MB0050 – Research Methodology Assignment Set – I
Q 1. Why should a manger know about research when the job entails managing people, products, events, environments, and the like?
The manager, while managing people, products, events, and environments will invariably face problems, big and small, and will have to seek ways to find long lasting effective solutions. This can be achieved only through knowledge of research even if consultants are engaged to solve problems.
The primary purpose for applied research (as opposed to basic research) is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. Research can use the scientific method, but need not do so. The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge, which takes three main forms (although, the boundaries between them may be fuzzy):
Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence.
The research room at the New York Public Library, an example of secondary research in progress. Research can also fall into two distinct types:
Primary research Secondary research
In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can be applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective of the research:
Qualitative research Quantitative research
Research is often conducted using the hourglass model Structure of Research. The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results.
Research and development is nowadays of great importance in business as the level of competition, production processes and methods are rapidly increasing. It is of special importance in the field of marketing where companies keep an eagle eye on competitors and customers in order to keep pace with modern trends and analyze the needs, demands and desires of their customers.
Unfortunately, research and development are very difficult to manage, since the defining feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, higher R&D spending does not guarantee “more creativity, higher profit or a greater market share.
Q2. a. How do you evolve research design for exploratory research? Briefly analyze. b. Briefly explain Independent dependent and extraneous variables in a research design.
Answer:
a. Research design in case of exploratory research studies Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working hypothesis from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data. Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are talked about:
1. The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypothesis stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research. It may also be considered whether the already stated hypothesis suggests new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others, but in cases where hypothesis have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the available material for deriving the relevant hypothesis from it. Besides, the bibliographical survey of studies, already made in one‟s area of interest may as well as made by the researcher for precisely formulating the problem. He should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in different research contexts to the area in which he is himself working. Sometimes the works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for hypothesis formulation as such may be looked into by the researcher.
2. Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience with the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. For such a survey, people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of experience. The respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the investigator. The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of informants. But the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents should be allowed to raise issues and questions which the investigator has not previously considered. Generally, the experience of
collecting interview is likely to be long and may last for few hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to be discussed to the respondents well in advance. This will also give an opportunity to the respondents for doing some advance thinking over the various issues involved so that, at the time of interview, they may be able to contribute effectively. Thus, an experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help in the formulation of the research hypothesis. This, survey may as well provide information about the practical possibilities for doing different types of research.
3. Analyses of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples are also a fruitful method for suggesting hypothesis for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as a guide. This method consists of the intensive study of selected instance of the phenomenon in which one is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if nay, may be examined, the unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach may be adopted. Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the main features which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights. Now, what sorts of examples are to be selected and studied? There is no clear cut answer to it. Experience indicates that for particular problems certain types of instances are more appropriate than others. One can mention few examples of „insight-stimulating‟ cases such as the reactions of strangers, the reactions of marginal individuals, the study of individuals who are in transition from one stage to another, the reactions of individuals from different social strata and the like. In general, cases that provide sharp contrasts or have striking features are considered relatively more useful while adopting this method of hypothesis formulation. Thus, in an exploratory of formulative research study which merely leads to insights or hypothesis, whatever method or research design outlined above is adopted, the only thing essential is that it must continue to remain flexible so that many different facets of a problem may be considered as and when they arise and come to the notice of the researcher.
b. Dependent and Independent variables: A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values, like height, weight, income, etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of objectivity. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute considered. Phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known as „continuous variables‟. But, all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called „non-continuous variables‟. In statistical term, they are also known as „discrete variable‟. For example, age is a continuous variable; where as the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one variable depends upon the changes in one or more other variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the independent variable.
And if, more variables determine demand, like income and prices of substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to the own price. Then, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent variables like own price, income and price of substitute.
2. Extraneous variable: The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is relationship between children‟s school performance and their self-concepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, the dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent variable is technically called as an „experimental error‟. Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependent variable completely influences the change in the independent variable and any other extraneous variable or variables.
Q3. A. Differentiate between ‘Census survey’ and ‘ Sample Survey’. b. Analyze multi-stage and sequential sampling.
Answer:
Surveys are done all over the world to collect information from the populace to arrive at conclusions that help in improving the products or services of a company. There are many techniques of survey out of which sample survey and census survey are very popular. Though there are many similarities between these two methods, there are many differences in features and also the results obtained. It depends upon time available and other circumstances to engage in either of the two types of surveys. This article will discuss the features of two types of surveys to clear the doubts in the minds of the readers.
Before we begin to differentiate, it is pertinent to note that sample is a portion of the population whereas census takes into consideration everyone in the population. This obviously means that a census survey is a much bigger exercise in nature and procedures than a sample survey. Census survey also is a very time consuming exercise as information needs to be collected from each and every individual from the population. On the other hand, sample survey is easier as a representative sample is taken from the population and the results obtained are extrapolated to fit the entire population.
There are times and requirements where governments have to indulge in census survey even if it is time consuming and very expensive as it needs to formulate policies and welfare programs for the population. For example, when a government has to count heads of the population, it cannot conduct a sample survey to count the number of people in the country. But when government is planning on a welfare program for cancer patients, it can conduct a sample survey of some of the cancer patients and then extrapolate the results on the section of the population that is undergoing treatment for cancer.
There are errors in sampling in case of sample survey which can be minimized but never eliminated. Therefore the results of a sample survey always have a margin for error whereas census survey is always accurate. However, many times, it is not possible to carry out census survey which is when sample survey is undertaken.
b. In multi-stage sampling method, sampling is carried out in two or more stages. The population is regarded as being composed of a number of second stage units and so forth. That is, at each stage, a sampling unit is a cluster of the sampling units of the subsequent stage. First, a sample of the first stage sampling units is drawn, then from each of the selected first stage sampling unit, a sample of the second stage sampling units is drawn. The procedure continues down to the final sampling units or population elements. Appropriate random sampling method is adopted at each stage. It is appropriate where the population is scattered over a wider geographical area and no frame or list is available for sampling. It is also useful when a survey has to be made within a limited time and cost budget. The major disadvantage is that the procedure of estimating sampling error and cost advantage is complicated.
Double sampling refers to the subsection of the final sample form a pre-selected larger sample that provided information for improving the final selection. When the procedure is extended to more than two phases of selection, it is then, called multi-phase sampling. This is also known as sequential sampling, as sub-sampling is done from a main sample in phases. Double sampling or multiphase sampling is a compromise solution for a dilemma posed by undesirable extremes. “The statistics based on the sample of ‘n’ can be improved by using ancillary information from a wide base: but this is too costly to obtain from the entire population of N elements. Instead, information is obtained from a larger preliminary sample nil which includes the final sample n.
Q 4. List down various measures of central tendency and explain the difference between them?
Answer:
Measures of Central Tendency
Analysis of data involves understanding of the characteristics of the data. The following are the important characteristics of a statistical data: -
Central tendency Dispersion Skew ness Kurtosis
In a data distribution, the individual items may have a tendency to come to a central position or an average value. For instance, in a mark distribution, the individual students may score marks between zero and hundred. In this distribution, many students may score marks, which are near to the average marks, i.e. 50. Such a tendency of the data to concentrate to
the central position of the distribution is called central tendency. Central tendency of the data is measured by statistical averages. Averages are classified into two groups.
1. Mathematical averages 2. Positional averages
Arithmetic mean, geometric mean and harmonic mean are mathematical averages. Median and mode are positional averages. These statistical measures try to understand how individual values in a distribution concentrate to a central value like average. If the values of distribution approximately come near to the average value, we conclude that the distribution has central tendency.
Arithmetic Mean
Arithmetic mean is the most commonly used statistical average. It is the value obtained by dividing the sum of the item by the number of items in a series. Symbolically we say
Arithmetic mean = ∑X/n
Where ∑X = the sum of the item N = the number of items in the series.
If x1 x2 x3… xn are the values of a series, then arithmetic mean of the series obtained by (x1 + x2 + x3… +xn) / n. If put (x1 + x2 + x3… +xn) = ∑X,
then arithmetic mean = ∑X/n
When frequencies are also given with the values, to calculate arithmetic mean, the values are first multiplied with the corresponding frequency. Then their sum is divided by the number of frequency. Thus in a discrete series, arithmetic mean is calculated by the following formula.
Arithmetic mean = ∑fx/ ∑f
Where,∑fx = sum the values multiplied by the corresponding frequency. ∑f = sum of the frequency
If x1 x2 x3… xn are the values of a series, and f1 f2 f3… fn are their corresponding frequencies,
Arithmetic mean is calculated by (f1 x1 + f2 x2 + f3x3… + fn xn) / (f1 + f2 + f3… + fn) or Arithmetic mean = ∑fx / ∑f
Geometric Mean
Geometric mean is defined as the nth root of the product of N items of a series. If there are two items in the data, we take the square root; if there are three items we take the cube root, and so on.
Symbolically,
Where x1, x2. ..xn are the items of the given series. To simplify calculations, logarithms are used.
Accordingly,
GM = Anti log of (∑log x /n) In discrete series
GM = Anti log of ∑ f . log x / ∑ f
Harmonic Mean In individual series HM = N / ∑ (1/x) In discrete series HM = N / ∑f (1/m) N = Total frequency M = Mi values of the class
Median
Median is the middlemost item of a given series. In individual series, we arrange the given data according to ascending or descending order and take the middlemost item as the median. When two values occur in the middle, we take the average of these two values as median. Since median is the central value of an ordered distribution, there occur equal number of values to the left and right of the median.
Individual series
Median = (N+ 1 / 2) th item
To find the median of a grouped series, we first of all, cumulate the frequencies. Locate median at the size of (N+ 1) / 2 th cumulative frequency. N is the cumulative frequency taken.
Steps
1. Arrange the values of the data in ascending order of magnitude. 2. Find out cumulative frequencies
3. Apply the formula (N+ 1) / 2 th item
4. Look at the cumulative frequency column and find the value of the variable corresponding to the above.
Median for Continuous Series
To find the median of a grouped series, with class interval, we first of all, cumulate the frequencies. Locate median at the size of (N) / 2 th cumulative frequency. Apply the interpolation formula to obtain the median
Median = L1 + (N/2 – m) / f X C L1 = Lower limit of the median Class N/2 = Cumulative frequency/ 2
m = Cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class f = frequency of the median class
C = Class interval
Merits of Median
1. Median is easy to calculate and simple to understand.
2. When the data is very large median is the most convenient measure of central tendency. 3. Median is useful finding average for data with open-ended classes.
4. The median distributes the values of the data equally to either side of the median. 5. Median is not influenced by the extreme values present in the data.
6. Value of the median can be graphically determined.
Demerits of Median
To calculate median, data should be arranged according to ascending order. This is tedious when the number of items in a series is numerous.
Since the value of median is determined by observation, it is not a true representative of all the values.
Median is not amenable to further algebraic treatment. The value of median is affected by sampling fluctuation. Mode
Mode is the most repeating value of a distribution. When one item repeats more number of times than other or when two items repeat equal number of times, mode is ill defined. Under such case, mode is calculated by the formula (3 median – 2 mean).
Mode is a widely used measure of central tendency in business. We speak of model wage which is the wage earned by most of the workers. Model shoe size is the mostly demanded shoe.
Merits of Mode
Mode is the most typical and frequented value of the distribution. It is not affected by extreme values.
Mode can be determined even for series with open-ended classes. Mode can be graphically determined.
Demerits of Mode
1. It is difficult to calculate mode when one item repeats more number of times than others. 2. Mode is not capable of further algebraic treatment.
3. Mode is not based on all the items of the series.
Q.5. Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both secondary and primary sources to gather the required information.
Answer:
Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected e.g., collection of data directly by the researcher on brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behaviour from a sample of consumers by interviewing them. Primary data are first hand information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing etc.
Advantage of Primary Data It is original source of data
It is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time. It flexible to the advantage of researcher.
Extensive research study is based of primary data Disadvantage of Primary Data
1. Primary data is expensive to obtain 2. It is time consuming
3. It requires extensive research personnel who are skilled. 4. It is difficult to administer.
Methods of Collecting Primary Data
Primary data are directly collected by the researcher from their original sources. In this case, the researcher can collect the required date precisely according to his research needs, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science research required data are not available from secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources.
In such cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary data have to be gathered. They include: socio economic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social institutions. Marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm managements studies, business management studies etc.
There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is different from a ‘Tool’ while a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instruments used for the method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are (a) observation, (b) interviewing, (c) mail survey, (d) experimentation, (e) simulation and (f) projective technique.
These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily compendia and already compiled statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studies e.g., census reports , annual reports and financial statements of companies, Statistical statement, Reports of Government Departments, Annual reports of currency and finance published by the Reserve Bank of India, Statistical statements relating to Co-operatives and Regional Banks, published by the NABARD, Reports of the National sample survey Organization, Reports of trade associations, publications of international organizations such as UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and Financial journals newspapers etc. Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished records. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by the firms and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, register of members, minutes of meetings, inventory records etc.
Features of Secondary Sources
Though secondary sources are diverse and consist of all sorts of materials, they have certain common characteristics.
First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of constructing tools and administering them.
Second, they consist of data which a researcher has no original control over collection and classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources are shaped by others. Clearly, this is a feature which can limit the research value of secondary sources.
Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher using them need not have been present when and where they were gathered.
Use of Secondary Data
The second data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some specific information from secondary sources may be used for reference purpose. For example, the general statistical information in the number of co-operative credit societies in the country, their coverage of villages, their capital structure, volume of business etc., may be taken from published reports and quoted as background information in a study on the evaluation of performance of cooperative credit societies in a selected district/state.
Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of research may be tested, e.g., the findings of a local or regional survey may be compared with the national averages; the performance indicators of a particular bank may be tested against the corresponding indicators of the banking industry as a whole; and so on.
Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a research project. Such studies as securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysis of companies, Trade in credit allocation in commercial banks, sociological studies on crimes, historical studies, and the like, depend primarily on secondary data. Year books, statistical reports of government departments, report of public organizations of Bureau of Public Enterprises, Censes Reports etc, serve as major data sources for such research studies.
Q 6. a. Explain the role of Graphs and Diagrams?
b. What are the Types and General rules for graphical representation of data? Answer:
In presenting the data of frequency distributions and statistical computations, it is often desirable to use appropriate forms of graphic presentations. In additions to tabular forms, graphic presentation involves use of graphics, charts and other pictorial devices such as diagrams. These forms and devices reduce large masses of statistical data to a form that can be quickly understood at the glance. The meaning of figures in tabular form may be difficult for the mind to grasp or retain. “Properly constructed graphs and charts relieve the mind of burdensome details by portraying facts concisely, logically and simply.” They, by emphasizing new and significant relationship, are also useful in discovering new facts and in developing hypothesis.
The device of graphic presentation is particularly useful when the prospective readers are non-technical people or general public. It is useful to even technical people for dramatizing certain points about data; for important points can be more effectively captured in pictures than in tables. However, graphic forms are not substitutes for tables, but are additional tools for the researcher to emphasize the research findings.
Graphic presentation must be planned with utmost care and diligence. Graphic forms used should be simple, clear and accurate and also be appropriate to the data. In planning this work, the following questions must be considered.
(a) What is the purpose of the diagram? (b) What facts are to be emphasized?
(c) What is the educational level of the audience?
(d) How much time is available for the preparation of the diagram? (e) What kind of chart will portray the data most clearly and accurately?
b. Types of Graphs and General Rules
The most commonly used graphic forms may be grouped into the following categories: a) Line Graphs or Charts
b) Bar Charts c) Segmental presentations. d) Scatter plots e) Bubble charts f) Stock plots g) Pictographs h) Chesnokov Faces
The general rules to be followed in graphic representations are: 1. The chart should have a title placed directly above the chart.
2. The title should be clear, concise and simple and should describe the nature of the data presented.
3. Numerical data upon which the chart is based should be presented in an accompanying table.
4. The horizontal line measures time or independent variable and the vertical line the measured variable.
5. Measurements proceed from left to right on the horizontal line and from bottom to top on the vertical.
6. Each curve or bar on the chart should be labelled.
7. If there are more than one curves or bar, they should be clearly differentiated from one another by distinct patterns or colours.
8. The zero point should always be represented and the scale intervals should be equal. 9. Graphic forms should be used sparingly. Too many forms detract rather than illuminating the presentation.
10. Graphic forms should follow and not precede the related textual discussion.
MB0050 – Research Methodology Assignment Set- 2
Q 1. What is questionnaire? Discuss the main points that you will take into account while drafting a questionnaire?
Answer:
Understanding how to phrase questions. Being sensitive to questionnaire length.
There are some basic differences in how the questionnaire should be constructed if it is to be filled out personally by the respondent or if an interviewer is going to administer it. These are:
Self-administered questionnaires should be simple, straightforward and logical
It has been estimated that as many as 50% of respondents who start a self-administered questionnaire will not complete it because they become irritated and annoyed at the way it is constructed. When writing a self-administered questionnaire, then, every care must be taken to ensure that it is easy to complete In that it almost answers itself.
Self-administered questionnaires should be written with an eighth grade mentality in mind while interviewer-administered questionnaire can be quite complex.
Because inter viewers are trained in the flow of the questionnaires they administer and will conduct a number of practice interviews prior to confronting a respondent, developing a complex questionnaire that is interviewer-administered does not present a problem for the respondent.
Keep the respondent in one mind-set at a time. If at all possible, complete all your questions about on e topic before moving on to the next. For example, don’t ask about favorite place to shop, then about brands used and then go back to additional questioning on favorite place to shop.
Save sensitive questions for the end. Again, this might not always be possible, but when it doesn’t matter, be aware that sensitive questions such as race or income can alienate respondents and turn them off to the entire interview process. If asked at the end, respondents are more likely to answer as they are wholly invested in the questionnaire. Biased question: What do you like about the last airline flight you took? Assumption here is that respondent liked something and the question tends to push for a positive response.
Unbiased question. What, if anything, do you like the last airline flight you took? By simply using if anything as part of the question phrasing, the respondent is not put on the spot to find something to like
When conducting telephone interviews, it’s relatively easy to keep respondents on the phone and Answering questions for 15, 20 or 25 minutes if the questionnaire has a good flow and is
thoughtfully written. But try keeping a respondent on the phone for 3 minutes with a questionnaire that is the least bit confusing, seems redundant or is insensitive to sensitive issues.
Q 2. What do you mean by primary data? What are the various methods of collecting primary data?
Answer:
Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected e.g., collection of data directly by the researcher on brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behaviour from a sample of consumers by interviewing them. Primary data are first hand information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing etc.
Advantage of Primary Data It is original source of data
It is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time. It flexible to the advantage of researcher.
Extensive research study is based of primary data Disadvantage of Primary Data
1. Primary data is expensive to obtain 2. It is time consuming
3. It requires extensive research personnel who are skilled. 4. It is difficult to administer.
Methods of Collecting Primary Data
Primary data are directly collected by the researcher from their original sources. In this case, the researcher can collect the required date precisely according to his research needs, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science research required data are not available from secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources.
In such cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary data have to be gathered. They include: socio economic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social institutions. Marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm managements studies, business management studies etc.
There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is different from a ‘Tool’ while a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instruments used for the method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are (a) observation, (b) interviewing, (c) mail survey, (d) experimentation, (e) simulation and (f) projective technique.
Q 3.a. Analyze the case study and descriptive approach to research. [5 marks]. b. Distinguish between research methods & research Methodology
Answer:
Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit or entity, be it a person, a family, an institution or a community. The aim of case study method is to locate or identify the factors that account for the behaviour patterns of a given unit, and its relationship with the environment. The case data are always gathered with a view to attracting the natural history of the social unit, and its relationship with the social factors and forces operative and involved in this surrounding milieu. In short, the social researcher tries, by means of the case study method, to understand the complex of factors that are working within a social unit as an integrated totality. Looked at from another angle, the case study serves the purpose similar to the clue-providing function of expert opinion. It is most appropriate when one is trying to find clues and ideas for further research.
The major credit for introducing case study method into social investigation goes to Frederick Leplay. Herbert Spencer was the first social philosopher who used case study in comparative studies of different cultures. William Healey used case study in his study of juvenile delinquency. Anthropologists and ethnologists have liberally utilized cast study in the systematic description of primitive cultures. Historians have used this method for portraying some historical character or particular historical period and describing the developments within a national community.
Research design in case of descriptive research studies :
Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, where as diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else. The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are the example of diagnostic research studies. As against this, studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual group of situation are all examples of descriptive research studies. Most of the social research comes under this category. From the point of view of the research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common requirements and as such we may group together these two types of research studies. In descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of population he wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information in the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. The research design must make enough provision for protection against
bias and must maximize reliability. With due concern for the economical completion of the research study, the design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the following:
1. Formulating the objective of the study 2. Designing the methods of data collection 3. Selecting the sample
4. Collecting the data
5. Processing and analyzing the data 6. Reporting the findings.
b. Distinguish between research methods & research Methodology
Research Methods and Research Methodology are two terms that are often confused as one and the same. Strictly speaking they are not so and they show differences between them. One of the primary differences between them is that research methods are the methods by which you conduct research into a subject or a topic. On the other hand research methodology explains the methods by which you may proceed with your research.
Research methods involve conduct of experiments, tests, surveys and the like. On the other hand research methodology involves the learning of the various techniques that can be used in the conduct of research and in the conduct of tests, experiments, surveys and critical studies. This is the technical difference between the two terms, namely, research methods and research methodology.
In short it can be said that research methods aim at finding solutions to research problems. On the other hand research methodology aims at the employment of the correct procedures to find out solutions.
It is thus interesting to note that research methodology paves the way for research methods to be conducted properly. Research methodology is the beginning whereas research methods are the end of any scientific or non-scientific research.
Let us take for example a subject or a topic, namely, ‘employment of figures of speech in English literature’. In this topic if we are to conduct research, then the research methods that are involved are study of various works of the different poets and the understanding of the employment of figures of speech in their works.
On the other hand research methodology pertaining to the topic mentioned above involves the study about the tools of research, collation of various manuscripts related to the topic, techniques involved in the critical edition of these manuscripts and the like.
If the subject into which you conduct a research is a scientific subject or topic then the research methods include experiments, tests, study of various other results of different experiments performed earlier in relation to the topic or the subject and the like.
On the other hand research methodology pertaining to the scientific topic involves the techniques regarding how to go about conducting the research, the tools of research, advanced techniques that can be used in the conduct of the experiments and the like. Any student or research candidate is supposed to be good at both research methods and research methodology if he or she is to succeed in his or her attempt at conducting research into a subject.
Q 4. Explain the important concepts in Research design? Answer:
Meaning of Research Design
The research designer understandably cannot hold all his decisions in his head. Even if he could, he would have difficulty in understanding how these are inter-related. Therefore, he records his decisions on paper or record disc by using relevant symbols or concepts. Such a symbolic construction may be called the research design or model. A research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study. It specifies the objectives of the study, the methodology and techniques to be adopted for achieving the objectives. It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions. The plan is the overall scheme or program of research. A research design is the program that guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting observations. It provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow elltiz, Jahoda and Destsch and Cook describe, “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”
It is important to be familiar with the important concepts relating to research design. They are:
1. Dependent and Independent variables:
A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values, like height, weight, income, etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of objectivity. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute considered. Phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known as „continuous variables‟. But, all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called „non-continuous variables‟. In statistical term, they are also known as „discrete variable‟. For example, age is a continuous variable; where as the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one variable depends upon the changes in one or more other variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable,
and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the independent variable.
And if, more variables determine demand, like income and prices of substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to the own price. Then, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent variables like own price, income and price of substitute.
2. Extraneous variable:
The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is relationship between children‟s school performance and their self-concepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, the dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent variable is technically called as an „experimental error‟. Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependent variable completely influences the change in the independent variable and any other extraneous variable or variables.
3. Control:
One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of extraneous variable. Technically, the term control is used when a researcher designs the study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous independent variables. The term control is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions.
4. Confounded relationship:
The relationship between dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.
Research hypothesis:
When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement which relates a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable. Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not be tested are predictive statements that are not to be objectively verified are not classified as research hypothesis.
When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as „control group‟. On the other hand, when the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an „experimental group‟. In the afore-mentioned example, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group B an experimental one. If both the groups A and B are exposed to some special feature, then both the groups may be called as „experimental groups‟. A research design may include only the experimental group or the both experimental and control groups together.
Treatments:
Treatments are referred to the different conditions to which the experimental and control groups are subject to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the parents with regular earnings and those with no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study attempts to examine through an experiment regarding the comparative impacts of three different types of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types of fertilizers would be treated as the three treatments.
Experiment:
An experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance, experiment may be conducted to examine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be categorized into two types namely, absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the experiment is known as a comparative experiment.
Experiment unit:
Experimental units refer to the predetermined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which the different treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such experimental units must be selected with great caution.
Q 5. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of data collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or interviewing would be more appropriate
Answer:
Collection of data is the most crucial part of any research project as the success or failure of the project is dependent upon the accuracy of the data. Use of wrong methods of data collection or any inaccuracy in collecting data can have significant impact on the results of a study and may lead to results that are not valid. There are many techniques of data collection along a continuum and observation and interviewing are two of the popular methods on this continuum that has quantitative methods at one end while qualitative methods at the other end. Though there are many similarities in these two methods and they serve the same basic purpose, there are differences that will be highlighted in this article.
Observation
Observation, as the name implies refers to situations where participants are observed from a safe distance and their activities are recorded minutely. It is a time consuming method of data collection as you may not get the desired conditions that are required for your research and you may have to wait till participants are in the situation you want them to be in. Classic examples of observation are wild life researchers who wait for the animals of birds to be in a natural habitat and behave in situations that they want to focus upon. As a method of data collection, observation has limitations but produces accurate results as participants are unaware of being closely inspected and behave naturally.
Interviewing
Interviewing is another great technique of data collection and it involves asking questions to get direct answers. These interviews could be either one to one, in the form of questionnaires, or the more recent form of asking opinions through internet. However, there are limitations of interviewing as participants may not come up with true or honest answers depending upon privacy level of the questions. Though they try to be honest, there is an element of lie in answers that can distort results of the project.
Though both observation and interviewing are great techniques of data collection, they have their own strengths and weaknesses. It is important to keep in mind which one of the two will produce desired results before finalizing.
Q 6.Strictly speaking, would case studies be considered as scientific research? Why or why not?
Answer:
The case study is the most flexible of all research designs, allowing the researcher to retain the holistic characteristics of real-life events while investigating empirical events.
In general, a case study is an empirical inquiry which:
Investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context: when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used.
Case studies are only one of many ways of doing social science research, with experimentation, observation, surveys and archival information (as mentioned above) each suited to a certain type of research problem, degree of experimenter control over events and historical/contemporary perspective and focus.
What are case studies? By design, case studies usually take as their principal subject selected examples of a social entity within its normal context. At the simplest level, the case study provides descriptive accounts of one or more cases, yet can also be used in an intellectually rigorous manner to achieve experimental isolation of one or more selected social factors within a real-life context. Robert Yin tried to define a case study, as part of his defense of the method, as an attempt to examine:
(a) a contemporary phenomenon in its real life context, especially when; (b) the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.
Despite the popular misconception that case studies are limited to qualitative analysis they can use both qualitative and/or quantitative information.
In this section we will compare the use of case studies and other research methods, look at the different types of case studies, and the different types of case information used.
Earlier (in the early to mid 20th century) research"with an n of one" (meaning one subject in the test) was common. Then social science got into numbers and percentages and such, and the case study fell away as not useful enough to learn from.
However, especially in the "soft" sciences (psychology, sociology, anthropology, ethology, etc.) that have to do with people rather than formulas or numbers or the like, case studies can be helpful and important, especially if they are well-constructed, or longitudinal, or are in depth on their topic.
A carefully controlled case study would generally be considered research, even careful research, but not generally scientific research. One of the reasons is that the subjects are not randomly assigned to conditions. Many case studies are post hoc.
Many case studies are dependent on subject reporting of experiences.
It is very difficult to do statistical analysis on case studies, which usually do not have many subjects involved.
MB0051: Legal Aspects of Business Assignment Set – I
Q.1 Distinguish between fraud and misrepresentation. Answer:
Fraud : A false representation of a matter of fact - whether by words or by conduct, by false or misleading allegations, or by concealment of what should have been disclosed - that deceives and is intended to deceive another so that the individual will act upon it to her or his legal injury.
Fraud is commonly understood as dishonesty calculated for advantage. A person who is dishonest may be called a fraud. In the U.S. legal system, fraud is a specific offense with certain features.
In criminal law, a fraud is an intentional deception made for personal gain or to damage another individual; the related adjective is fraudulent. The specific legal definition varies by legal jurisdiction. Fraud is a crime, and also a civil law violation. Defrauding people or entities of money or valuables is a common purpose of fraud, but there have also been fraudulent "discoveries", e.g., in science, to gain prestige rather than immediate monetary gain.
Fraud means and includes any of the following acts committed by a party to a contract with intent to deceive the other party thereto or to induce him to enter into a contract:
(i) The suggestion as a fact of that which is not true by one who does not believe it to be true;
(ii) Active concealment of a fact by one having knowledge or belief of the fact; (iii) Promise made without any intention of performing it;
(iv) Any other act fitted to deceive;
(v) Any such act or omission as the law specifically declares to be fraudulent.
Misrepresentation
Misrepresentation is also known as simple misrepresentation whereas fraud is known as fraudulent misrepresentation. Like fraud, misrepresentation is an incorrect or false statement but the falsity or inaccuracy is not due to any desire to deceive or defraud the other party. Such a statement is made innocently. The party making it believes it to be true. In this way, fraud is different from misrepresentation.
In the broadest sense, a fraud is an intentional deception made for personal gain or to damage another individual. The specific legal definition varies by legal jurisdiction. Fraud is a crime, and is also a civil law violation.
Fraud for profit involves industry professionals. There are generally multiple loan transactions with several financial institutions involved. These frauds include numerous gross misrepresentations including: income is overstated, assets are overstated, collateral is
overstated, the length of employment is overstated or fictitious employment is reported, and employment is backstopped by conspirators. The borrower's debts are not fully disclosed, nor is the borrower's credit history, which is often altered. Often, the borrower assumes the identity of another person (straw buyer). The borrower states he intends to use the property for occupancy when he/she intends to use the property for rental income, or is purchasing the property for another party (nominee). Appraisals almost always list the property as owner-occupied. Down payments do not exist or are borrowed and disguised with a fraudulent gift letter. The property value is inflated (faulty appraisal) to increase the sales value to make up for no down payment and to generate cash proceeds in fraud for profit.
Misrepresentation is a contract law concept. It means a false statement of fact made by one party to another party, which has the effect of inducing that party into the contract. For example, under certain circumstances, false statements or promises made by a seller of goods regarding the quality or nature of the product that the seller has may constitute misrepresentation. A finding of misrepresentation allows for a remedy of rescission and sometimes damages depending on the type of misrepresentation.
Q.2 What are the remedies for breach of contract. Answer:
When someone breaches a contract, the other party is no longer obligated to keep its end of the bargain. From there, that party may proceed in several ways:
(i) The other party may urge the breaching party to reconsider the breach;
(ii) If it is a contract with a merchant, the other party may get help from consumers’ associations;
(iii) The other party may bring the breaching party to an agency for alternative dispute resolution;
(iv) The other party may sue for damages; or (v) The other party may sue for other remedies.
Rescission of the contract: When a breach of contract is committed by one party, the other party may treat the contract as rescinded. In such a case the aggrieved party is freed from all his obligations under the contract.
Damages: Another relief or remedy available to the promisee in the event of a breach of promise by the promisor is to claim damages or loss arising to him there from. Damages under Sec.75 are awarded according to certain rules as laid down in Secs.73-74. Sec.73 contains three important rules: (i) Compensation as general damages will be awarded only for those losses that directly and naturally result from the breach of the contract. (ii) Compensation for losses indirectly caused by breach may be paid as special damages if the party in breach had knowledge that such losses would also follow from such act of breach. (iii) The aggrieved party is required to take reasonable steps to keep his losses to the minimum.
The most common remedy for breach of contracts: The usual remedy for breach of contracts is suit for damages. The main kind of damages awarded in a contract suit are ordinary damages. This is the amount of money it would take to put the aggrieved party in as good a position as if there had not been a breach of contract. The idea is to compensate the aggrieved party for the loss he has suffered as a result of the breach of the contract.
In addition to the rights of a seller against goods provided in Secs.47 to 54, the seller has the following remedies against the buyer personally. (i) suit for price (Sec.55); (ii) damages for non-acceptance of goods (Sec.56); (iii) suit for interest (Sec.56).
Suit for price
Where under a contract of sale the property in the goods has passed to the buyer and the buyer wrongfully neglects or refuses to pay the price, the seller can sue the buyer for the price of the goods. Where the property in goods has not passed to the buyer, as a rule, the seller cannot file a suit for the price; his only remedy is to claim damages.
Suit for damages for non-acceptance
Where the buyer wrongfully neglects or refuses to accept and pay for the goods, the seller may sue him for damages for non-acceptance. Where the property in the goods has not passed to the buyer and the price was not payable without passing of property, the seller can only sue for damages and not for the price. The amount of damages is to be determined in accordance with the provisions laid down in Sec.73 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872. Thus, where there is an available market for the goods prima facie, the difference between the market price and the contract price can be recovered.
Suit for interest
When under a contract of sale, the seller tenders the goods to the buyer and the buyer wrongfully refuses or neglects to accept and pay the price, the seller has a further right to claim interest on the amount of the price. In the absence of a contract to the contrary, the court may award interest at such rate as it thinks fit on the amount of the price. The interest may be calculated from the date of the tender of the goods or from the date on which the price was payable. It is obvious that the unpaid seller can claim interest only when he can recover the price, i.e., if the seller’s remedy is to claim damages only, then he cannot claim interest.
Buyer’s remedies against seller
The buyer has the following rights against the seller for breach of contract: (i) damages for non-delivery (Sec.57);
(ii) right of recovery of the price; (iii) specific performance (Sec.58); (iv) suit for breach of condition;
(v) suit for breach of warranty (Sec.59); (vi) anticipatory breach (Sec.60);
(vii) recovery of interest (Sec.61).
Q.3 Distinguish between indemnity and guarantee. Answer:
Indemnity and guarantee are two important ways to safeguard ones interests when entering into a contract. There are many similarities between the two concepts though they differ a lot also.
Distinction between a contract of guarantee and a contract of indemnity:
L.C. Mather in his book ‘Securities Acceptable to the Lending Banker’ has brought out the distinction between indemnity and guarantee by the following illustration. A contract in which A says to B, “If you lend Rs. 1 Lac to C, I will see that your money comes back” is an indemnity. On the other hand undertaking in these words, “If you lend 1 Lac to C and he does not pay you, I will pay” is a guarantee. Thus, in a contract of indemnity, there are only two parties, indemnifier and indemnified. In case of a guarantee, on the other hand, there are three parties, the ‘principal debtor’, the ‘creditor’ and the ‘surety’.
A guarantee is a promise to someone that a third party will meet its obligation to them. “If they do not pay you, I will pay you”. An indemnity is a promise to be responsible for another person’s loss and to agree to compensate them for any loss or damage on mutually agreed terms. For example, one agrees to pay the difference of repairs if they exceed a certain limit.
Other points of difference are:
Indemnity Guarantee
Comprise only two parties- the indemnifier and the indemnity holder.
There are three parties namely the surety, principal debtor and the creditor.
Liability of the indemnifier is primary.
The liability of the surety is secondary. The surety is liable only if the principal debtor makes a default. The primary liability being that of the principal debtor.
The indemnifier need not necessarily act at the request of the indemnified.
The surety give guarantee only at the request of the principal debtor
The possibility of any loss happening is the only contingency against which the indemnifier undertakes to indemnify.
There is an existing debt or duty’ the performance of which is guarantee by the surety.
The indemnifier cannot proceed against third parties in his own name, unless there is an assignment in his favour.
After discharging the debt, the surety is entitled to proceed against the principal debtor in his own name.
Q.4 What is the distinction between cheque and bill of exchange. Answer:
Bill of exchange
A ‘bill of exchange’ is defined by Sec.5 as ‘an instrument in writing, containing an unconditional order, signed by the maker, directing a certain person to pay a certain sum of money only to or to the order of, a certain person, or to the bearer of the instrument’.
Cheques
A cheque is the usual method of withdrawing money from a current account with a banker. Savings bank accounts are also permitted to be operated by cheques provided certain minimum balance is maintained. A cheque, in essence, is an order by the customer of the bank directing his banker to pay on demand, the specified amount, to or to the order of the person named therein or to the bearer. Sec.6 defines a cheque. The Amendment Act 2002 has substituted new section for Sec.6. It provides that a ‘cheque’ is a bill of exchange drawn on a specified banker and not expressed to be payable otherwise than on demand and it includes the electronic image of a truncated cheque and a cheque in the electronic from.
Check Bill of Exchange
It is drawn on a banker It may be drawn on any party or individual. It has three parties - the drawer, the
drawee, and payee.
There are three parties - the drawer, the drawee, and the payee.
It is seldom drawn in sets Foreign bills are drawn in sets It does not require acceptance by the
drawee.
It must be accepted by the drawee before he can be made liable to pay the bill
Days of grace are not allowed to a banker
Three days of grace are always allowed to the drawee.
No stamp duty is payable on checks Stamp duty has to be paid on bill of exchange.
It is usually drawn on the printed It may be drawn in any paper and need not necessarily be printed.
Q.5 Distinguish between companies limited by shares and companies limited by guarantee.
Answer:
Companies Limited by Shares:
When the liability of the members of a company is limited up to the unpaid value of their shares, it is called a limited liability company or a company limited by shares. This liability or unpaid amount may be called up at any time during the life time of the company or at the time of its winding up. Such a company must have share capital since the extent of liability is determined on the basis of the face value of shares. This company may be a public company or a private company.
Companies Limited by Guarantee:
The liability of a member in these companies is limited to the amount undertaken to be contributed by him at the time of winding up of the company. The amount of guarantee is mentioned in the memorandum of association. Such companies are formed for non-trading purposes such as charity, promotion of sports, science, art, culture etc. These companies may or may not have any share capital. If these companies do not have any share capital, the members can be required to pay the amount of guarantee undertaken by them and that too in the event of liquidation. But if these companies have any share capital, the members are liable to pay the amount which remains unpaid on their shares together with the amount payable under the guarantee. A company limited by guarantee and having a share capital may be a public company or a private company.
Q.6 What is the definition of cyber crime. Answer:
Cyber crime refers to all the activities done with criminal intent in cyberspace or using the medium of Internet. These could be either the criminal activities in the conventional sense or activities, newly evolved with the growth of the new medium. Any activity, which basically offends human sensibilities, can be included in the ambit of Cyber crimes. Because of the anonymous nature of Internet, it is possible to engage in a variety of criminal activities with impunity, and people with intelligence, have been grossly misusing this aspect of the Internet to commit criminal activities in cyberspace. The field of cyber crime is just emerging and new forms of criminal activities in cyberspace are coming to the forefront each day. For example, child pornography on Internet constitutes one serious cyber crime. Similarly, online pedophiles, using Internet to induce minor children into sex, are as much cyber crimes as any others.
Categories of cyber crimes:
Cyber crimes can be basically divided in to three major categories:
1. Cyber crimes against persons; 2. Cyber crimes against property; and 3. Cyber crimes against government.
1. Cyber crimes against persons:
Cyber crimes committed against persons include various crimes like transmission of child-pornography, harassment of any one with the use of a computer and cyber stalking.
The trafficking, distribution, posting, and dissemination of obscene material including pornography, indecent exposure, and child pornography constitute the most important cyber crimes known today. These threaten to undermine the growth of the younger generation and also leave irreparable scars on the minds of the younger generation, if not controlled. Similarly, cyber harassment is a distinct cyber crime. Various kinds of harassments can and do occur in cyberspace, or through the use of cyberspace. Harassment can be sexual,
