414– 15 para 16 . . . 354 para 18 . . . .334n32
para 19 . . . .340– 1 Resolution 692 (1991) on the Iraq- Kuwait
situation . . . 333 para 3 . . . 334n32, 337 Resolution 705 (1991) on Iraq. . . 353– 4n157
Resolution 788 (1992) on an arms embargo to Liberia . . . 177 Resolution 1173 (1998) concerning an
import ban on diamonds. . . .176n30
Resolution 1279 (1999) concerning the DRC 185 Resolution 1306 (2000) concerning an
import ban on diamonds from Sierra Leone . . . .176n30, 177n35, 178n37
Resolution 1343 (2001) concerning
Liberia . . . 171n9, 177– 8, 179 para 2(c) . . . 178 para 15 . . . 178 para 19 . . . 178 Resolution 1395 (2002) concerning
Liberia . . . 172n12, 178 Resolution 1408 (2002) concerning
Liberia . . . .178– 9 Resolution 1458 (2003) concerning
Liberia . . . .172n13
Resolution 1478 (2003) concerning
Liberia . . . 179 Resolution 1483 (2003) on the situation
between Iraq and Kuwait. . . 353– 4n157
Resolution 1493 (2003) concerning an arms embargo on the
DRC . . . 87n79, 181– 2 Resolution 1509 (2003) concerning
Liberia . . . .184– 5 Resolution 1521 (2003) concerning an
import ban on diamonds from
Resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the DRC . . . .182n68
Resolution 1569 (2005) concerning the DRC . . . .182n67
Resolution 1579 (2004) concerning
Liberia . . . .180– 1 para 3 . . . 180 Resolution 1607 (2005) concerning
Liberia . . . 180– 1, 185 Resolution 1647 (2005) concerning
Liberia . . . .172n16, 180– 1, 185, 189n113
Resolution 1689 (2006) concerning
Liberia . . . 181 Resolution 1698 (2006) concerning
the DRC . . . 182 Resolution 1753 (2007) concerning DRC . . . 181 Resolution 1756 (2007) concerning the
DRC . . . 184 para 2 . . . .186– 7 Resolution 1856 (2008) concerning the
DRC . . . .187, 223 para 4 . . . 187 Resolution 1857 (2008) concerning the DRC 182 Resolution 1896 (2009) concerning the
DRC . . . .182– 3 para 6 . . . .183n77
para 16 . . . .183n75
Resolution 1906 (2009) concerning the DRC 187 Resolution 1925 (2010) concerning the DRC 402 Resolution 1952 (2010) concerning the
DRC . . . .183, 187 para 7 . . . .183n79
para 16 . . . 187 Resolution 1961 (2010) concerning Liberia . 185 Resolution 1991 (2011) concerning the DRC
para 17 . . . 184n83, 187 Resolution 1996 (2011), Reports of the
Secretary- General on the Sudan. . . 403 Resolution 2021 (2011) concerning the
DRC . . . .175n25
Resolution 2053 (2012) concerning the DRC . . . 184 Resolution 2078 (2012) concerning the DRC
Preamble. . . .184n83
Resolution 2098 (2013) on the DRC. . . 188 para 14 . . . .188n107
Resolution 2118 (2013) on Syrian chemical weapons . . . .199– 201 Resolution 2136 (2014) concerning the
DRC . . . 175n26, 188 Resolution 2147 (2014) concerning the DRC
para 5 . . . .188n107
General Assembly Resolutions
Resolution 1803 (XVII), Declaration on Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, 14 December 1962 . . . .236– 7 Resolution 2675 (XXV), Basic Principles
for the Protection of Civilian Populations in Armed Conflict, 9
December 1970. . . .123n29
Resolution 2997 (XXVII) following the 1972 Rio Conference on the Human Environment, 12
December 1972. . . .434– 5 Resolution 3435 (XXX) establishing the
UNEP . . . 441 Resolution 31/ 72 (1976) on the ENMOPD
Convention . . . 105 Resolution 41/ 128, Declaration on the
Right to Development, 4
December 1986. . . 123 Resolution 45/ 94, ‘Need to Ensure a
Healthy Environment for the Well- being of Individuals,’
14 December 1990 . . . 119 Resolution 46/ 216, 20 December
1991 . . . .356n173
Resolution 47/ 37, Protection of the Environment in Times of Armed Conflict, 25 November
1992 . . . 244, 434n87
Resolution 47/ 151, International cooperation to mitigate the
environmental consequences resulting from the situation between Iraq and Kuwait, 18 December 1992 . . . .356n173
Resolution 49/ 50 (1994) on the UN Decade of International Law. . . 2 Resolution S- 19/ 2, Programme for the
Further Implementation of
Agenda 21, 19 September 1997. . . 108 Resolution 56/ 4 (2001) on the International
Day for Preventing the Exploitation of the Environment in War and Armed Conflict . . . 219 Resolution 60/ 147, Basic Principles and
Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, 16 December 2005. . . 383– 4, 385 Art 11 . . . 383 Art 12 . . . 252, 252n169
Resolution ES- 10/ 17 (2007), Establishment of the United Nations Register of
Damage . . . .68n150
Resolution 64/ 292, The Human Right to Water and Sanitation, 3 August 2010. . . 132 Resolution 69/ 212, Oil slick on Lebanese
shores, 29 December 2014. . . 222
World Heritage Committee Decisions
Decision 27 COM 7A.2, Doc.
WHC- 03/ 27.COM/ 24 . . . .87n80
Decision 28 COM 15A.3, Doc. WHC- 04/ 28/ COM/ 26 . . . .82, 87 Decision 30 COM 7A.4, Doc. WHC- 06/
30.COM/ 19 . . . 82 Decision 30 COM 7A.7, UN Doc.
WHC- 06/ 30.COM/ 1 . . . .87n80
Decision 34 COM 7A.4, Doc.
WHC- 10/ 34.COM/ 20 . . . .82– 3
Compensation Committee Decisions
Decision . . . 1, S/ AC.26/ 1991/ 1 337, 338n60
Decision 3, S/ AC.26/ 1991/ 3, 23
October 1991. . . .361n210
Decision 7, S/ AC.26/ 1991/ 7. . . 337– 8, 347, 349, 353 para 34 . . . 339 (b). . . . . 349 para 35 . . . .355– 6 (d). . . . . 355 para 37 . . . 345 Decision 10, S/ AC.26/ 1991/ 10
(Procedural Rules) . . . 338n60, 340 Art 6 . . . 337 Art 16 . . . 341 Arts 18- 27 . . . 341 Art 28 . . . 341 Art 30 . . . 344 Art 35(1). . . 345 Art 41 . . . 342 Decision 13, S/ AC.26/ 1991/ 13. . . 337 Decision 19, S/ AC.26/ 1991/ 19. . . 338, 338n58,
356– 7 Decision 46, S/ AC.26/ 1997/ 46. . . .345– 6 Decision 73, S/ AC.26/ 1999/ 73,
25 June 1999 . . . .353n156
Decision 100, S/ AC.26/ 2000/ 100,
19 June 2000 . . . .353n156
Decision 114, S/ AC.26/ Dec.114, 7
December 2000. . . 343 Decision 124, S/ AC.26/ 2001/ 124 . . . .343– 4 Decision 132, S/ AC.26/ Dec.132,
21 June 2001 . . . 359
Decision 226, S/ AC.26/ 2004/ 124 . . . 344 Decision 258, S/ AC.26/ Dec.258,
8 December 2005 . . . 360 Decision 269, S/ AC.26/ Dec.269, 7 April
2011 . . . 360 Decision 272, S/ AC.26/ Dec.272
(2014) . . . .353– 4 Decision 273, S/ AC.26/ Dec.273
(2015) . . . .353– 4
Intra- National Peace Accords
Abuja Peace Agreement 1995 . . . 171 Chapultepec Agreement between the
Government of El Salvador and the Frente Farabundo Mart í para la Liberacíon Nacional, 16 January 1992, A/ 46/ 864 116
Art 13 . . . .250n160
Art 17(12). . . .250n160
Colombian Peace Agreement, 2016 . . . . .122n23
Guatemalan Peace Agreements 1996 . . . 129 Lom é Accord (Peace Agreement between
the Government of Sierra Leone and the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone), S/ 1999/ 777 . . . 116 Northern Ireland Peace Agreement (Good
Friday Agreement), Belfast, 10 April 1998 . . . 116 Sun City Agreement (Final Act of the
Inter- Congolese Political
Negotiations), 2 April 2003 . . . 116
Rules/ Guidelines/ Other Miscellaneous Instruments
Basic Principles see General Assembly Resolution 60/ 147
Environment Assembly Resolution on the Protection of the Environment in Areas Affected by Armed Conflict, UN Doc. UNEP/ EA.2/ Res.15 . . . 450 Food and Agriculture Organization,
Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries . . . .111n157
Food and Agriculture Organization, Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of
Tenure. . . .282– 3 Human Rights Council, Draft of a Possible
Convention on Private Military and Security Companies . . . 311– 12, 323 Art 3
Art 10
(2). . . . . 311– 12 (3). . . . . 312 Human Rights Council, Ruggie
Framework on Business and
Human Rights. . . 21, 280– 2, 286, 287, 296– 7, 298 ICC Rules of Procedure and Evidence
r 94 . . . 385 r 98(3) . . . 385 r 98 ter. . . 385 r 105 . . . 385 r 106 . . . 385 International Ammunition Technical
Guidelines (IATG) . . . .403– 4 Guideline 10.10 . . . 404 International Mine Action Standards
(IMAS) . . . 417, 442n17
IMAS 4.10
Art 3.176 . . . 406 Art 3.249 . . . 417 IMAS 7.11
Art 11. . . 417, 418 IMAS 8.30
Art 4.4 . . . 417 IMAS 9.50 . . . 409 IMAS 10.70 . . . 408 Art 6.1 . . . 408– 9 IMAS 11.10 . . . 403 IMAS 11.20 . . . 403 Kimberley Process for the Certification of
Rough Diamonds . . . .172, 172– 3n18,
178– 9, 188– 9 Limburg Principles on the Implementation
of Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights (1987). . . 130 Non- Legally Binding Instrument on All
Types of Forests, UN Doc. A/ C.2/ 62/ L.5, 22 October 2007
Art III(4) . . . .189n112
Pinheiro Principles on Housing and Property Restitution for Refugees and Displaced Persons 2005 . . . 367– 8n7
Principles for Responsible Agricultural Investment in the Context of Food Security and Nutrition. . . .283– 4 Recommendations on the Transport of
Dangerous Goods— Model
Regulations . . . .199 Register of Damage, Rules And Regulations
Governing the Registration of Claims . . .330
Art 11 . . . .68n150
(1). . . . . 55 Secretary- General’s Bulletin Concerning
Observance of International Humanitarian Law by Forces under the command and control of the
United Nations 1999. . . .243– 4 s 1.1 . . . .243n126
s 6.3 . . . 243
SOFT LAW OF OTHER ORGANIZATIONS International Committee of the Red Cross
Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection of the Environment in Times of Armed
Conflict . . . 450 Handbook on International Rules
Governing Military Operations . . . .154n92
Montreux Document on international legal obligations relating to private military and security companies . . . 306,
308, 311, 312– 14, 323 Section E, Art 22 . . . 308 Study on Customary International
Humanitarian Law . . . .238, 244 r 8. . . . . 427 r 9. . . 427 r 36. . . 429 r 37. . . .428– 9 r 43. . . 261– 2, 373, 399, 426, 427 r 44. . . 19, 204, 208,
211, 238n101, 373, 399, 426, 427 r 45. . . 2n7, 3– 4n20, 238n101,
239, 247– 8, 247– 8n149, 373, 399, 413, 426, 427 r 142 . . . .423n19
r 150 . . . 381n76, 382
International Finance Corporation
Social and Environmental Performance Standards . . . .289– 90
International Institute of Humanitarian Law
San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts
International Law Commission
Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (ARSIWA) . . . .263– 4, 265– 6n59,
266– 7, 271, 322, 332n24, 380– 2, 410 Art 1 . . . 334 Art 2 . . . 334 Art 4 . . . 320 (2). . . . . 321 Art 5 . . . 320 Art 8 . . . 320 Art 16 . . . 242n123, 264 Art 21 . . . 260 Art 25 . . . 260 Art 30 . . . 352 Art 31 . . . .258, 265, 265n56, 266, 334, 352, 380, 380n72
Art 33 . . . 381 Art 34 . . . .214, 352 Art 35 . . . 352 Art 36 . . . .352, 354 Art 37 . . . 352 Draft Articles on the Effects of Armed
Conflict on Treaties 2011. . . .259– 60 Arts 3- 5. . . 378 Art 7 . . . 259, 430– 1 Annex . . . 378 Draft Articles on the Prevention of
Transboundary Harm Arising out of Hazardous Activities . . . 209– 10, 217 Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace
and Security of Mankind 1996 . . . 242 Draft Principles on the Allocation of Loss
in the Case of Transboundary Harm Arising out of Hazardous
Activities . . . .54, 217, 386 Principle 2(b). . . 16, 16n105
Principle 4 . . . .214, 386 Principle 6 . . . 214 Draft Principles on the Protection of
the Environment in Relation to
Armed Conflicts 2016 . . . .11– 15, 46n32, 204, 275, 405, 405n41, 439– 54 Principle 3 . . . .433, 445 Principle 4 . . . 12n76, 450 Principle 5 . . . .13, 428 Principle 7 . . . 12, 12n75, 451 Principle 8 . . . .12, 12n77
Principle 9 . . . 13, 427n44
Principle 10 . . . 13 Principle 12 . . . .13n81
Principle 13 . . . .13, 428
Principle 14 . . . 13– 14, 451– 2 Principle 15 . . . 14, 14n96, 452 Principle 16 (on Toxic and Hazardous
Remnants of War) . . . 14, 23, 402, 402n32, 438, 440, 445– 50, 453 Principle 17 . . . 452 Principle 18 . . . .452– 3
International Maritime Organization
International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code . . . 199
International Union for Conservation of Nature
Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories 2008. . . 54
OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development)
Guidelines for Multinational
Enterprises. . . .284– 5
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
Decision: Destruction of Syrian Chemical Weapons, EC- M- 33/ DEC.1, 27
September 2013. . . .199– 200 Decision, OPCW- United Nations Joint
Investigative Mechanism Reports on Chemical Weapons Use in the Syrian Arab Republic, EC- 83/ DEC.5, 11
November 2016. . . .200– 1 para 2 . . . .201n62
para 7 . . . .201n62
Harvard University, Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research
Harvard Manual on International Law Applicable to Air and Missile Warfare 2003
r 88 . . . 424 r 89. . . .209, 424
Industrial/ Financial Collaborative Initiatives
Equator Principles. . . 288, 288n72
International Code of Conduct for Private Security Service Providers. . . 308– 9,
314– 15, 323– 4 Preamble
Art 6 . . . 308 Art 16 . . . 316 Art 17 . . . 316 Art 19 . . . 316 Art 21 . . . 308 Art 62 . . . .314, 316 Art 64 . . . .314, 316 Art 69 . . . .314, 316 Voluntary Principles on Security and
Human Rights. . . 288– 9, 296– 7
REGIONAL LEGISLATION Regional Conventions
African Charter of Human and Peoples’ Rights 1981 (Banjul Charter)
Art 24 . . . 5n29, 125, 376, 377 African Convention on the Conservation
of Nature and Natural Resources
2003 . . . .241– 2 Art XV . . . 241, 241nn117– 18
American Convention on Human Rights 1969 Additional Protocol 1988. . . .5n29, 125 Art 63(1). . . 384 ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources 1985. . . . 105 EU Treaty (Treaty of Rome 1957) . . . 275 European Convention on Human Rights
and Fundamental Freedoms 1950
Art 8 . . . .125, 136 Art 41 . . . 384
EU Directives (in number order)
Council Directive 2004/ 35/ EC
(Environmental Liability Directive), OJ L143/ 56 (2004) . . . 56 Preamble. . . 354 Art 2(1). . . 354 Art 4(1). . . .214– 15 Art 6 . . . .214– 15 Council Directive 2006/ 21/ EC, OJ
L102 (2006) . . . 56, 56n90, 354n141
Council Directive 2009/ 31/ EC, OJ
L140 (2009) . . . 56n90, 354n141
Council Directive 2013/ 30/ EU, OJ L170 (2013) Preamble (14) . . . .56n90
Bilateral/ Trilateral Agreements
Agreement on the Application of IHL between the Parties to the Conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1992 (Serbia/ Croatia/ Bosnia). . . 243
Eritrea– Ethiopia Agreement, 12 December 2000, 2138 UNTS 94, 40 ILM 260. . . 329– 30 Luanda Accord 2002 (DRC/ Uganda) . . . 174 Pretoria Accord 2002 (DRC/ Rwanda) . . . 174
NATIONAL LEGISLATION Armenia
Penal Code 2003
Art 394 . . . .246n141
Australia
Criminal Code Act 1995, amended 2007 Chapter 8, § 268.38 . . . .247n146
Defence Doctrine Publication 6.4— Law of Armed Conflict, June 2006 . . . .245n138
ICC (Consequential Amendments) Act 2002 Schedule 1, § 268.38(2) . . . .247n146
Azerbaijan
Criminal Code 1999
Art 116.0.2 . . . .246n144
Belarus
Criminal Code 1999
Art 131 . . . .246n141
Belgium
Law relating to the Repression of Grave Breaches of International Humanitarian Law, 1993, amended 2003 Art. 1 ter . . . .247n145
Penal Code 1867, amended 2003 Chapter III, Title I bis, Art. 136
quater. . . .247n145
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Criminal Code 1998
Art 154(2). . . .246n142
Criminal Code 2003
Art 173(2). . . .246n142
Burundi
Law on Genocide, Crimes against Humanity and War Crimes 2003
Art 4(B)(d). . . .247n146
Canada
Crimes against Humanity and War Crimes Act 2000
s 4
(1). . . . . 247n145
Criminal Code, RSC 1985, C- 46
s 6. . . . . .111n148
Law of Armed Conflict Manual 1999. . .245n138
Cape Verde
Criminal Code 2003
Art 273 . . . .246n142
Chad
Instructor’s Manual 2006 . . . .245– 6
Colombia
Penal Code 2000
Art 164 . . . .246n142
Comoros
Decret n°12- 022/ PR du 04 12 2011 portant promulgation de la loi n°11- 020/ AU du 13/ 12/ 2011 portant mise en oeuvre du Statut de Rome
Art. 20(2) (iv). . . .247n146
Congo, Democratic Republic of the
Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity Act, Law No. 8- 98, 31 October 1998
Art 4(b). . . .247n145
Croatia
Criminal Code 1997
Art 158(2). . . .246n142
Denmark
Military Criminal Code 1973, amended 1978 § 25(1). . . .247n145
Military Criminal Code 2005
§ 36(2). . . .247n145
Estonia
Penal Code 2001
Art 104 . . . .246n142
Ethiopia
Criminal Code 2004
Art 270 . . . .246n142
Georgia
Criminal Code 1999
Art. 413(d) . . . .247n145
Germany
Law Introducing the International Crimes Code 2002
Art 1, § 12(3). . . . . .247n146
Greece
Law No. 3948/ 2011 on the adaptation of internal law to the provisions of the ICC Statute adopted by Law 3003/ 2002 (A’75), April 2011
Art 12(1)(c) . . . .246n144
Ireland
Geneva Conventions Act, 1962, amended 1998
s 4
(1). . . . . 247n145
(4). . . . . 247n145
Kazakhstan
Penal Code 1997
Art 161 . . . .246n141
Kyrgyzstan
Criminal Code 1997
Art 374 . . . .246n141
Mali
Penal Code 2001
Art 31(4). . . .246n142
Moldova, Republic of
Penal Code 2002
Art 136 . . . .246n141
Mongolia
Criminal Code 2002
Art 304 . . . .246n141
Montenegro, Republic of
Criminal Code 2004
Art 428(2). . . .246n142
Netherlands
International Crimes Act 2003
Art. 5(5)(b). . . .247n146
New Zealand
International Crimes and ICC Act 2000 s 11(2) . . . .247n145
Norway
Military Penal Code 1902, amended 1981 § 108(b) . . . .247n145
Panama
