Sat Reading PDF

(1)

Learnerator’s

SAT Evidence-Based Reading & Writing

Review Guide

(2)

Introduction

Hi there! We created this book to serve as an overview of all the major concepts that will be asked of you in the new SAT reading section. This is a conglomeration of a series of review posts we originally published on our blog. Whether you’re new to the SAT or a veteran, we hope you’ll find this book helpful in your preparation for the exam!

-‐The Learnerator Team

E-‐mail us at [email protected] if you have any questions, comments, or suggestions.

(5)

About Us

Learnerator bridges the gap between learning and mastery by curating high quality practice materials for a variety of difficult academic subject areas. Our online test prep offers:

• Over 300 SAT Integrated Reading & Writing practice questions • Over 300 SAT Math practice questions

• Hundreds of practice questions for SAT IIs: Biology, Chemistry, French, Literature, Math 1 & 2, Physics, US History, World History

• Detailed personalized statistics based on your performance

• A competitive online leaderboard to see how you stand compared to others

• Convenience with anytime access from an Internet-enabled device

Visit us at

www.learnerator.com

Use SAT2016 for 10% off any Learnerator SAT Subject Guide

(6)

The 11 Things You Need to Know about

the New 2016 SAT Exam

It's been a while since the College Board has revamped its flagship exam, the SAT. You may be wondering what the new 2016 SAT exam will entail. Below are a list of key differences between the old exam and the one being introduced in Spring 2016:

1. Exam length. It's shorter (sort of)! The exam is being cut from a 3 hour, 45 minute exam to a 3 hour exam with an OPTIONAL "Essay" portion lasting 50 minutes.

2. Section reorganization. The "Writing" and "Critical Reading" sections have been morphed into "Evidence-‐Based Reading and Writing" (EBR&W) with two subsections for reading and writing & language.

3. Vocab. Remember the days when you'd have to memorize endless flash cards with words like "adroit" and "celerity"? Probably not, but I do

because I am getting old (I took the SAT in 2007!). Now, instead of focusing on rarely-‐used, arcane words, the new SAT focuses more on words that you'd actually use in college and in your career. An example would be "synergy", which is a common business word.

4. Essay. Since it is now optional, whether or not you take it will be based on the requirements of the colleges to which you apply. The essay is also no longer about expressing your views on an issue, but rather, analyzing a source text of another person's argument using evidence from the passage.

5. Reading passages. The passages will have more diversity, with the following weighting: 20% U.S. and World Literature, 40% History and Social Studies, and 40% Science and Math. Each passage or paired set will

(7)

be 500-‐750 words and the total length of all passages will be approximately 3,250 words.

6. Graphical representations. The Reading & Writing section is going to oriented around command of evidence in context (i.e., words in a history vs. a science context have different meanings). This also applies to

graphical representations of facts, which is going to be emphasized more in this exam.

7. Historical documents. Each exam's Evidence-‐Based Reading and Writing section will feature either a passage from an important U.S. historical document (like the Declaration of Independence), or from landmark speeches or arguments from important people like JFK, Martin Luther King, or Winston Churchill (they are not necessarily all Americans). This may present a disadvantage to international students; so if that is you, make sure to note this. Even though the College Board says no prior

knowledge is needed to answer these questions, it certainly helps to have the context of the documents ahead of time.

8. The math section. The old math section of the SAT was a bit willy-‐nilly and spanned many areas. The new Math section is more narrowly defined and introduces a section called "Problem Solving and Data Analysis", which introduces some basic concepts of statistics. For more on this, go to

our SAT Review page.

9. Calculator usage. There are now some portions of the new SAT that does not allow for the use of calculators.

10. Delivery. The SAT will be available in both digital as well as paper forms.

(8)

11. Scoring. Hooray! No more guessing penalty! You will be given points for correct answers, but blank and incorrect answers will not earn you any deductions. The scoring returns to 400-‐1600, from the current 600-‐2400 range. You are also going to get separate test scores and subscores, shown below:

Summary:It is interesting to note that 2013 was the first year that the ACT

surpassed the SAT in terms of the number of exams taken. The ACT has become viewed as more representative of the skills necessary for college and career success, and this new SAT is the College Board's response. The result is an SAT that is closer to the ACT with perhaps an even greater emphasis on the ability to analyze sources, which is also where the CB is taking their AP exams.

(9)

SAT vs. ACT

Among the Internet’s most oft-‐Googled questions is: “What is the difference between the ACT and the SAT?” Now that the SAT is changing, the answer will no doubt become more nuanced.

Below is a table summarizing the differences and similarities between the two tests. Read on for a more detailed explanation of what’s in the table.

ACT SAT

LOGISTICS *Offered 6x/year

*$38.00 without essay *$54.50 with essay

*Offered 5x/year

*$52.50 now (may change)

ACHIEVEMENT v. APTITUDE

*Measures what you've learned in school

*Measures how well you are likely to do in school in the future

ENGLISH *75 multiple-‐choice

questions, 4 answer choices per question. *How much have you learned about

grammar/usage?

*44 multiple-‐choice questions, 4 answer choices per question. *How good are your grammar/rhetoric skills? *Called “Writing and Language,” integrated with reading

READING *40 multiple-‐choice

questions, 4 answer choices per question *4-‐8 passages about science, humanities, history/social studies, literature*Measures *52 multiple-‐choice questions, 4 answer choices per question *4-‐6 passages about history/social studies, science, literature. *Measures reading

(10)

reading comprehension comprehension

*Contains charts, graphs, visuals

SCIENCE *40 multiple-‐choice

questions

*Data Representation, Research Summaries, and Conflicting Viewpoints. *Charts/graph/visual analysis

N/A

MATH *60 questions, 5 answer

choices*All multiple choice *Pre-‐algebra and Plane Geometry most heavily represented

*Can use calculator on whole test

*57 questions, 4 answer choices

*12 grid-‐ins

*Algebra most heavily represented

*Can use calculator on most of test

ESSAY *Optional

*Give your opinion on a topic*Scored out of 12

*Optional

*Analyze someone else’s opinion on a topic *Scored out of 8 SCORING *Scored out of 36 (average

of all sections) *7 subscores

*Scored out of 1600 (adds both area scores)

*7 subscores

The SAT’s redesign is due to a number of factors, including the fact that the ACT is now slightly more popular and – many say – more fair, or at least a more accurate predictor of college and career readiness. But even with the redesign, there are

(11)

some key differences – and some new key similarities.

LOGISTICS:

Timing

Both tests can be taken more than once, in either junior or senior year. The ACT is administered six times a year in the United States (in September, October,

December, February, April, and June), while the SAT is administered 5 times (in December, January, March, May, and June). The new SAT will be administered for the first time in 2016.

For both the ACT and the SAT, you can take the test in your junior and senior year. (In fact, we recommend taking the test twice if you’re not thrilled with your original junior-‐year score, as ACT Math covers typical 12th-‐grade topics and SAT Integrated

Reading and Writing will include some college-‐level passages – so it will be helpful to go into the test feeling more confident and prepared!)

Costs

The ACT costs $38.00 without the writing portion and $54.50 with the writing. Currently, the SAT costs $52.50, though this might change now that the new SAT’s Writing portion is optional.

OK, BUT WHAT’S THE REAL DIFFERENCE?

The common answer to this is that the SAT measures aptitude while the ACT measures achievement.

Aptitude

Aptitude tests measure how well you are likely to perform a task based on the skills you already have, or have developed over 12 years of formal education. “Aptitude”

(12)

has been compared to talent or intelligence, and aptitude tests ask questions that measure how you reason or think. (Of course, there are multiple ways to be talented and intelligent, and multiple ways to nurture and extend these qualities – which is one reason that the SAT, which measures and privileges only a few types of aptitude, has drawn so much criticism.)

Achievement

On the other hand, achievement tests, like the ACT, measure how well you

can already perform certain tasks based on what you have already learned over 12 years of formal education. They measure skills or knowledge, and as such have been called a more accurate predictor of whether students are ready for college and the workplace.

However, now that the SAT is changing, it will have much more in common with the ACT than it did previously. The debate over aptitude versus achievement is a hot topic in education, and well beyond the scope of this post. The essential thing to keep in mind is this: if you work hard in school and out of it, you can and will learn the skills that are essential to succeeding on both the SAT and the ACT, as well as in college, the workplace, and life.

(13)

OK, BUT WHAT DOES THIS ACTUALLY MEAN FOR ME?

Unlike the new SAT, which is divided into two mandatory and one optional section, the ACT is separated into four mandatory portions and one optional section. Those portions are:

ACT ENGLISH which features 75 questions about a variety of strategically “messed up” passages to measure a student’s ability to recognize, diagnose, and correct problems of grammar and usage, punctuation, sentence structure, strategy, organization, and style. In other words, the ACT English test measures how much you’ve learned about the conventions of the English language and strategies for good writing. There are four answer choices per question.

ACT READING uses four to eight passages and forty questions to measure your ability to comprehend main ideas, significant details, implied and stated ideas, specific vocabulary words, and text structures like comparison and sequence of events. The passages might be single, long selections or paired, short selections. The test promises that this is “the type of reading required in first year college courses,” and the topics center on social studies, humanities, natural sciences, and literary narratives. In other words, ACT Reading measures how well you have learned to read a diverse array of texts over the past 11 years. There are four answer choices per question.

Now that the SAT has collapsed its Reading and Writing sections into one integrated section (“Evidence-‐Based Reading and Writing”) its structure is remarkably similar to ACT English and ACT Reading. SAT Evidence-‐Based Reading and Writing is now comprised of 44 Writing and Language questions and 52 Reading questions about 4-‐6 passages (most long, but with some paired shorter selections) across topics in history and social studies, science, and US and world literature. SAT EBRW measures your understanding of words in context (no more of those pesky “SAT words” like “adamantine” or “vitreous”), your command of evidence, and your

(14)

ability to analyze text structure, assess implied and explicit meanings, and

understand purpose. The new SAT EBRW section will now have four answer choices per question instead of five. Notably, the new SAT EBRW section will include charts and graphs; understanding and analyzing visuals is a type of literacy, or reading, too!

The ACT Reading section does not offer charts or graphs, because there is a whole section dedicated almost exclusively to visual data. ACT Science is its own 40-‐ question section, comprised of Data Representation, Research Summaries, and Conflicting Viewpoints. This section doesn’t actually measure how much you know about science. Instead, it measures how well you can understand, analyze, and synthesize scientific data – how well you can read a chart or a graph, how deeply you understand two different ideas about scientific concepts, whether or not you can think critically and make an inference about the data in front of you. Each answer has four options.

Last, ACT Math has sixty questions with five options each (not four like on all the other sections of the test) about topics that range from pre-‐Algebra through Trigonometry. The most heavily represented subjects on the test are Pre-‐Algebra and Plane Geometry. The ACT measures your mathematical reasoning skills as well as much you’ve absorbed in your math classes over the past 12 years. You will be able to use a calculator on every question on the test.

The SAT Math section has 57 questions total, 45 with four answer choices and 12 “Student-‐Produced Responses” (i.e. “grid-‐ins”), one of which involves showing your work and demonstrating your thinking in response to a word problem. Of the four content domains (“Heart of Algebra,” “Passport to Advanced Math,” “Problem Data Analysis,” and “Additional Topics”), Heart of Algebra is the biggest, so make sure you know your algebra before you take this test. Also, the new SAT will now present “item sets” – a group of related questions that ask you to respond to the same set of data/graphs/stimuli. You won’t be able to use your calculator for 20 questions on

(15)

the SAT Math test.

Perhaps the biggest difference between the two tests is the Optional Essay. The ACT will give you two perspectives on a common topic relevant to high school students (such as curfews and drivers’ licenses) and ask you to contribute your opinion. You will have to demonstrate that you understand both perspectives, that your opinion is based in evidence and reasoning, and that your writing conforms to standard English conventions.

The SAT’s optional essay will ask you to analyze a “source text” (which will have very little to do with common topics relevant to high school students) and figure out what the writer is saying and how s/he builds an argument. You will have to prove that you understand how a writer constructs an effective argument, using evidence from the text. The SAT is NOT looking for your opinion, but for how adroitly you marshal and cite evidence, and how fluently you write.

These are very different types of essays, so be sure you have plenty of practice for both.

(16)

HOW WILL MY TEST BE SCORED?

SAT Scoring

The SAT is going back to its original 1600-‐point scale (#oldschool), which means that the highest score you can earn is a 1600 (composite) with an 800 EBRW score (area score) and an 800 Math (area score). However, it gets a little more

complicated after this:

You get 3 test scores (from 10-‐40) for (1) Reading, (2) Writing and Language, and (3) Math.

You get 2 cross-‐test score (from 10-‐40) for (1) Analysis in Science and (2) Analysis in History/Social Studies.

You get 7 subscores (from 1-‐15) for (1) Command of Evidence and (2) Relevant Words in Context (Reading), (3) Expression of Ideas and (4) Standard English Conventions (Writing and Language), (5) Heart of Algebra, (6) Problem Solving and Data Analysis, and (7) Passport to Advanced Math.

Essays are scored from 2-‐8, with two readers who will assign you a score of 1-‐4.

ACT Scoring

On the ACT, you will receive a Composite Score (out of 36) that averages each of your four test scores in Math, English, Reading, and Science. The highest score you can receive on each section as well as on the test itself is a 36.

You will receive seven subscores: (1) Usage and Mechanics, (2) Rhetorical Skills, (3) Pre-‐Algebra and Elementary Algebra, (4) Intermediate Algebra/Coordinate Geometry, (5) Plane Geometry/Trigonometry, (6) Social Studies/Natural Sciences reading skills, and (7) Arts/Literature reading skills.

(17)

These are scored from 1-‐18, and have no mathematical bearing on your composite score.

Your essay is scored out of 12, with two readers giving you a score between 1-‐6.

(18)

Part I: Information & Ideas (Reading)

(19)

Determining Explicit Meaning in Passages

“Determining explicit meanings” is the College Board’s highfalutin’ way of saying, “reading the text closely and understanding what it says.” All the SAT wants you to do is:

1)Pay attention to detail, and

2)Understand all the information that is already there.

This applies both to the passage and to the question and all of the answer choices.

The beauty of the multiple-choice test is that all the answers are already there; you just have to know where to look.

This means you have to consider every scrap of information the College Board gives you. The little blurb before each passage is crucial – they are giving you free

information about the passage, which will help you understand the passage better and answer questions about it.

There are two equally important ways to go about this.

1. Annotate the text.

Underline, star, or make notes next to all the information that seems like it might be relevant. For example, take the blurb and the first paragraph of this passage, taken directly from the SAT website:

This passage is adapted from a novel written by a woman in 1899. The novel was banned in many places because of its unconventional point of view:

(20)

It was eleven o'clock that night when Mr. Pontellier returned from Klein's hotel. He was in an excellent humor, in high spirits, and very talkative. His entrance awoke his wife, who was in bed and fast asleep when he came in. He talked to her while he undressed, telling her anecdotes and bits of news and gossip that he had gathered during the day. From his trousers pockets he took a fistful of crumpled bank notes and a good deal of silver coin, which he piled on the bureau indiscriminately with keys, knife, handkerchief, and whatever else happened to be in his pockets. She was overcome with sleep, and answered him with little half utterances.

The first thing you’ll want to do is circle all the important information:

a) This is a novel (ok, so fiction – that means you’ll have to be prepared for questions on characterization, plot, literary devices…)

b) Written by a woman in 1899 (ok, so old-fashioned, probably – be prepared for some old-fashioned language)

c) Banned in many places for being unconventional (which undoubtedly means there will be a question about something related to this because the College Board wouldn’t drop that juicy morsel unless it had a reason – so this might contain themes considered “unconventional” in 1899)

See how much information you can glean just from the little blurb? Now turn your attention to the passage. Take note of:

1) What time it was when Mr. P came home (pretty late! 11pm, and his wife was fast asleep!)

2) Where Mr. P was coming from (a hotel… why was he at a hotel at 11 pm

without his wife? Work event? Party?)

3)Mr. P’s mood (clearly good – something good must have happened. Take

special note of this because the SAT loves to ask about tone and mood!)

(21)

time to tell her about “anecdotes and bits of news and gossip”? Take note of how she is reacting to him, too.

Annotations aren’t the only way to record your observations of the text. It’s also crucial that you adopt a second strategy:

2. Translate the text.

This won’t always be necessary, but the more complex, old-fashioned, or

specialized a passage is, the more likely you will need to translate at least parts of it into plain English. You can do this while you annotate, to save time.

Let’s look at the passage again, this time with some translations and annotations in red:

It was eleven o'clock that night when Mr. Pontellier returned from Klein's hotel. He was in an excellent humor (good mood), in high spirits, and very talkative. His entrance awoke his wife, who was in bed and fast asleep when he came in. He talked to her while he undressed, telling her anecdotes (stories) and bits of news and gossip that he had gathered during the day. From his trousers pockets he took a fistful of crumpled bank notes and a good deal of silver coin (lots of money), which he piled on the bureau indiscriminately with keys, knife, handkerchief, and whatever else happened to be in his pockets (piling all of his stuff up – so he’s messy). She was overcome with sleep (tired), and answered him with little half utterances

(half-sentences/incoherent).

When it comes to translating the text, sometimes you’ll just get stuck on a word. Say you didn’t know “anecdotes” in the fourth line. You probably know “bits of news and gossip,” though, so it’s possible to figure out from context that he’s giving her a very chatty, thorough account of his day. You won’t need to know what every word means to figure out a general picture from the text, or even to do a translation.

(22)

Now that you’ve annotated and translated the text, you’ll want to turn your attention to the question, and do the same, making sure you understand completely what is being asked.

Question: “Mr. Pontellier’s conduct in this passage could most likely be described as…”

A)Generous

B)Good-natured

C)Passionate D)Self-centered

Remember to annotate and/or translate. What is the question asking you?

“Mr. Pontellier’s conduct (behavior) in this passage could most likely be described as…”

So they’re asking about his behavior. Based on the few things we know about him – he got home late, he’s very chatty though his wife is asleep, he’s in a good mood – it’s pretty easy to answer this question, so let’s consider each answer choice.

Option A, Generous. Is there any evidence to support this?

Yes, there’s mention of the money in his pockets, which may serve to distract you, but the passage doesn’t say anything about him giving away or otherwise doing anything with that money. Cross out A.

Option B, Good-natured. Well, he is in “an excellent humor,” (good mood) but that

(23)

about his behavior that evening, not his general personality. This isn’t a terrible choice, but leave it for now and consider the others.

Option C, Passionate. Is there any evidence that he’s being passionate? Certainly he

seems happy and excited, but there’s little evidence of passion – especially as passion generally tends to be directed towards something or someone, whereas a good mood is general. Cross that one off, and then move on to the last answer.

Option D, Self-centered. Remember that the question is asking about how heactedthat

night. Think back to all the actions you noted when you were reading the text: he came in late, woke his sleeping wife with his chatter, and piled all his stuff

everywhere in their shared room. Though he may befeeling good-natured (B), he’s acting pretty self-centered. Clearly, that is the only correct answer to what the

College Board is asking here. All you need to do is pay attention to detail.

---

That’s a fairly simple passage, though, so let’s do this once more with a slightly harder passage.

The following passage is from the same book.

An indescribable oppression, which seemed to generate in some unfamiliar part of her consciousness, filled her whole being with a vague anguish. It was like a shadow, like a mist passing across her soul's summer day. It was strange and unfamiliar; it was a mood. She did not sit there inwardly upbraiding her husband, lamenting at Fate, which had directed her footsteps to the path, which they had taken. She was just having a good cry all to herself. The mosquitoes made merry over her, biting her firm, round arms and nipping at her bare insteps.

The little stinging, buzzing imps succeeded in dispelling a mood which might have held her there in the darkness half a night longer.

(24)

Again, let’s start annotating and translating:

An indescribable oppression (really bad feeling), which seemed to generate (come from) in some unfamiliar part of her consciousness (unfamiliar part of her consciousness – so she doesn’t know why she’s unhappy, or where the unhappiness is coming from… maybe her subconscious?), filled her whole being with a vague anguish.(She was sad) It was like a shadow, like a mist passing across her soul's summer

day. (Imagery/sadness) It was strange and unfamiliar; it was a mood. She did not sit there inwardly upbraiding (criticizing) her husband, lamenting (being sad at) at Fate,

which had directed her footsteps to the path which they had taken (so she’s NOT sitting

there criticizing her husband and hating her fate? This is an interesting thing for the narrator to tell us… And it’s interesting that she would even think in terms of “fate,”

instead of her own decisions, “directing her footsteps.”) She was just having a good cry

all to herself. (as one does late at night) The mosquitoes made merry over her (mosquito

bloodsucking party), biting her firm, round arms and nipping at her bare insteps (feet). The little stinging, buzzing imps (ie mosquitos) succeeded in dispelling a mood (they got rid of her bad mood?!) which might have held her there in the darkness half a night

longer. (guess they made her so itchy she forgot to be sad…?)

On the actual test, you won’t necessarily have time to write yourself insanely detailed notes like I did here. That’s OK! Instead of writing “really bad feeling” or making notes about “the unfamiliar part of her consciousness” you can use shorthand – a little frowny face, a question mark, an underline, an exclamation, a star.

And it’s OK if you don’t know all the words, like “upbraiding” or “lamenting.” The rest of the passage – with its words like “oppression,” “anguish,” “shadow,” “mist passing across her soul,” “good cry” – should serve to cement the

(25)

So now we can turn our attention to a question based on this passage:

By depicting in such detail Mrs. Pontellier’s emotional state, the narrator is trying to suggest that…

A)Mr. Pontellier is worldly and callous

B)Mrs. Pontellier is clearly upset about something that happened before Mr. Pontellier came back home

C)Mrs. Pontellier does not enjoy being a mother

D)Mrs. Pontellier is unused to confronting her own unhappiness

Remember to really think about what the test is asking you. The question asks about the narrator’s intentions here in showing you Mrs. Pontellier’s state – i.e., Based on this unhappy episode, what does the narrator want to tell you about this character?

You can easily answer this question based on explicit textual evidence.

Consider option A. Mr. Pontellier may indeed be worldly and callous (not very

nice), but there is no evidence from this particular part of the passage (which is all the question asks about!) that this is why his wife is so upset. You can easily cross this one out – remember, you only want to look for what the text

says explicitly, and here the question asks only about one particular part of the

passage, in which Mr. Pontellier is NOT described in any detail. (In fact, all it says about him is that Mrs. Pontellier did NOT use this time to criticize him in her mind – but it gives no specific descriptions as to his personality.)

Next, try option B. As with option A, this MIGHT be a possibility – except that

(26)

what happened before Mr. Pontellier came home, so you can cross this one out immediately.

Look at option C. Again, remember to look only at the part of the text that the

question is asking about. There is no mention about being a mother in this part of the text, and in fact no mention of children at all. This clearly cannot be the

answer.

Now we come to option D: Mrs. Pontellier is unused to confronting her own

unhappiness. Consider the evidence here, because the text has pretty much told you that this is the case:

She feels “indescribably oppressed” (as though she lacks the words/experience to describe it – presumably, if she was very familiar with and deeply aware of this feeling, she would know exactly how to describe it and what the reasons for it are).

Her unhappiness “generates from an unfamiliar part of her consciousness” – i.e., she has no idea where it came from. And if she doesn’t know WHY she’s

unhappy, then this is pretty good evidence that she doesn’t think a whole lot about her own unhappiness. Clearly, this is the only reasonable choice.

Now, a critical reader will no doubt make the connection between Mrs. Pontellier’s anguished crying and her inconsiderate husband. A good critical reader might also connect this to the blurb before the passage, which tells you that this book had an “unconventional point of view in 1899” – a point of view that will no doubt have something to do with the fact that the marriage between the main characters seems very unfulfilling.

(27)

These critical reading skills will be very helpful in the next chapter, Determining Implicit Meanings.

(28)

Determining Implicit Meanings

The College Board defines “determining implicit meanings” as “drawing reasonable inferences and logical conclusions from the text.” If determining explicit meanings is figuring out what the text says, then determining implicit

meanings is figuring out what the text suggests or implies.

This sounds difficult, and in some cases it can be. But there are tricks to drawing inferences and reaching conclusions, and they are:

1) Read closely.

Just as you do when you’re trying to figure out an “explicit” meaning, you’ll want to take notes, translate, and pay attention to what the text is saying. Understanding the surface meaning of a text will help you understand it on a deeper level, too.

2) Find evidence.

Every time you choose an answer, match up your choice with actual evidence (meaning, a quote) from the text. If you can’t do that, or if the evidence you’ve chosen doesn’t convince you, then you are probably not making a supportable conclusion and you should pick another answer.

Try this strategy with the following passage from the Public Library of Science blog:

As Ebola rears its ugly head in the U.S., there has been a lot of discussion about how afraid we really should be. While health officials have remained relatively calm, insisting in a tense

(29)

congressional hearing that there is no need to panic, some members of the American public have gone in the opposite direction, proclaiming a state of emergency on social media channels such as Twitter and Facebook. Donald Trump has been an especially noisy voice on the topic on Twitter, demanding that Obama stop all flights to and from West Africa and proclaiming that Ebola is actually much more contagious than the CDC says it is. At the end of September, with the announcement of the first suspected case of Ebola in the U.S., Trump expressed panic on Twitter, writing:

"The United States must immediately institute strong travel restrictions or Ebola will be all over the United States--a plague like no other! Ebola is much easier to transmit than the CDC and government representatives are admitting. Spreading all over Africa - and fast. Stop flights."

Trump’s comments suggest not only a distrust of health authorities but also a kind of hysteria, with the use of the word “plague,” that is reminiscent of the infectious disease panic seen in many other outbreaks in American history, including SARS in 2003 and bubonic plague in 1924, the latter an outbreak that famously led to the frantic firing of thousands of Latino workers and destruction of homes in low-income Latino neighborhoods because they were seen as the “source” of the disease.

The first thing you will want to do is annotate your text. Make notes next to anything that seems interesting, unusual, or otherwise notable. And if there’s something you don’t understand, translate it for yourself into plain English as best as you can. My translations and comments are in red:

As Ebola rears its ugly head in the U.S., (negative) there has been a lot of discussion about how afraid we really should be. While health officials have remained relatively calm, insisting in a tense congressional hearing that there is no need to panic, some members of the American public have gone in the opposite direction, proclaiming a state of emergency on social media channels such as Twitter and Facebook. (debate here) Donald Trump has been an especially noisy (negative-sounding) voice on the topic on Twitter, demanding that Obama stop all flights to and from West Africa and proclaiming that Ebola is actually much more contagious than the CDC says it is. At the end of September, with the announcement of the first suspected case of Ebola in the U.S., Trump expressed panic on Twitter, writing:

(30)

the United States--a plague like no other! Ebola is much easier to transmit than the CDC and government representatives are admitting. Spreading all over Africa - and fast. Stop flights."

Trump’s comments suggest not only a distrust of health authorities but also a kind of

hysteria, (negative) with the use of the word “plague,” that is reminiscent of the infectious disease panic seen in many other outbreaks in American history, including SARS in 2003 and bubonic plague in 1924, the latter an outbreak that famously led to the frantic firing of thousands of Latino workers and destruction of homes in low-income Latino neighborhoods because they were seen as the “source” of the disease.(Trump is panicking in the same way that people panicked in 1924, which led to thousands racially-based firings… negative).

These are just preliminary notes, but they will help us answer the next two questions using the second strategy, matching up every option with a quote / evidence from the text.

How does the author of this passage most likely feel about Trump’s comments on Twitter?

A. She finds Trump’s comments laudable and important. B. She finds Trump’s comments irrelevant and pointless. C. She is distrustful of Trump’s comments.

D. She is subtly disdainful of Trump’s comments.

Now, the author never explicitly expresses an opinion about Trump. However, if you read closely, you can answer this question by matching up each option with evidence from the text.

Consider A: She finds Trump’s comments laudable and important.

Even if you don’t know that “laudable” means “worthy of praise,” you can figure out that important is a positive thing. Comb over the text. Is there any mention that the author finds Trump’s contribution important, other than the fact that she is mentioning him? There’s no evidence of this. In fact, all of the

(31)

words that she uses to describe Trump’s contributions are NEGATIVE – she calls him “noisy” and says he is demonstrating “hysteria,” neither of which are

positive words. Go ahead and cross out Option A.

Now, Option B – Again, look at these words: “irrelevant and pointless.” Both are

negative, which matches with the negative tone the author uses to describe Trump’s comments. But is there any evidence that she finds Trump “irrelevant”? Surely if he was “pointless,” the author wouldn’t mention him at all. Nor would she say that “Trump’s comments suggest… a kind of hysteria… reminiscent of the infectious disease panic… in 1924… that famously led to the frantic firing of thousands of Latino workers and destruction of homes in low-income Latino neighborhoods.” In fact, Trump’s comments are the opposite of “irrelevant” – if panics like his have led to people being fired and homes being destroyed, then clearly words like his have some resonance, even if they are a negative rather than a positive part of this national conversation.

Clearly, Option B can’t be correct.

Check out Option C and try to find evidence for the fact that the author is distrustful of Trump’s comments. True, the word “distrustful” shows up in the passage… although the passage suggests that it is Trump who is distrustful of

authorities, not the author. True, the author seems like she does not agree with Trump, calling him “noisy” and “hysterical” and subtly suggesting that his comments could lead to widespread panic, firing, and destruction of homes. So this might be a good answer – there is some evidence here.

Let’s consider Option D and see if there is more or better evidence: The author is

“subtly disdainful” – i.e. she has a negative impression of Trump’s comments. Clearly, by describing Trump as “noisy,” “hysterical,” and “having an attitude

(32)

“reminiscent of widespread panics that led to firings and destructions of homes,” the author is demonstrating a disdain of Trump.

So it’s between C and D. Which word better describes the author’s attitude? Is there evidence that she doesn’t trust Trump, or is there more evidence that she

thinks negatively of him?

While C may be a possible answer, D is a better answer because there is moreevidence for it. Which brings us to Strategy #3 for Determining Implicit Meanings:

When in doubt, go with the option that has more evidence.

---

Let’s try one more example from the same article:

At the same time, a good deal of the coverage of the Ebola crisis in West Africa has focused on the “irrationality” and “ignorance” of West Africans, choosing to visit traditional healers instead of doctors and ignoring warnings from health officials that traditional burial rituals can hasten the spread of the disease. Indeed, this “lack of faith in Western medicine” is now being addressed by local and foreign health officials who are running educational programs in places like Liberia and Sierra Leone in order to ensure that the people exposed to the illness have the correct scientific information.

But while certain cultural practices and lack of education have certainly played a role in the rapid spread of Ebola in West Africa, the amount of attention we have paid to the “ignorance” and “irrationality” of people living in these developing countries has not been balanced with an equal amount of attention to our own developed nations’ manifestations of similar irrational health beliefs. Are we really that much more knowledgeable and rational than our West African counterparts, or do our irrationalities and psychological missteps simply take different cultural forms? And do our ignorance levels and irrationalities have the potential to be just as dangerous to our health as seeking out a local healer instead of a trained healthcare professional in response to a life-threatening viral illness?

(33)

Remember, annotate and translate anything that sticks out to you:

At the same time, a good deal of the coverage of the Ebola crisis in West Africa has focused on the “irrationality” and “ignorance” of West Africans, choosing to visit traditional healers instead of doctors and ignoring warnings from health officials that traditional burial rituals can hasten the spread of the disease. Indeed, this “lack of faith in Western medicine” is now being

addressed by local and foreign health officials who are running educational programs in places like Liberia and Sierra Leone in order to ensure that the people exposed to the illness have the correct scientific information.

But while certain cultural practices and lack of education have certainly played a role in the rapid spread of Ebola in West Africa, the amount of attention we have paid to the “ignorance” and “irrationality” of people living in these developing countries has not been balanced with an equal amount of attention to our own developed nations’ manifestations of similar irrational health beliefs. Are we really that much more knowledgeable and rational than our West African counterparts, or do our irrationalities and psychological missteps simply take different cultural forms? And do our ignorance levels and irrationalities have the potential to be just as dangerous to our health as seeking out a local healer instead of a trained healthcare professional in

response to a life-threatening viral illness?

As you can see, I bolded a lot of information – all because it stood out to me in some way. The words in quotes hold a lot of interest – clearly, the author is trying to communicate that SOMEONE believes that West Africans are “irrational” and “ignorant,” but by putting the words in quotes, she is

demonstrating distance from that opinion. I also bolded “now being addressed” because this “lack of faith in Western medicine” is clearly important enough that local AND foreign health officials feel the need to address it.

Next, I bolded parts of the first sentence of the next paragraph, paying special attention to those words “but while” – transition words like BUT, HOWEVER, WHILE, and YET (among others) always demonstrate a shift in thinking or a

(34)

contradiction, and I wanted to be prepared to answer a question about this shift in thinking.

In translation, the author is saying “There has been some ignorance in West Africa, which helps spread Ebola, but we (meaning, Americans) have not paid attention to our own ignorance.” Now the purpose of the article shifts slightly to OUR ignorance and irrationalities, rather than West African ignorance and irrationalities. She finished by saying that OUR ignorance levels can be “dangerous to our health.”

See if you can use our strategies (read closely, annotate, find evidence) to answer the following question:

Based on the passage, the author would most likely agree with which of the following aphorisms?

A. Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched. B. Don’t throw stones if you live in a glass house. C. Be the change you wish to see in the world.

D. Even if sickness distracts from thoughts, all that is needed is the will to love.

Even if you don’t know what the word “aphorism” means (it is a fancy word for “common saying”), chances are that you recognize these idiomatic English

expressions. This question will require you to make some inferences based on the passage because clearly, the author never uses any of these sayings. So let’s examine them one by one:

Option A: “Don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched” means “don’t

make plans based on things that haven’t happened yet.” Skim the text. What evidence is there that the author agrees with this advice? Other than the fact that this is good general advice, the author makes no mention of plans or hopes for the future. Cross this one off.

(35)

Option B: “Don’t throw stones if you live in a glass house” means “Don’t criticize

others for faults that you have yourself.” Skim the text. Is there mention of criticism? Yes! We have criticized West Africans for being “irrational” and

“ignorant” while ignoring our own “missteps and irrationalities” that are “just as dangerous to our health.” There is certainly evidence that the author thinks that the American public is “throwing stones” despite living in a glass house made of our own irrationalities and ignorance. Keep this as an option and consider the next option:

Option C: “Be the change you wish to see in the world.” This can be interpreted

as “If you want to see a change in the world, then you yourself should try and make this change.” Look at the text. Is the author advocating for a specific

change? Maybe – by asking “And do our ignorance levels and irrationalities have the potential to be just as dangerous to our health” she might be subtly advocating that we stop being ignorant and irrational. But the general tone of the article isn’t focused on making changes. Instead, the point of the article seems to be more focused on illustrating a phenomenon rather than giving a directive (in this case: stop or change). It’s still an option, but the evidence isn’t quite rock-solid.

Consider Option D: This one mentions sickness (which is one of the topics of the

article). But the author never says anything about the will to “love.” You could make a very weak argument that by saying that Americans can be as irrational as West Africans when it comes to health, the author is advocating that Americans start loving their West African counterparts because we all have the same irrationalities.

You COULD make this argument. But read it back to yourself. It sounds pretty flimsy. Cross off D.

(36)

Now you’re left debating between B and C. Which has the most evidence? Is the

author advocating for change here, or is she pointing out that Americans can be pretty hypocritical in thinking West Africans are irrational when the American public has the potential to be just as irrational? Clearly, B has the most evidence,

and therefore can be the only right answer.

---

Let’s try this one more time, using the same passage.

At the same time, a good deal of the coverage of the Ebola crisis in West Africa has focused on the “irrationality” and “ignorance” of West Africans, choosing to visit traditional healers instead of doctors and ignoring warnings from health officials that traditional burial rituals can hasten the spread of the disease. Indeed, this “lack of faith in Western medicine” is now being addressed by local and foreign health officials who are running educational programs in places like Liberia and Sierra Leone in order to ensure that the people exposed to the illness have the correct scientific information.

But while certain cultural practices and lack of education have certainly played a role in the rapid spread of Ebola in West Africa, the amount of attention we have paid to the “ignorance” and “irrationality” of people living in these developing countries has not been balanced with an equal amount of attention to our own developed nations’ manifestations of similar irrational health beliefs. Are we really that much more knowledgeable and rational than our West African counterparts, or do our irrationalities and psychological missteps simply take different cultural forms? And do our ignorance levels and irrationalities have the potential to be just as dangerous to our health as seeking out a local healer instead of a trained healthcare professional in

response to a life-threatening viral illness?

Which of the following American practices would the author most likely deride as a “psychological misstep” akin to an Ebola patient visiting a local healer?

A. Thinking that West Africans are irrational B. Panicking about Ebola

C. Refusing a flu shot

(37)

To answer this question, you first need to understand it. There are two blocks here – the fact that the question uses the word “deride” (which means criticize), and the fact that the question is so long and could potentially be confusing. So, even if you’re not sure of the word “deride,” try your best to translate the question. It is using terminology from the text (“psychological misstep”) to ask: Which of the following American practices would the author most likely deride (criticize) as a

“psychological misstep” (irrational/bad thing) akin to (like) an Ebola patient visiting a local healer? I.e., “Which AMERICAN practice would the author think is AS irrational as visiting a local healer to cure Ebola”? In other words, which action is irrational AND

potentially dangerous to public health? The key here are the words “misstep” and “akin” – clearly, the answer will be negative (misstep) in a similar way (akin = comparison word) as thinking Ebola can be cured by a local healer.

Looking at the answer options, you can cross one off right from the start, because the answer will clearly be negative and at least one of the answers (D)is positive. Staying up to date on correct scientific information (which is a quote from the text, but don’t let that fool you!) is clearly a POSITIVE thing, not a dangerous, irrational one.

Now look at Option A: “Thinking that West Africans are irrational.” The question is asking: what is an irrational thing that Americans do? While there is evidence from the text that Americans view West Africans as irrational, and that this view is wrong, is there evidence from the text to support the second part of the

question – that this behavior is akin to visiting a local healer to cure Ebola (i.e. dangerous to public health)? Think back to the earliest part of the text, in which the author subtly criticized Donald Trump for potentially inciting mass hysteria that could lead to firing and destruction of homes. That is both irrational AND problematic/destructive – so for now, let’s keep Option A. There’s some evidence for it.

(38)

Try Option B next: “Panicking about Ebola.” Is panicking about Ebola irrational?

The author suggests that it is, by saying in the very first paragraph “health officials have remained relatively calm,” which suggests that the average American should probably be a bit calmer too. So yes, the author would

probably agree that panicking is irrational. But is it as irrational as treating Ebola incorrectly and allowing it to spread (as suggested by that “akin”)? Probably not. You can go ahead and cross this off based on lack of evidence.

Now Option C: “Refusing a flu shot.” The author doesn’t explicitly mention flu in

this article. But the flu, like Ebola, is a disease, and refusing to treat a disease is a fairly irrational thing to do – especially because like Ebola, the flu is contagious. The key to determining whether this is the right answer lies in that “akin” – which of the options are actively dangerous in the same way as not treating Ebola

properly? Clearly, the best and most likely answer is C: both actions (not treating Ebola OR the flu properly) are irrational AND allow a disease to spread in a dangerous way.

True, we had some evidence for Option A, but the scenario in Option C

corresponds most directly with the scenario outlined in the text, so that’s the best answer – there is more evidence for it based on what the text says.

This is a form of “analogical reasoning,” which is a skill you will develop further in the next section.

(39)

Analogical Reasoning

K, pop quiz: Analogies : SAT :: VCRs : ____________________ A, Entertainment B, DVDs C, Theaters

D, Limited-‐edition boxed sets

Give up?

At the risk of sounding old, analogies were huge on the SAT Verbal section when I was a wee lass, nervously sharpening my #2 pencil before the day of the big test. (By the way, the answer to that quiz is A – just as this form of analogical reasoning is no longer relevant to the SATs, VCRs are no longer relevant to the wider world of entertainment.)

Now that analogies have gone the way of pogs, dinosaurs, and the VCR, you may think that you don’t need to worry about them anymore.

Unfortunately, though the question format has changed, the SAT will still test you on whether or not you can think analogically: whether you can deftly and accurately compare one thing to another, whether you can draw conclusions based on

similarities and differences, whether you can logically apply information from one scenario into another. (The word analogy comes from the Greek word for

“proportion,” which makes sense if you think of an analogy as setting up some sort of relationship between two or more things.)

You won’t have to memorize lists of words and figure out if “chthonic: stygian :: celestial : effulgent”, because let’s face it, those words are fairly useless unless you’re

(40)

a huge word nerd/studying for a PhD in mythology /a passionate H.P. Lovecraft fan/an awesome combination of the three. (The analogy works, by the way).

But analogies themselves are a crucial way to organize information, to marshal support for an argument, to understand a relationship, or to impose an orderly framework on a narrative. In short, the College Board finally wised up, threw out the thesaurus, and decided to test you on applicable skills, like whether you can use critical reasoning to figure out what information can and should be usefully

extrapolated and applied to a new situation. A lot of this sounds more complicated than it is; chances are, if you’ve ever had, made, or defended an argument, you’ve already practiced this skill.

Now you just need to hone this skill in the context of reading. It may help to remember that making an analogy is just another form of making an inference – extrapolating from the text to figure out how the information applies to a new situation.

Ready to practice? The following passage from Plato’s “Apology” details the conviction and execution of Socrates.

The question may be asked, Why will he persist in following a profession which leads him to death? Why?-‐-‐because he must remain at his post where the god has placed him, as he remained at Potidaea, and Amphipolis, and Delium, where the generals placed him. Besides, he is not so over wise as to imagine that he knows whether death is a good or an evil; and he is certain that desertion of his duty is an evil. Anytus is quite right in saying that they should never have indicted him if they meant to let him go. For he will certainly obey God rather than man; and will continue to preach to all men of all ages the necessity of virtue and improvement; and if they refuse to listen to him he will still persevere and reprove them. This is his way of corrupting the youth, which he will not cease to follow in obedience to the god, even if a thousand deaths await him.