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MAKING THE MOVE: TRANSITIONING FROM JUNIOR HIGH TO HIGH SCHOOL

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of

California State University, Stanislaus

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Education

By Osiris Morales

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CERTIFICATION OF APPROVAL

MAKING THE MOVE: TRANSITIONING FROM JUNIOR HIGH TO HIGH SCHOOL By Osiris Morales Dr. Susan M. Neufeld Professor of Education Dr. Juan Flores

Professor of Teacher Education

Date

Date Signed Certification of Approval Page is

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© 2014 Osiris Morales ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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iv DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my mom. Mom, thank you for the sacrifice you made to provide me with the opportunities you did not have. Thanks to you, I was able to achieve my goals. I also dedicate this thesis to my daughter who is and will always be my inspiration. Kenya, I hope that I have been a good role model for you and that you will also strive to reach your dreams and goals. Always look forward, never give up! I also want to dedicate this thesis to all the students that have been part of my life in the last eight years, all of you impacted my life in a way that has helped me grow as a teacher, but most importantly, as a person. Remember, dreams do come true, so always dream big!

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v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Several people helped this journey be more manageable and without their help and support this thesis would have not been finished, therefore, they deserve to be recognized. I want to thank my husband for all the support, the encouragement, and for pushing me to continue when I wanted to give up. I especially want to thank my daughter, for being patient, understanding and for giving me ideas when I could not write. You both are the greatest gifts life has given me. I love you! I also want to thank my sister, my nephews, my niece, my mom, and my brothers for cheering me on and for letting me know they believed in me.

I want to recognize and thank a special person who will forever have my gratitude, Dr. Susan Neufeld. Dr. Neufeld, thank you for all the great advice and support you gave me to complete this thesis. You were a blessing because without you, I would have not been able to accomplish this goal. Thank you for believing in me, your desire to improve the lives of your students is an inspiration.

There is one more person I especially want to thank, my friend and colleague Liliana Lara; thank you for encouraging me to pursue this goal. You are a great role model for students and colleagues; I hope we continue to work together for many years.

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vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Dedication ... iv

Acknowledgements ... v

List of Tables ... viii

Abstract ... ix

CHAPTER I. Introduction ... 1

Statement of the Problem ... 1

Significance of the Problem ... 4

Purpose of the Study ... 5

Research Questions ... 5

Definition of Terms... 6

Summary ... 6

II. Review of the Literature ... 8

Middle School Composition, Which is Better 6-8 or K-8? ... 8

The Transition into High School... 18

Importance of Parental Involvement ... 21

Hispanic Population and Parental Involvement ... 25

Ninth Grade Success and High School Graduation ... 31

Intervention Programs as Dropout Prevention ... 37

The Consequences of Dropping Out ... 40

Summary ... 43 III. Methodology ... 45 Participants ... 45 Procedure ... 46 Data Analysis ... 47 Summary ... 47 IV. Results ... 49

Results for Challenges Encountered by Students ... 50

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vii

Results for 8th Grade Preparation ... 55

Results for Support Provided by High School Teachers ... 57

Summary ... 60

V. Discussions and Recommendations ... 62

Summary ... 62 Discussion ... 64 Recommendations ... 65 Conclusion ... 70 References ... 73 Appendices A. Teacher Consent Letter ... 82

B. Student Survey ... 83

C. Parent or Guardian Consent Letter ... 84

D. Student Consent Letter ... 86

E. Survey for High School Teachers ... 88

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viii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

1. Student Response to Questions 1-6... 51

2. How 8th Grade Teachers Prepare Students Going into 9th Grade ... 52

3. What Worries You in High School? ... 53

4. How 9th Grade Students Felt About Their Grades ... 53

5. Time 9th Graders Spend on Homework or Studying ... 54

6. Findings: 8th Graders’ Preparation for High School ... 58

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ix ABSTRACT

The transition from middle school to high school presents many students with challenges that affect their academic performance and overall success in their first year of high school, due to their lack of success; many students become disengaged and eventually drop out of high school before tenth grade. This study researched the major challenges ninth grade students encountered in their transition from middle school to high school, and how those challenges affected their academic performance. The study also investigated how eighth grade teachers prepared students to transition to high school and the kind of support students received in high school from their ninth grade teachers to help them adjust easily to the new environment. This study included three groups of participants: ninth grade students, eighth grade teachers, and ninth grade teachers, all participants responded to a survey created specifically for their group.

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1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

Generally most individuals have a difficult time adjusting to change; it is not only difficult for adults but for children as well. Although change can be challenging in all stages of life, it could be particularly difficult during adolescence. A challenge that adolescents have to face is the transition from middle school to high school. When they start their first year of high school, many students become overwhelmed with all the demands placed on them. Their courses are more demanding, they are becoming more independent, parents are not constantly watching over them, and they are also trying to fit into a new social realm. If these students are to succeed, and continue all the way to graduation with confidence, they must be provided with the necessary support and guidance. The purpose of this research is to reveal the major challenges ninth graders encounter as they transition from middle school to high school and how these challenges affect their academic performance (grades) and overall success in their first high school year.

Statement of the Problem

According to the California Department of Education in the 2009-2010 school year a total of 524,527 students state-wide enrolled in ninth grade (2013c), and 8,883 (1.69%) students dropped out before finishing the year (2013a). Similarly, in the 2010-2011 school year, a total of 514, 491 students enrolled in ninth grade (2013d), and 11,072 (2.15%) dropped out in the course of the year (2013b). Why is this

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2 happening? The transition from middle school to high school may hold part of the answer; since, this transition is not simple and easy for every student. Mizelle and Irvin (as cited in Akos and Galassi, 2004) stated that “The transition to high school has been accompanied by negative consequences for some students including achievement loss and dropping out shortly after they enter high school or falling behind and failing to graduate on time” (p. 212). Students encounter difficulties in their first year of high school, given the number of students who dropout before finishing ninth grade. To reveal the factors that influence students when deciding to dropout, it is imperative that one takes a closer look at the problem. It is also

necessary to find out how parents, teachers, school administrators, and peers may also impact the students’ decision.

Parental involvement is important for student success in school; this is especially true in the early years of school when parents are more prone to become part of their children’s education. Fortunately, many parents continue to be involved as their children start their first year of high school, and for many students, their parents’ involvement is beneficial. In their study, Chen and Gregory (2010) found that “Students who reported their parents had higher expectations for their eventual educational attainment had higher GPAs and were rated as more engaged in the classroom by their ninth grade teachers” (p. 59). In the efforts to lower the number of students who drop-out of high school in the ninth grade, parents can become the schools’ best allies. School districts must invest some time to figure out ways to increase parental involvement at the high school level.

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3 Likewise, administrators (at school and district level) have to create programs to make the transition easier for students and their parents. Mac Iver (1990) indicated

That schools who implement successful transition programs provide students and parents with information about the programs and procedures of the new school, provide students with sources of social support as they adjust to the new school, and bring middle school and high school teachers together to inform one another about the programs and requirements of their school. (p. 462)

Considering the number of students who drop-out of high school before completing their ninth grade year, one can assume that transition programs either fail to provide this kind of support or do not exist at the school site.

As students enter high school, the academic demand and rigor change, the differences between middle school and high school, make the transition difficult for students. As stated by McCallumore and Sparapani (2010) “freshmen are faced with more rigorous classes and more frequent homework assignments, and for the first time students earn credit for graduation” (p. 449). One way to better prepare students for such challenges, may be that teachers at the middle school provide students with more opportunities to acquire the skills necessary, and allow them (the students) to become more independent. In a study conducted by Mizelle (2005), middle school students stated that “ middle school teachers often cut them too much slack, neither challenging them to meet standards nor teaching them how to study on their own” (p. 57). There is a need for middle and high school teachers to communicate and share

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4 their expectations for students. By establishing this communication, teachers can create a path to a more consistent adaptation for students when they transition from middle school to high school.

Significance of the Problem

If students do not experience academic (good grades) success in their first year in high school, they will probably dropout before graduating. In their study Bornsheuer, Polonyi, Andrews, Fore, and Onwuegbuzie (2011) found that “A chi-square analysis revealed a statistically significant relationship between ninth grade retention and on-time graduation, in fact, students who were retained in the ninth grade were 6.01 times less likely to graduate on time” (p. 14). Providing support to ninth graders as they enter high school should not only concern people in the field of education, but should be of interest to everyone. There are many consequences that high school dropouts may face due to their decision; unfortunately, they are not the only ones who may suffer these consequences. Stuit and Springer (2010) stated that “The lower earnings of high school dropouts cost the state of California more than $54 billion per year in lost taxable personal income” (p. 5). Students who decide to leave school without a high school diploma later become a burden to the economy and community. High school dropouts have difficulties finding jobs because they do not meet the basic requirement of a high school diploma or GED (General

Equivalency Degree) necessary to be hired. Unfortunately, not having a job becomes a problem that not only affects these individuals but society as well because they become citizens that depend on social benefits such as welfare to survive. In

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5 addition, many of them will sadly become part of crime taking more tax dollars needed in other areas. Furthermore, these dropouts negatively impact their families because they (family members) have to confront the consequences as well.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to reveal the major challenges ninth graders encounter as they transition from middle school to high school, and how these challenges affect their academic performance (grades) and overall success in their first high school year. Data will also be collected from middle school teachers to learn how they prepare students to transition from eighth to ninth grade. Likewise, data will also be collected from high school teachers to reveal the kind of support they provide ninth grade students in their classrooms.

Research Questions

1. What are the major challenges ninth grade students encounter in their transition from middle school to high school?

2. How do the challenges encountered by ninth graders affect their academic (grades) performance?

3. How do 8th grade teachers prepare eighth grade students to transition into high school?

4. What kind of support do high school teachers provide ninth grade students?

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6 Definition of Terms

Transition. In this study transition refers to the transfer students undergo to move from middle school grades 6th – 8th to high school grades 9th -12th.

Ninth graders. This term refers to students who enter high school for the first time after graduating from middle school.

Middle school configuration. While the researcher acknowledges that there are several configurations for middle school, this study focuses on 6-8 and/or K-8 school structure.

Funds of knowledge. This term refers to historically accumulated and culturally developed bodies of knowledge and skills essential for household or individual functioning and well-being (Greenberg, Tapia, & Vélez-Ibáñez, as cited in Moll, Amanti, Neff & Gonzalez 1992, p. 133).

Summary

This chapter puts forward a major problem presently affecting education, students entering ninth grade have a difficult time in the transition from one grade to the other. There are reasons for the difficulties students encounter, this study

explores the major challenges students in ninth grade come upon as they start their first year in high school, and how these challenges affect the students’ academic performance (grades) and overall success in their first high school year.

This study is comprised of four more chapters presenting literature review, methods and procedures used in this study, results for the study, and

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7 topic of investigation is reviewed. Chapter III discusses the methods and procedures used for this study. Chapter IV states the findings of this study, and Chapter V displays recommendations for further research.

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8 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The transition from middle school to high school can present students with many obstacles making their first year of high school a difficult one. The success students have in their freshmen year however, is not only attributed to that single year, but it is rather a product of all the previous years of schooling the students completed. To have a better understanding of the factors that help students succeed in ninth grade, this chapter reviews the literature related to the difficulties of this transition.

Middle School Composition, Which is Better 6-8 or K-8?

Perhaps, many professionals in the field of education would agree that middle school definitely plays an important role in the success that students experience in their ninth grade year in high school. Furthermore, others would agree that not only middle school is important in the success a student has in high school, but the composition of the middle school that students attend makes an even greater impact on the success that students have in ninth grade. So, what does research say? Is there a real connection between middle school composition and student success in ninth grade? According to a study conducted by Weiss and Baker-Smith (2010), there was a strong correlation between middle school or K-8 attendance and ninth grade

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9 connection in the students’ grade point average, attendance, having nonacademic peers, delinquent behavior, and skipping class in the ninth grade.

Weiss and Baker-Smith (2010) investigated academic and social outcomes of students in ninth grade comparing students who attended middle schools with

students who attended K-8 schools in eighth grade. The finding revealed that

students, who attended K-8 schools during eighth grade, were more likely to succeed in ninth grade than those who attended middle schools. The results showed that students who attended a middle school had a lower grade point average (two full points lower than K-8 students) in ninth grade; likewise middle school students had a greater chance of finishing at least one course in their ninth grade year with a grade of “F”. In the same way, the findings demonstrated that students who attended middle schools were absent more often in eighth grade, and had more frequent absences in high school. Furthermore, middle school students had more behavior issues in school than those who attended a K-8 school. Overall, the researchers found that attending a middle school during the eighth grade placed students at a disadvantage opposed to those who attended a K-8 school. Opportunities, such as attending a magnet high school (an elite school) were unlikely for students who attended a middle school because of their lack of good grades, attendance, and behavior.

Another study that highlighted the benefits of attending a K-8 school during eighth grade was done by Abella (2005). His study investigated how students in a K-8 school compared to students in a 6-K-8 middle school in the areas of academic performance, attendance, and disciplinary behavior once they reached high school.

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10 His study sample included 363 students who attended a K-8 school and 4,114

students who attended middle school in the 1999-2000 through 2002-2003 school years in the Miami-Dade County School District. Both sample groups included 68% of students who qualified for free and reduced lunch, had a similar ethnic

background: K-8 schools had 85% Hispanic students while middle schools had 78% Hispanic students, and had similar mean scale scores on the reading (M=643) and math (M=665) sections of the Stanford Achievement Test which students took in the fifth grade.

The results indicated that the reading comprehension of K-8 students increased by 23 points in sixth grade while middle school students’ comprehension increased 17 points in the same year. In seventh grade, K-8 students’ reading comprehension increased 47 points and the middle school group’s comprehension improved by 43 points. However, in eighth grade the two groups did not have a significant difference. K-8 students had increased 60 points by eighth grade and middle school students had increased by 58 points. By the end of ninth grade both groups had similar reading scores, K-8 students had decreased their scale score by 9 points while the middle school group had decreased by 7 points. For the mathematics part of the standardized test the results were similar in sixth grade, K-8 students scored better than middle school students even though both groups decreased their scores by 3 points and 10 points respectively. In seventh grade K-8 students scored higher than middle school students, even when both groups increased their

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11 improvement for both groups but K-8 students (28 points) scored better than middle school students (24 points). However, that difference was no longer significant during the ninth grade.

For the area of attendance, the results showed that K-8 students were absent less than middle school students. The biggest difference was seen in the sixth and seventh grades where K-8 students were absent one day in the school year while middle school students were absent about one and a half days in the school year. In eighth grade K-8 students had increased their absences by one fifth of a day and middle school students had increased by more than one half days. This difference continued through ninth grade where K-8 students increased their absences by one and one half days, and the middle school students increased by three and a quarter days.

In the area of disciplinary behavior the results indicated that K-8 students had fewer disciplinary problems than those students in the middle school group. In sixth grade, for every 100 students, the out-of-school suspension for K-8 students was less than two incidents; for the middle school group, it was more than five incidents for every 100 students. In seventh grade the K-8 group maintained its out-of-school suspension at the same rate as the previous year, while the middle school group increased it to approximately seven out-of-school suspensions. In the eighth grade, out-of-school suspensions were the same for both groups at the rate of eight

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12 experienced suspensions two more times per year than did the students in the K-8 group.

In general, Abella’s (2005) study provided insightful information on how K-8 students and middle school students performed academically in middle school and how those habits transferred into their ninth grade school year. In the same way, attendance and discipline habits seen in middle grades also continued on in the ninth grade. Although the study showed great differences in the academic performance, attendance and disciplinary habits of K-8 and middle school students, it did not provide information on why K-8 schools seemed to better serve students in the middle grades.

Another study that highlighted the benefit of attending a K-8 school was conducted by Cook, MacCoun, Muschkin, and Vigdor (2008) and hoped to answer to the following question: What difference does grade configuration make for students’ behavior and academic performance? In this study researchers compared disciplinary infractions and end-of-grade standardized test scores for students who attended different types (6-8 or K-8) of schools in sixth grade. Data was used from the North Carolina Education Research Data Center (NCERDC), which covered all public schools in the state, allowing their sample to include 82 districts.

Their results showed that a total of 20,000 infractions by sixth graders were recorded in the 2000-2001 school year, and of those both the incidence and

prevalence rate of infractions was higher (about one infraction for every two students) for sixth graders in middle school than for elementary school sixth graders, such

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13 behavior and infractions continued throughout middle school and into ninth grade. The findings suggested that attending sixth grade in middle school was associated with more infractions due to the fact that middle schools provided students with more freedom, students did not have one primary teacher they could connect to, and most importantly, sixth graders could be influenced by older students (7th and 8th graders) on campus. The results also showed that when students moved into the middle school as sixth graders, their performance in both math and reading standardized tests

dropped, the decline was more significant in reading where the students lost about 10% of a standard deviation.

Although this study focused on the effects of moving from elementary grades to middle school grades (not middle school to high school) the results highlighted are useful because it is possible to make a connection between the behavior and

performance seen in middle schools and those seen in high school. As the researchers stated “it is of greatest concern that the negative influence of middle school on sixth graders appears to linger through ninth grade…it is plausible that these effects could lead some students to retention in grade or dropout” (Cook et al., 2008, p. 118).

The previous studies supported the idea that students who attended a K-8 school were better prepared and had a greater chance to succeed in high school than those students who attended a middle school (6-8). However, the studies did not provide insight on whether school structure (K-8 or 6-8) was the cause for the differences seen in academic performance, attendance, behavior, or if there were other factors that needed to be considered. In their study, Weiss and Kipnes (2006)

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14 researched the relationship between student outcome and the structure of the school they attended in eighth grade. Their results showed that students who attended a middle school came from households that were more likely to receive public assistance (such as food stamps), and had parents with lower education levels. In addition, about 35% of students in middle schools had been held back a grade (30% for K-8 schools); students also had worse grades, were more likely to fail a course, more likely to be absent, and had more behavior issues in school. These results showed that there was a great difference in the populations attending each school form.

To figure out if middle school attendance alone was a good predictor for academic outcomes (grade average, receiving an F for a course, absences, suspension) the researchers used multilevel models to analyze their data from a comparative sample. The results showed that middle school attendance alone was not significant when it was the only predictor; there was no significant difference in K-8 and middle school students when it came to grade average, likelihood of failing a course,

absences or likelihood of being suspended. Although attending a middle school made no significant difference on the outcomes, what made a difference was the school’s population. For example, school size and the percentage of students who were African American was negatively related to grade average and positively related to the odds of failing a course. Factors such as race, gender, and grade retention also had a huge influence on students’ outcomes. African American students had a grade point average more than two points lower than their white classmates; female students

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15 had better grades than male students and were less likely to fail a course. In the same way, students who were held back once in their school trajectory and who came from families who received welfare, had lower grades and higher odds of failing a course. Grade retention was also related to absences and the likelihood of being suspended.

In addition, researchers also looked at nonacademic outcomes (self-esteem, safety, threat, and like school) and their relationship with middle school attendance. The results showed that students who attended a middle school had lower levels of self-esteem than those who attended a K-8 school, and that students who attended a middle school saw their environment as more threatening than did the K-8 students. Likewise, the results revealed that students with high self-esteem had better grades, had fewer absences, were less likely to receive an F in a course, and were less likely to be suspended.

Overall, the findings of this research by Weiss and Kipness (2010) demonstrated that middle school attendance alone was not the only factor that influenced students’ achievement or success, but that there were other significant factors to consider as well. Therefore, the finding of this study showed that the success of K-8 schools may be due to the actual composition of the school population rather than the composition/structure of the school.

In general the studies discussed in this section provided information to better understand how school structure impacts students’ academic achievement. However, it is still unclear what makes a middle school better than the other regardless of school form. A study that may be able to identify clues to what makes the difference

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16 for those better performing schools was the study done by Williams, Kirst, and

Haertel (2010). This study included data from 303 (public and charter) middle

schools in California, which included 50% 6-8 grades, 24% K-8 and 26% 7-8 grades. From those schools the participants were 303 principals, 3,752 English Language Arts and math teachers and 157 superintendents. Their findings revealed that higher performing schools employed effective practices that helped improve students’

academic achievement and therefore made their school stand out as a high performing school. However, most importantly, the results of the study showed “These schools create a strong culture that emphasizes improved student academic outcomes. They also center all the education professionals, resources, and strategies around that focus” (Kirst et al., 2010, p. 5). In general the findings showed that there were three major groups of people (principals, teachers and superintendents) that played an important role in order to achieve school wide success. Principals clearly

communicated expectations for improved student outcomes, set measurable goals, and provided teachers with collaboration time to discuss pacing guides, create

benchmark assessments, and analyze data. Likewise, principals also used assessment data to examine teachers’ practices, determine professional development needs, identify areas of school wide improvement, and to identify students who needed extra support to reach achievement goals. Lastly, principals provided teachers and students with a safe school environment where the dress code was well defined and enforced; zero tolerance was implemented on bullying, drugs, and weapons. There was

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17 identify students who needed intervention due to their negative behavior; students were also rewarded in several ways for good behavior. Teachers also played an important role in achieving academic success, they 1) communicated to students the importance of middle grades achievement to high school and future goals; 2) used standards-based district adopted curricula every day for instruction especially in English Language Arts and math; 3) developed common benchmarks and assessments within their departments or content areas; and 4) used the assessment data to inform students and parents of their progress. Often, teachers also used classroom based assessments to adjust and guide their instruction. The district and superintendent had an extremely important role in the schools’ success as well. To start, the

superintendent’s annual evaluation was based to great extent on middle grades student outcome, likewise the superintendent was able to negotiate teacher contracts on improved student achievement. School districts provided schools with test results in a timely manner and provided a computer-based system to enable school staff members to access and review student data. Districts also used student achievement to identify needs for improved teacher practices as well as to recognized exemplary teacher practices.

Overall their findings demonstrated that school configuration or student population was not the main reason why some middle schools were more successful than others. But rather, that the practices each school employed made the difference. This study showed the positive changes that happened when school district members,

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18 school principals and teachers were in agreement and implemented effective practices to help students succeed and better prepare themselves for their future.

The Transition into High School

Most students experience difficulties in their transition to high school, these difficulties often yield negative results for students, especially in the area of academic achievement. Isakson and Jarvis (1999) conducted a short-term longitudinal study to assess the adjustments of adolescents as they made the transition to high school. Their study revealed that students’ Grade Point Average (GPA) dropped during the transition from 3.50 at the end of eighth grade to 3.11 at the end of ninth grade. In the same way, a study done by Alspaugh (1998) demonstrated that students’ academic achievement declined in the areas of reading, math, science, and social studies. According to his results, at the end of ninth grade, students experienced a loss of 10.17 points in reading, 1.83 points in math, 14.58 points in science, and 8.19 points in social studies. Based on the results of these two studies, the transition to high school negatively affected students’ academic achievement; however neither study mentioned reasons or factors that could explain such a decline in performance.

A study that may help shed some light into the factors that influence academic achievement in ninth grade was conducted by Newman, Myers, Newman, Lohman and Smith (2000). In this study they researched how family relationships, peer relationships, school environment, and neighborhood environment (as perceived by the student) affected students’ academic achievement in ninth grade. The participants in their study were twenty-two African American students who were considered high

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19 performers at the end of sixth grade and were selected as participants in the Young Scholars Program from Ohio State University; the program’s main goal was to help minority students achieve their goal of a college education.

The results of the study showed that 68% of the students viewed their mothers as the most supportive and influential family member when it came to academic achievement, but also considered extended family members as people they could go to for support when presented with a challenge. On the other hand, students also viewed their friends as supportive when faced with challenges that were not related to academics, but felt the need to limit their time with friends in order to be successful academically. The school’s environment played a huge role in the students’ academic success in ninth grade. One third of the students in the study mentioned teachers as supportive of their academic performance but the majority of the students interviewed mentioned something negative about their teachers and felt teachers were not

supportive during the transition. Students also mentioned that adjusting to the new school was difficult; they found “the size of the school, the organization of classes, the length of class periods, and interaction with new people were all challenging aspects of the transition to ninth grade” (Newman et al., 2000, p. 59). Lastly, the results showed that even though many students lived in dangerous neighborhoods and were aware of the risks their neighborhood presented them with; they did not feel that aspect affected their academic performance in a negative nor positive way. The results of this study helped identify some factors that influenced academic

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20 field; this information is especially helpful for this study since one of its main focuses is to reveal how the transition to high school affects students’ achievement.

In addition to the difficulties pertaining to academic achievement, students in ninth grade also encountered other obstacles that affected their overall performance and adjustment to the new environment. Social support and depression seemed to be two factors that played an important role in the transition to high school and the students’ overall success. Newman, Newman, Griffen, O’Connor and Spas (2007) investigated the correlation between social support (from parents, peers, school adults, and school sense of belonging) and depressive symptoms among ninth graders. Their findings demonstrated no significant change in parent and peer support between eighth and ninth grade although female students felt they received more support from peers than did male students. Students in ninth grade also felt less sense of school belonging than in eighth grade and were more prone to depressive symptoms. Furthermore the results revealed that lack of parent and peer support, along with lack of school sense of belonging, were positively correlated to depression in ninth graders. In sum, the results of this study indicated that support from peers, parents, school adults, and sense of belonging are important factors in the transition to high school.

The transition to high school brings many challenges for students; many of them are unable to deal with the added stress and turn to alcohol, drugs, or tobacco to help them cope with the new difficulties. Weiss and Bearman (2007) investigated how the behavior seen in eighth grade predicted the behavior in ninth grade. The

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21 results revealed that 41.9% of eighth graders in their study used alcohol, drugs or tobacco. Likewise, 52.6% of students used some substance in the ninth grade. In addition their study showed that students who attended eighth grade in a middle school (such as a 6-8 school) were more prone to use alcohol, drugs or tobacco than did those students who attended eighth grade in some other form of school (such as a K-8). This study brought forth another factor that may negatively affect students’ ninth grade success; the percentage of students who use some type of substance in their ninth grade year is quite high. It might be of benefit to students if the school and/or school district implemented programs to help ninth graders deal with the added stress and to keep them (the students) away from alcohol, drugs and tobacco as much as possible.

Importance of Parental Involvement

The role that parents play as their children advance through their educational journey is priceless. The majorities of parents actively participate when their children are young and are therefore more noticeable during elementary years. However, even though parents tend to watch from the “back burner” during middle and high school years; their involvement is still significant and important for the success of their children. Parent participation is important and in an effort to recognize that importance the government included a requirement section in the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001. In section 1118 it is explained, that any school receiving funds from the federal government, must implement programs to promote parental involvement at all levels of schooling with the main goal of improving

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22 students’ academic achievement and school success. However, as many teachers, administrators and school personnel would probably agree, this task is not easily done.

Many challenges arise when wanting to start a program to successfully involve parents in school activities. One major challenge is the diversity found in today’s society. According to an article by LaRocque, Keliman and Darling (2011), there are many issues that affect parental involvement due to the different cultural backgrounds families come from and the lack of knowledge teachers and school personnel have about those cultures. In order to provide parents with pleasant experiences when coming to their children’s schools LaRocque et al. stated that schools needed to be able to 1) learn a little more about the culture the parents represent, something as small as learning how to properly address parents can come in handy; 2) break language barriers, all parents should be able to communicate with teachers and school personnel without the need to have their children translate for them; 3) address the issue of physical barriers and should provide alternative meeting times and locations for those parents who may be too far away from school grounds and cannot physically make it there; and 4) not make wrong assumptions about parents who do not “seem to participate” in their children education as much. It does not mean that because parents do not show up to meetings they have no interest in their children’s education. There is a need to motivate parents to come to school to support their children, therefore these parents should receive the same recognition and welcoming as parents who physically participate in their child’s classroom/school. It

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23 is essential to promote a supportive environment for all students and their parents to equally participate in school activities.

There are many ways in which parents can influence and support their children in school especially in difficult time periods as the ones students encounter when attending high school. Parents can provide their children with moral and emotional support as well as motivate them to excel. In a case study conducted by Leonard (2013), the results showed that parental support was key to the success of average performing students as they participated in an Early College Program offered by their high school. In this study the researcher discovered that parents played a major role in three areas 1) program recruitment and enrollment, 2) financial support, and 3) emotional guidance. As demonstrated by the interviews conducted by the researcher, many students who participated in the program decided to enroll because their parents wanted them to. Parents also provided the students with substantial financial support paying $600 per year to allow their children to take college level coursework during the regular school day, and many more paid to have their children take extra courses during the summer. In the same way, parents also provided emotional support when their children found it difficult to cope with the added responsibilities and demands of college level coursework. Furthermore, parents and teachers also maintained a strong line of communication, teachers promptly informed parents of missing assignments and/or possibilities of not passing a course. Although the parents in this study did not attend school meetings or met with teachers on a regular basis, they were still able to positively influence their children to make good

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24 decisions that would have a positive impact on their future college experience. Even when their participation was not seen as “actively involved” it made a tremendous difference in the success of their children.

Another study that demonstrated the positive effects parental involvement had in students’ academic achievement was conducted by Sheldon and Epstein (2005). The purpose of their study was to reveal if parental involvement was positively correlated to students’ achievement on Mathematics standardized tests at the elementary and secondary levels. The schools in their study implemented several activities to involve parents in their children’s education. According to their results the activities that were more positively related to improved students’ performance on standardized tests were homework activities that promoted interaction between parents and students. Such activities included “homework assignments that required students and parents to interact and talk about mathematics and mathematics

materials and resources provided for families to use at home” (Sheldon & Epstein, 2005, p. 204). The use of such activities showed that from one year to another regardless of school level, the percentage of students demonstrating improvement on standardized tests were 60% for parent-child interaction activities and 55% for resources/materials activities. A study that found similar results to that of Sheldon and Epstein was done by Ho Sui-Chu and Willms (1996). In their study they investigated which type of parental involvement in home supervision, discussion of school related activities at home, attendance of meetings, communication with school, made the most impact when it came to students’ academic achievement. Their

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25 findings showed that students who discussed school related activities with their parents demonstrated an increase of 12% of a standard deviation in reading and mathematics. Although these studies focused on how parental involvement helped increase students’ achievement in Mathematics and reading, the findings are relevant to the current study because they help make a connection between the importance of parental involvement and the academic performance of students. These findings are especially important for this study which concentrates on revealing the major

obstacles that affect students’ transition to high school along with their grade and attendance. Parental involvement activities (especially activities where students and parents interact and discuss class work) may be a key to make the transition less challenging for students and more successful when it comes to their overall academic performance.

Hispanic Population and Parental Involvement

According to information found in the 2010 US Census report, the Hispanic population was 50.5 million (16%) of the total population during that year, in the state of California there were 14,031,719 (38%) Hispanics, therefore, it was not surprising that the majority of K-12 students in California’s schools were of Hispanic descent. Unfortunately, in the 2011-2012 school year in California 39,103 (16.1%) Hispanic students dropped-out before high school graduation. What can be done to resolve this problem? Parental involvement may be a way to start making changes to current statistics. Despite the incorrect assumptions many teachers, principals, and school personnel may have, Latino parents want to be part of their children’s schooling and

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26 want their children to achieve academic success. In a study conducted by Quiocho and Daoud (2006) the results showed that Latino parents had the same desire as parents from other ethnic backgrounds to see their children achieve academically.

For this study the researchers interviewed teachers, students, and parents of two schools located in southern California. The students who participated in this study were classified as English Learners (ELs). The findings demonstrated that teachers viewed Latino parents as unreliable and not wanting to participate or help in the classroom. They also believed Latino parents showed no support with homework, did not care about schooling, and were unskilled and unprofessional. On the other hand, parents’ responses demonstrated that they wanted to participate in their children’s education but felt the school had to make some changes to increase

parental involvement and better serve their children. For example parents mentioned that school personnel needed to improve the curriculum and provide EL students with science and social studies instruction with the necessary support to allow student success. Likewise, parents mentioned several factors they saw as obstacles to their children’s academic achievement: too many substitutes, transition from Spanish to English without support, no consistency in the way teachers graded, not keeping promises made to students who had improved academically, lack of patience teachers had with students, and having two teachers teaching in the same year (each one taught one half of the year). Parents also recognized they had to be more responsible to support their children academically and had to limit the time students spent watching television. In general the findings of this study showed that Latino parents were

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27 willing to participate and recognized they had to work alongside school personnel to help their children succeed.

Similar findings to those found by Quiocho and Daoud (2006) were reported in the study conducted by Perez (2006); the researcher conducted a qualitative research in which eight Hispanic parents were interviewed to collect data pertaining to their experiences and parental involvement in the American school system. The findings showed that all parents felt comfortable participating in their children’s school because teachers and staff were bilingual and spoke English and Spanish which was the participants’ native language. In the same way, the school’s

newspaper and informational flyers were printed in English and Spanish. The findings also revealed that even when parents were comfortable participating they still

experienced several challenges. Parents were concerned about 1) language barriers-even though school staff were bilingual, parents found a language barrier when it came time to help students with homework especially English work; 2) Not having the knowledge to help students with homework, parents also found it difficult to help students when the work was too advanced because they did not possess the skills necessary this was especially noticeable in math; and 3) their personal obligations, many parents had other obligations such as taking care of other children, work, and/or lack of transportation.

As shown through the findings, there is no doubt that parents in this study had a desire to participate in their children’s school and viewed parental involvement necessary to help their children succeed. However, although they were happy with

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28 the way school personnel made them feel comfortable, they saw the need to increase the participation of more Hispanic parents and at the same time, they felt that some services needed to be provided by the school in order to achieve their goal. When asked what the school needed to do to increase the participation of Hispanic parents the following services were mentioned: evening English classes for parents, child care so that parents could attend classes, tutoring programs for newcomers to accelerate their English acquisition, and educational aids among other necessities. In general, the findings of this study demonstrated the willingness of Hispanic parents to participate in their children’s schooling and if provided with the necessary services, parental involvement of Hispanic parents could easily be increased.

A study that demonstrated the positive influence Hispanic parents have on their children was done by Altschul (2011). The purpose of the study was to show which type of parental involvement (engagement at home or school, or investment of time or money) mattered most for the academic achievement of Mexican American students. The findings demonstrated that extracurricular activities, educational resources in the home, and parents and children engaging in enriching activities made the most significant difference in students’ academic achievement as demonstrated by standardized test scores. The findings also showed that parental involvement was more significant in eighth grade than in tenth grade (the study examined data for both grades) which suggested that parental involvement in lower grades was imperative. The results also revealed that “in Mexican American families, the positive impact of

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29 parental involvement in academics occurs through home-based involvement”

(Altschul, 2011, p. 166).

In summary, the findings of this study helped show that parental involvement is important for Mexican Americans and that parents can positively influence their children’s academic success. Even though the findings demonstrated that parental involvement was more significant in lower grades; the academic achievement students gain in middle school could definitely be helpful in high school. Likewise, recognizing that Mexican American parents can positively influence their children even when they do it from home; could encourage more Hispanic parents to participate in the education of their children.

A study that reported the ways in which Mexican and Mexican American parents prepared their young pre-school age children with the basic knowledge

needed to start their school path was done by Riojas-Cortez and Bustos Flores (2009). The participants of this study were parents, teachers, and university faculty from a local university in Texas. All parents were participants of the Family Institute for Early Literacy Development (FIELD) program with the purpose of creating a

collaborative partnership between home and school (Riojas-Cortez and Bustos Flores, 2009, p. 233). The results revealed that parents strongly believed children acquired social and language skills through playing. For that reason, many parents taught their children cultural games such a Los Elefantes (The Elephants) and La Víbora de la Mar (The Sea Snake). Parents also helped their children learn literacy skills through cuentos (stories), learn values (friendship, respect, open communication, active

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30 listening, and sharing) through cuentos (storytelling) and dichos (sayings), and learn scientific concepts through activities like cooking.

Through the results of this study, it was evident that Mexican and Mexican American parents had “funds of knowledge” to share with their children to help them prepare for school, and that there was a need for teachers, parents and school

personnel to collaborate to enhance the students’ learning experience. As stated by the researchers “we found that parents wanted their children to be successful and that it was our job as educators to let parents know the school’s expectations and how the home could support this learning” (Riojas-Cortez and Bustos Flores, 2009, p. 235).

A study that presented some motivating factors as to why Latina mothers got involved in their children’s education was conducted by Greenberg (2012). His study included 12 mothers of elementary and middle school students that were divided into four focus groups and qualitative data was collected through discussions. The

findings showed that the mothers in the study were motivated by three factors: regrets, Spanish-speaking school administrators, and the need to be near. The majority of the mothers did not go far in their education and had regrets about it; that feeling motivated them to push and support their children’s education because they wanted their children to accomplish what they had not. Since all the mothers in this study spoke Spanish it was very important to them to have administrators who spoke their language. In their school the principal spoke Spanish as did the vice principal and other school personnel. The mothers felt comfortable being present in school because they knew there were people who spoke their language and with whom they

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31 could communicate. The mothers in this study also felt the need to be near their children and spent many days helping in school. That proximity provided them with opportunities such as becoming acquainted with their child’s teacher, helping around the office, helping with lunch duty, and helping in their children’s classroom. One very important result of their proximity was the chance to become advocates for their children. Two mothers shared how they had been able to obtain tutoring services for their children when they spoke to the principal and raised their concern about their children falling behind.

Although these mothers were motivated and actively participated in their children school, they felt that not being able to speak English was many times a barrier to helping their children. This became especially noticeable when helping their children with homework assignments. Other mothers mentioned that when no Spanish speaking school personnel were available they had to find other people who they trusted to help them communicate. Therefore, the results showed that having Spanish speaking school personnel was a very important motivator for these mothers’ involvement.

Ninth Grade Success and High School Graduation

Many students drop out of high school before graduation, and a large number of these students leave high school during or after 9th grade. The study conducted by Silver, Saunders and Zarate (2008) provided important information to help

understand such a trend. Their study included data collected from 48,561 students who attended 163 middle and high schools in the Los Angeles Unified School

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32 District. The purpose of their study was to discover the percentage of 9th graders who graduated on time (within four years), which student and school characteristics were associated with high school completion or dropout, and how academic experiences in middle and high school related to completion or dropout. The findings demonstrated that 34% (16, 800 students) of freshmen failed to move on to 10th grade on time with 4,312 leaving the school system and the rest repeating 9th grade. Therefore, less than half (48%) of students who entered high school as first time 9th graders graduated from high school within the four years.

The results also demonstrated, that students’ background characteristics such as race, gender, age, and language status were related to graduation rates. For example, the percentage of Latino and African American students (45% for both) who graduated on time (four years after starting high school) was lower than that of Asian (65%) and Whites (57%). Likewise, the percentage of girls (54%) who

graduated on time was higher than that for boys (42%), and the percentage of students who were considered over age (who were born before the December 1st cutoff) and graduated on time, was lower (29%) than those who were not over age (52%). Similarly, those students who were classified as having Limited English Proficiency (LEP) were also less likely to graduate on time, only 33% of LEP students graduated four years after starting high school while 54% of students who were not classified as LEPs graduated on time.

Just like students’ characteristics played an important role in dropout rates, school characteristics were also found to make a significant impact. The results

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33 showed that schools with high numbers of unqualified teachers (not fully credential) had lower graduation rates (51%) than schools where the majority of the teachers were fully certified (63%). Also, schools that had a large number of English Learners had lower percentages of students who graduated on time since only one in three students attending these schools graduated. Lastly, the findings showed that students who attended a magnet school during middle school and/or high school had more chances (68%) of graduating on time than those students who did not attend a magnet school (51%).

The experiences that students have in middle and high school definitely

motivate them to continue on their path to graduation or to dropout before high school completion. Silver et al. (2007) found that students who never failed a class in

middle school were more likely to graduate high school than those who failed at least one course. The timing of a failed course was also important since those students who failed a class in 6th or 7th grade were more likely to recuperate compared to those students who failed a course in 8th grade since that year was closer to the transition to high school. Likewise, the finding demonstrated that students who failed at least one course had a 64% chance of graduating; each additional course failure increased that percentage by 10%. Other factors that were related to not completing high school were failing Algebra I in ninth grade, being absent more than 14 days in the school year, not scoring proficient or advanced on standardized tests in the 9th grade, and changing schools during the freshman year.

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34 Another study that demonstrated the connection between the experience students have in ninth grade and the decision students make to drop out of high school was conducted by Neild, Stoner-Eby, and Furstenberg (2008). Their study presented information that demonstrated that students’ decision to dropout was not only a result of the academic and social experiences students had in eighth grade, but that their experiences in ninth grade added substantially to the final decision of dropping out. Their findings revealed that dropout could be predicted from the experiences students had in eighth grade, according to the results, students who had stronger math skills in eighth grade, had better attendance, and were more engaged academically were more likely to stay in school after entering high school. However, students who had a large percentage of courses with Ds and Fs in eighth grade

increased their changes of dropping out of high school by 40%.

The findings (Neild et al. 2008) also showed that ninth grade outcomes also contributed to the final decision of dropping out. For example, the numbers of courses students failed in ninth grade were strongly related to dropping out early because students did not earned enough credits to move on in their high school career. In fact, 88% of the students who participated in the study had earned no more than three credits after being in high school for more than three years. For that reason, when they decided to finally drop out of high school, they were still considered ninth graders since they had not earned enough credits to move on to the next level (the sophomore year). The findings also showed that students who had been retained a grade before entering ninth grade and were considered over age to start high school,

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35 had significantly less chances of staying in school. Similar results were

demonstrated in a study by Bornsheuer et al. (2011) which showed that there was a strong connection between ninth grade retention and on time high school graduation. Their findings revealed that students who were retained in ninth grade were six to eight times less likely to graduate on time (within four years of starting high school) than those students who had not been retained. In other words, out of 211 students in the study who had been retained, only 14.2% (30 students) graduated on time, while 85.7% (181 students) did not graduate on time. Therefore, students who were retained a year before high school were already at a disadvantage once they entered ninth grade, they were older than most freshman and probably felt out of place attending classes with students who were younger. Despite other factors that influence students to drop out, the feeling of not “fitting in” can definitely play and important role when it comes to the decision of continuing or leaving school.

A report released by the Baltimore Education Research Consortium (Mac Iver 2010) revealed that there were four major factors that influenced students’ decision to drop out: age, attendance, suspensions, and course failure. The findings showed that in the 2008-2009 school year, around two-thirds (79.2%) of students who dropped out were over age when they entered the ninth grade for the first time. The results also revealed that students who had dropped out had been absent several days in the three years prior to their dropout. In the 2007-2008 school year, nine out of 10 students were absent between 20 and 40 days, the previous year (2006-2007) eight in ten students had been absent more than 40 days, and in the year 2005-2006 seven in ten

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36 students missed more than 20 days. These results definitely showed the difficulties students had connecting with school because their absences demonstrated a lack of interest. The results also demonstrated that half (49.5%) of students who had dropped out had been suspended at least once in the three years before dropping out, and 44.8% had been suspended three days in one of those years. Course failure was also positively related to dropping out, the results showed that almost all students (92.7%) who had dropped out in the 2008-2009 school year had failed at least one course and of those students, 63% failed four or more courses. Not being able to pass courses also affected students’ accumulation of credits needed to graduate, the majority of students who dropped out had accumulated only 5.2 credits in all the years they had been in high school. When compared to students who graduated (earned 24.6 credits) that was a loss of 19.4 credits. In general this report revealed four major factors that contributed to students’ decision to drop out, as shown by other studies the majority of students who dropped out of high school had difficulties attending school, were over age, could not pass important courses, and were unable to obtain necessary credits to continue on track to graduation.

Overall, the findings presented by these studies were extremely helpful to understand the reasons why so many students in 9th grade had difficulties graduating high school within four years. These studies not only presented characteristics related to the students, but also characteristics that had to do with the school students

attended that were important factors that influence the decision of dropping out. In general, these findings showed that there were many components that had a major

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37 role when it came to the percentage of students who drop-out of high school. Ninth grade is a difficult year for many students because they suffer the negative effects of the transition into high school. At the same time, having success in ninth grade is extremely important for students’ high school and future careers, for this reason, more needs to be done to support students in this transition so that they may experience success and continue forward in their high school years rather than decide to dropout at the start of their journey.

Intervention Programs as Dropout Prevention

The number of students in ninth grade who decide to drop-out is high and steps need to be taken to motivate students to continue high school after ninth grade. Intervention programs may be helpful in addressing some of the factors that influence students to drop-out, and could also be helpful to motivate students to continue after the ninth grade. An article that highlighted the benefits of an intervention program was written by Hartmann, Good, and Edmunds (2011). Éxito was an after school intervention program implemented in Philadelphia to target ninth graders considered at risk of dropping out. The program was implemented in the 2008-2009 school year and its main goal was to provide students with tutoring services and case management services (for students who had mental health or behavior problems). The results of their second year evaluation revealed that for every day students attended the program they were 1.6% less likely to fail math, 3% less likely to fail English, and 3.4% less likely to have attendance problems in school. That meant that students who attended the program the average 32 days were 40% less likely to fail math, were 6% more

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38 likely to be promoted to the next level English class, and were 67% less likely to have attendance problems in school.

Another study that showed the positive results of an intervention program was conducted by Somers, Owens and Piliawsky (2009). This program included 140 students who comprised the experimental group and 65 students who formed the comparison group, the program offered participants tutoring services after school as well as enrichment programs (pertaining to self-efficacy, self-esteem, knowledge of career options, and motivation) every month. The results showed that although all students in both groups experienced a drop in Grade Point Average (GPA) at the beginning of ninth grade, the students in the experimental group were able to

recuperate such a loss towards the end of the school year probably due to the tutoring hours they received. In the same way, the results also indicated that students hoped to finish their education, wanted to have good behavior and acknowledged the

relationship between education and personal and financial success, however, felt they needed more guidance as to the careers available to them and what it would take for them to achieve their chosen career.

One more study that revealed the benefits of an intervention program was done by Mayer (1993). His participants included 200 ninth grade students from five high school in the Los Angeles school district who had been identified as “at risk” of dropping out of high school. The participants were provided tutoring services during the school day and in the summer. At the same time, their teachers received

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39 environment for students. During the summer, students were also taken to several cultural and educational field trips to visit museums, zoos and geographical points of interest. The results of the study showed that 31.5% of the participants dropped out of high school by the end of the third year of the project, this rate was much lower than the anticipated rate of 70% to 80% and was therefore an improvement. Likewise, the results revealed that after intervention, 70% to 90% of the students were on task, teachers who received consultation on classroom behavior increased their rates of approval of students’ behavior (which showed that after intervention teachers focused more in recognizing the good behaviors students displayed), and students suspensions dropped from 16.6% to 10.8%.

Without a doubt these studies showed that students benefited from the extra support provided by each intervention program, many of the practices used by each of these programs could be implemented in other intervention programs to help decrease dropout rates. The three programs mentioned here had several commonalities when it came to the practices used. All of them included after school tutoring which made it easy and practical for students and their parents because they could go to the program right after school and did not have to drive to other sites. The tutoring sessions were individualized or in groups and the ratio of students to adult was low, tutoring

sessions were held 4 to 5 times per week and worked on improving math and reading skills. All three programs also included enrichment activities to motivate students, increase their self-esteem, increase their knowledge of career choices, help them develop social skills, and to help them resolve problems with families and peers.

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40 Furthermore, all programs had a direct connection to either a university or businesses in the community who also supported the students’ success while in the program through consultations with teachers, field trips, career development activities, and the like. These case studies provided insightful information because it is easy to see that if more intervention programs were implemented the probabilities of reducing drop-out rates can be a reality.

The Consequences of Dropping Out

There are several ways in which high school dropouts negatively affect themselves and their communities; the decision to drop out of high school confronts the student with immediate and lifelong consequences. In a study by Stuit and Springer (2010), the researchers examined the consequences dropouts pose for the state of California in terms of tax revenue, public health, and incarceration costs. Their findings showed that high school dropout earned around $11, 000 less than high school graduates with no postsecondary education and $20,000 less than those

individuals who completed some college education. This meant that high school dropouts paid $252 less in tax dollars per year than if they had graduated from high school which resulted in $958 million lost every year in tax revenues in the state of California. Therefore, high school dropouts not only affected themselves by not earning the money they could have if they had graduated from high school, but also affected the state by not paying necessary tax dollars.

In the same way researchers found that dropouts depended more on health coverage paid by the state due to their fair or poor health. According to the results,

References

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