Landscape Architecture

Visualizing

ELKE MERTENS

Visualizing

Landscape Architecture

FUNCTIONS

I

CONCEPTS

I

STRATEGIES

7 Preface

9

INTRODUCTION

10 Conveying ideas and planning aims

in plans and images

11 Presentation methods in the past

20 Finding ideas and forms

23 Finding ideas and forms by drawing

28 Finding ideas and forms by modelmaking

31

PARTl FUNCTIONS

32 Plane - Two-dimensional presentat ions:

possibilities and limitations

33 The ground plan as the basis fo r design

35 Height as a second dimension : sections and elevations

36 Plans and analyses of the existing fabr ic

40 Preliminary design and design plans

50 Sections and elevations

58 Landscape plann ing

60 Explanatory structural plans

62 Presentat ion drawings

64 Working plans

66 Space - Presentation of living spaces

71 Three-d imens iona l project ions

73 Spatial representation by models

74 Parallel project ions and perspectives

74 Perspective views

88 Bird 's-eye view perspectives

98 Spatial representations for working planning

99 Physical and digita l models

102 Time - The forth dimension

10 2 Change as a subject of design and presentation

104 Survey

106 Times of day

110 Seasons

11 2 The passage of time

114 Example : Transformations of an urban landscape: Bordeaux

CONTENTS

121

PART 2 CONCEPTS

122 Visual presentations over the course of the planning process

123 Example 1: Beijing Yanshan Gas Implements Factory Park

130 Example2:Khalifa City C

138 Visual presentations for competitions

139 Example1:International Garden Show2013

at Hamburg-Wilhelmsburg

146 Example2:Toronto Waterfront

152 Example3:The High Line, New York

159

PART3 STRATEGIES

160 Urbanization: a challenge for sustainable

landscape planning

161 Example: Ecological Infrastructure as the basis for a "negative planning" for Taizhou, China

170 Planning with climate change

170 Example 1: Retreat of the snow line

173 Example 2: Sprawl landscape

174 Example 3: Urban Growth: Delta and Beach Grove

177 Example 4: Developments in the cityscape

178 Scenarios as a basis for guiding and designing

the growth of major cities

179 Example: Scenarios of development for the city of Perth

188

APPENDIX

188 Illustration and film credits

188 About the author

189 Subject index

190 Index of practices and projects

191 Bibliography

192 Colophone DVD

Editorial Note

The illustrations used as examples were numbered to correspond with the three parts of the book . The illustration numbers are quoted in the text where explanations refer to individual figures specifically. Short explanations were integrated into the picture captions. The practices who provided the illustrations are identified in the captions ; if several illustrations attached to the same project from the same practice fol-low each other in sequence, they are identified in the caption for the first illustration.

In the extensive chapters in the Functions section, the introductory passages are accompanied by small emblematic sketches , which refer to particular statements in the text. They were kindly supplied by Jan and Iens Steinberg, Berlin, and are to be interpreted as follows:

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"We are not selling a garden or a park. We are selling the image of a garden or a park. The image has to have an im-pact." (plancontext, April 2007)

Images of any kind are the primary language used by landscape architects to represent ideas and persuade people. They show us the future of open spaces and the environment - part of the future of our society. The abil-ity of landscape architects to express themselves in plans, pictures and visualizations is understandably envied by those working in other disciplines. The basis for this book was a desire for a compilation, overview, description and analysis of visualizations (in the broad sense of the word) used to represent and communicate ideas and solutions for landscape architecture projects.

This desire grew out of my own design work and many years spent teaching in Berlin and in Neubrandenburg, Ger-many. Numerous conversations with colleagues revealed a broad base of support for the idea , which ultimately came to fruition . The plans and perspectives, models and schem-atic drawings , simulations and films used both as a basis for work and as examples have aesthetic power as well as communicative ability, with the result that working on this book has given great pleasure, which will hopefully be shared by the reader. This may take time ; many pictures will become more interesting the more they are studied,

and some details only become apparant gradually. In this description and analysis of plans and pictures as visual communication tools , the emphasis is not on in -dividual projects and firms (as it so often is in landscape architecture publications), but on the great diversity allowed by the available techniques. This is a demonstration of how different and highly individual a design can be, and also of how personal and individual its representation can be . Of course, the images are not completely isolated from the projects and their authors, and this is why they are men-tioned in the captions to each illustration. After the basic functions of presentations in two, three and four dimensions have been introduced, the second part of the book shows their specific use in competitions and the planning and de-sign process . A landscape architect has to work with people in mind, and influence nature and the environment in a forward-looking, sustainable way. Images can communicate the wide perspective, both in terms of space and time, in a

PREFACE

compelling way, and visual presentation of alternatives can also support an open and democratic planning process - as their use for specific strategic planning goals in the preced-ing section of this book impressively demonstrates.

This book presents representation techniques in com-mon use today, in a broad cross-section . How these will develop in future and wh ich techniques will come to be used more frequently, remains to be seen. It is safe to say that films (examples of wh ich are included in this book) will playa greater role in future, but we can only wait in anticipation to see which approaches will dominate. I would like to thank all my colleagues and all firms involved for their willingness to make their own work avail -able to me . I was -able to conduct extensive conversations with many of them , thereby gaining insights which have influenced the text of this book, as well as valu able advice on arranging and structuring the contents. I cannot stress the effort involved for all the firms and individuals repre-sented here too much . In particular, they had to deal with many questions and requests from me during the book's genesis . As they are not represented by visual examples, I would like to thank Professor Erich Buhmann and Thies Schroder at thi s point for their valuable advice, as well as Dr. Gabriele Holst for her works on creative design .

Regarding the transformation of my ideas into the final concept for the book , I would like to thank Andreas Miiller for his long and patient work as an editor and partner in detailed discussions.Iwould also like to thank Oliver Kleinschmidt for his commitment to making the idea of this book - a book about visual presentation in which the visual material is suitably presented - a reality. Last not least I would like to thank Michael Robinson and Alison Kirkland for the congenial translation .

819

INTRODUCTION

Landscape architects develop ideas for changing places

and landscapes with the intention of improving their

design, making them better to use and more able to

meet ecological requirements. Their work in clu des

comprehensive and sustainable planning of the

envi-ronment as it is lived in, and reconciling the different

demands for creating open spaces capable of facing the

future . The design process as an essential part of

land-scape architects' activities includes both finding ideas

and also presenting them visually. Landscape design is

first and foremost a problem-solving strategy for open

areas and open spaces. Images , sketches, plans and

other drawings as well as models are produced, using

a variety of techniques, with the aim to convey

con-crete planning intentions or possible consequences of

developments that can occur under certain conditions.

A written explanation is usually provided to support

the strategies presented, but this could never be an

adequate substitute for a visual presentation. As visual

presentations are universally understood, their

signi-ficance and statements largely make sense without

words, a great advantage in a globalized world .

Gabriele Holst , Vert ical Rhythm III.

Plans and images also remain - and this is perhaps

particularly true today because so many possibilities are

available - unique objects, each with its own

justifica-tion. Even though they are prepared in large numbers for

any planning process, each one has its own statement to

make, and is potentially interesting, exciting,

harmoni-ous, aesthetic or simply beautiful to look at. Even though

the large numbers of visual presentations might suggest

something different, landscape architects work

econom-ically: images are not prepared for their own sake, but

because of the statement that each one makes.

INTRODUCTION

Conveying ideas and planning aims

in plans and images

Great demand s ar e made on images intended to con vey ideas that occur in planners ' minds . They have to be pre-cise, to a certain extent, in presenting the elements of the concept; they have to be comprehensible, sometimes for laymen as well; and at the same time they ha ve to convey th e planners ' professional expertise. Also, such presenta-tion s give an idea of the creative designers ' attitude to th e social use of open spaces, to the development of nature and the environment and thus to the discipline 's current state of mind . Landscape architecture is essentially a practiceoriented discipline in which theoretical considerations tra -ditionally playa subordinate role in looking back at past achievements and the conditions under which they came into being. It is only in recent times that the general condi-tion s for each planning process ha ve been more carefully analysed, but this hardly produces a theory on concrete procedures in the sense of instructions about an approach , either for the planning itself or how it is presented visually. It is much more th at a clearer understanding is created about h ow the planning measures fit in with prevailing so-cial conditions and me et particular challenges . The plan-ning itself and the way it is presented seem to be affe cted by th ese reflections to an astonishingly limited ext ent. Conven tion s exist for presenting plans and images, but there is also a great deal of freedom , which means that the way they are presented develops constantly, adapting to the technical possibilities, and also determined to a certain extent by current trends . The creative approach has to be subjective to a certain extent, as design also expresses the author's individual views of solutions and cre ative ideas . Therefore, visual presentations are always a personal ex-pression of the people involved in relation to the planning commission .

Just as the design itself has to be up to date, the graphic devices used to expr ess it must be, too. They may even need to be so far ahead of their times as to use the very latest resources , which may be available only to some designers. The range of possibilities is greater than ever, today.

Two-dimensional drawings are still used, and so are the familiar ways of drawing three-dimensional images. And thanks to what modern computers have to offer, it has become easier to present time as the forth dimension more powerfully in visual form : for example in terms of changing seasons, by sho wing the plants getting older, or in the form of walks, drives or flights through or over the planned terrain. Using computers has largely taken over from the hand drawings that us ed to be found exclusively. Critical voices say that all plans tend to look the same. However, the pres-entations are very diverse and different, because computer programs offer so many possibilities , hand drawings are still used , and also because there is more competition within the discipline. Plans are revised much more frequently at ever shorter intervals, and conveying material comprehensibly and clearly is increasingly emphasized.

This book analyses plans and a wide range of pre sentation modes currently used in terms of their expressiveness and ability to convinc e. The point of departure are th e types of images used to make statements about the future develop-ment of places. This makes it po ssible to discern tr ends and anticipated developments. Illustrations are also used to guide and direct people's behaviour towards ideas of sus-tainable development, as shall be shown in th e last sections of thi s book .

After a short look at the historical development of presen-tation methods, "Fin ding ideas and forms ", gives examples of how visual presentations emerge in the context of the creative process. These are changed and reassessed a great deal in-house before they point to a solution that finall y sums up the ideas and presents all the requirements in a balanced fashion . In contrast with these, the pictures and plans shown in the other parts of the book are intended to present the proposed design or planning solution, and as a rule outsiders are shown and discuss only these. Almost all the illustrations used here were made available by land-scape architects from their ongoing projects, so that th ey

have to be considered in the context and as part of the cur-rent planning processes. It should be noted that they are usually shown here in reduced form, so that their expres-sive values may not always be fully appreciated.

Everyvisual presentation, whether it is drawn up as a plan , view, simulation or as part of a film has its own particu-lar part to play within a planning process . In the first part, "Functions", they are considered in three groups as represen-tations of the second, third and forth dimension . Here the il-lustrations are analysed and interrogated individually about their potentials, while the second part introduces "Concepts" relating to how they work together in various planning proc-esses . The last part focuses on "Strategies" that do not sim-ply address concrete planning for specific locations, but also contribute to facing society in future with the resources of landscape architecture, both its professional expertise and also its presentational methods. This is about a holistic approach to living conditions and the future of landscape, and about suitable methods for implementing democratic understanding of planning. In this context, visual presenta-tions serve to stimulate planning decisions , they can draw attention to conditions and dangers , and show how the world we live in can be developed .

Presentation methods

in the past

Plans have been drawn ever since gardens went beyond growing fruit and vegetable to serve as representative places . The surviving depictions are usually of the situa-tions as found or completed, rather than design plans for future developments. The fundamental modes of repre-sentation used in contemporary landscape architecture have essentially been in use since the first plans were drawn , though materials and the technology supporting them have developed enormously. Here we intend to show some basic presentation types for different gardens and other projects from earlier centuries, focusing on the tech-niques they use .

The oldest known garden images come from Egypt

.Typi-cal drawings have come down to us, some of them copied only recently in a known older style. As well as general views showing work in gardens that are not part of a de-sign process, some actual plans have survived . They show the site, its boundaries and the precise positioning of the individual elements in two-dimensional presentations. In contrast with the way we look at things today, a plan like the one shown here seems difficult to understand , as the trees are not presented as a top view of the crown from above, but in their elevation . This special feature, whose proportionality is particularly striking in comparison with plans from later eras in which this kind of presentation was also used , makes it possible to provide information about the trees which would not be possible in a top view, such as their species, for example. The planting arrange-ments are very easy to understand , and so is the position-ing of the pools of water needed for irrigation . The scale, an essential feature of ground plans today, is not given on known Egyptian plans. The buildings are often drawn much too small, which can underline the importance of a garden .

INTRODUCTION

0 .1 Plan of a garden on the Nile.Ippolito Ro. e liinl. 1832. d r aw i n ~by

0 .2

QUO .,, 1) T01"\l I ' ,rA eITAT .w.n t. S I G T fO .

Axonometrlc view of Schloss Uranien baum on the Island of Hveen, whe re Tvcho Brahe live d and worked for twenty years . Copperplate e n ~ rav l n ~ .coloured by Joan Blaeu , 1663.

This dra wing of a gard en on the Nile (Ill.0.1) was not produced until 1832, but it doe s sh ow the garden in th e an -cient Egyptian way. The tree s are dra wn individually in frontal view in rows, ab ove and next to ea ch other in th e ground plan of thi s almost squ a re garden . This pre sen -tation method , unu sual for the modern eye, means that different kinds of trees and their different sizes can be dis-tingui shed. Certa inly the colouring is freely invented , but it does tend towards the usual colours of nature, which cor-respond with common ideas : green for the crown s, bro wn for the tree trunks, blue for the wate r, red for the buildings and a wh ite background for the ground sur face covering. The garden is enclo sed by a wall and arranged symmetri-ca lly, and the plants are largely placed symmetrisymmetri-cally as well. Most of the trees are sh own from the viewers ' angl e,

only the row on the right by the river is dra wn sideways. It is to be assumed that the bottoms of the tree trunks m ark the tree positions , and that th e t rees are the n "tilted" to fit the image so that the elements do not overlap. Overall, the plan con veys a lucid and pr ecise impre ssion of th e garden.

A coloured copperplate engraving by Joan Blaeu , a Dutch engra ver, of Tycho Brahe's observatory at the Uranienbaum pal ace and it s garden , dating from 1663(Ill.0.2), is an ex-ample of axonornetry, a dra wing method that is still used frequ ently today. Working on the basis of the ground plan, the enclosing walls, in cludin g the towers and gates; the trees and the pavilions in the garden ; and th e observatory in the middle of the picture are all tilted in the same

direc-0 .3

tion an d pre sented as oblique images. As the ground plan of the wh ole area is squ are, this kind of dra wing achieves a sp atia l effect if the drawi ng is positioned so that one comer points in each direction . Like all axonometries, the image is dra wn with ou t perspective distortion . All visible vertical elements cast a shadow to the right, which further enhances the three-dimensional effect. Because th ey are so precise in detail, copperplate eng raving s can also repro -duce individual elements.

A scene from the park in the Palace of Versailles (Ill.0.3) pre sents the idea of the Baroque garden in ideal form . This is also a copperplate engraving , but executed as a bird 's-eye view in cen t ral perspective . The 's-eye is dr awn al ong th e central axis from the first terrace, on which a series of

Bass in d'Apollon , park of tho Palaeo of Vors alilos ,

co pp erp la t eongraving by Gabrlol Porollo. c. t 670 .

peopl e and ho rses, and indeed coach es, are moving around , dra wn in som e detail, over the first pool of water, the sec-ond terrace and the can al with the three-masted sh ip and other boa ts to th e horizon . The dramaturgy of the im age reflect s the self-perception of th e absolute monarch . Power over tamed nature and human affluence is presented on an imm easurable scale. This is not a plan , not a des ign idea , but an idealized representation of the garden after it had been laid ou t. No plans survive for many garden s of th e pas t , th ey were often of little interest once the proje ct was completed .

INTRODUCTION

0 .5

Ad.rntounta ln in t he Pe te rhof P. I.ce p. rk

nearSt . Petersburg. w.ter co lour by V.slly Iv. novlch a./enov. 1796 .

This example by Charles Cameron for the Pavlovsk Palace park (Ill. 0.4) dating from 1780 is a hand drawing in ink and water-colour. The central garden plan is in the form of a two-dimensional drawing, while below individual details from the garden are drawn in perspective. The elements of the plan are executed in great detail, and the plan is given an overall three-dimensional quality by a light shading of the timber structures; however, no cast shadows are shown, which could have unduly shaded the ground area . The perspective drawings add the missing third dimension

and convey an impression of the place's atmosphere . But even so they seem to have been added to fill the sheet; this could even be their main raison d'etre,as their size has been adapted to fit the edges of the sheet outside the ground plan. The decorations of the sheet on the left- and right-hand side also support this assumption, as they are irrelevant to the planning.

This drawing of the Adam fountain in Pavlovsk (Ill. 0.5) by Vasily Ivanovich Bajenov dating from 1796 combines the three-dimensional ground plan drawing with a two-dimensional view in order to convey a complete impres-sion of the design . The sectional view reveals that the in-tersection line runs through the centre of the fountain and across the square. Only the sectional view can show how the fountain is framed . The two drawings are con -tingent upon each other, on their own they present only partial views. The irregular quality of the water-colour and the sky as a background for the sectional view make this drawing look almost three -dimensional, despite precision in all its individual parts. The vertical division of the image, measuring 69 x 52 cm in the original, approximates to the proportions of the golden mean, with the ground plan as the larger area below and the sectional view as a smaller area above. Sectional views often accompany ground plans today, but usually as independent illustrations and not, as in this example, placed together to form a single image.

INTRODUCTION

0 .6

This plan of Potsdam-Sanssouci and its environs (Ill . 0 .6) by Peter Joseph Lennedating from 1816 shows the design of the park and its surroundings, including the developed area of the town and the area scheduled for development. The landscape is lent coherence by the similar shades of colour. The park is not, as in the previous examples, a plot of land that is made to stand out from the surrounding landscape and presented in its own right, but corresponds with it and is linked to it . In this ground plan the trees and shrubs are again drawn in view, and this and the shad-ows cast give the plan a three-dimensional look . This is also supported by emphasizing the north-facing edges of banks and paths. In later periods, the plants are not usu-ally drawn in view, but shown in horizontal projection like all other plan elements.

This plan of Charlottenhof or Siam (Ill . 0 .7), also by Pe-ter Joseph Lerine and dating from 1839, consists of the ground plan drawing and two detailed drawings , on a scale twice as large, in the two bottom corners. The plan itself is restricted to the site, it does not show the surrounding area . The drawing method is the same as in the first plan by Lenne shown here, but it is more precise and sharper because of the scale of the drawing; the colours are clearer and less mellow in character. The relief of the ground is shown both for the land and for the areas of water. The

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Pion of Sonssouci ond surroundings includin g the proje ct of Int roduci ng flow ing woters andfounto insandof embe ll ish ing the promen ode woys. Peter Joseph LennI! . 1816.

two detail drawings, executed in the same way as the plan, identify important areas of the site . A similar proposal to-day would include far more detailed drawings, with each one probably showing essential aspects on a much larger scale and in even more detail.

The general plan of the Tiergarten park (Ill . 0 .8) by Peter Joseph Lerme dates from 1840,when the Tiergarten, now in the city centre, was still outside Berlin. It is a lithograph on paper. The streets and paths, the planted and grassy areas, and other facilities with the adjacent river and ur-ban area are presented in great detail, and make a three-dimensional impression . The original sheet measures90

x61.4 cm .

The two plans (Ills .O.9-10) dating from April 1835by Gotthilf Ludwig (Louis) Runge and Ernst Steudener were created in the context of monthly competitions run by the Architektenverein in Berlin from 1827 and open to mem-bers of the association . At this time landscape architecture was not a discipline in its own right, and very often the same person designed both building and gardens, which created a sense of unity among the solutions for these tasks, which are dealt with separately today. The differ-ence between these two designs is remarkable, given that they were created at the same period, used similar

draw-,

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0.7

0 .8

Gene,al plan of the Tle,ga'len near 8erl ln. Pel er Jose ph le nne. 1840 .

Plan of Cha, lollenhof0'Slam . Pete' [osaph lenne, 1839 .

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INTRODUCTION

0 .9 PI.n of • viII. with g.rden for the Berlin Architektenverein 'smonth ly compet ition , Gotth ilf ludw ig (lou is) Rung e , 1835 . 0 .10

PI. n o f • viii. with g.r den for the Berlin Architektenvere in 's m o nth ly competit ion . Ernst 5te udene r, 183 5.

ing tools, and the two architects were based in the same region . Runge draws a very formal layout in ink with pencil additions, and also a front view of the building, as well as ground plans of the first and second floor. The original size of the design measures 40.6 x 41.4 em . Steudener's draw-ing is significantly smaller at 34.1 x 24.1 em and executed as a water-coloured ink drawing, with a garden more in the free-form landscape style.

Edwin Barth's 1901 garden plan for a villa in Potsdam (Ill . 0 .11) is a drawing in Indian ink, pencil , and ink, water-coloured on transparent paper on a scale of 1:400, and contains the contours of the site in ground plan . The pre-sen tation espre-sentially focuses on the site and the trees in the road on the south side , and the sheet is completed with an indication of the subject of the drawing. The shadows added to the vegetation underline the landscape style of the planning.

These two hand dra wings (Ill s .0 .12 -13) in Indian ink on transparent paper by Herta Hammerbacher and Hermann Mattern for the National Horticultural Show in Kassel in 1955 show the general plan, in an original size of 90 x 189 em , and also a bird's-eye view, in an original size of 42 x 109 em . These large drawings took a great deal of time and

effort to prepare, and could be corrected only to a limited extent. The bird 's-eye view shows the design for the overall site , but not in great detail.

0 .11

Garden plan of a villa in Potsdam , with con

-tours and surround ing roads, Erwin Barth ,

c.1901 tN!tIV~F

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National Horticultural Show In Kasse l In 19 55. !leneral plan , Herta Hammerbac her and Hermann Mattern .

0 .13

Nationa l Hort icultura l Show In Kassel in 1955. b ird 's -eye view of the entire s h ow s it e , Herta Hammerbacher and Hermann Mattern ,

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INTRODUCTION

Finding ideas and forms

In landscape ar chitecture, as signments are alway s tied to a specific location , and are therefore affected by that location 's spatial , functional , ecological and cultural properties. Land scape ar chitects have to create solu-tions to specific problems of th e time whe n the assign-ment is defined , while remaining aware of the pros pect of future changes . Whe ther th e commission is to rede-sign a garden , to plan a tow n developm en t or to man-age social challe nge s in terms of local needs and the m an agement of spa ce, it will always set the condition s for possible solutions. The reference to space as an im-mediate human experien ce will always be an important part of the planning process.

Visual presentations are key to the process of elabo rat-ing concepts, evaluatrat-ing them and finall y determinrat-ing the forms and other aspe cts of design . The process of-ten begins with sketches or similar draw ings , which are gradually refined and developed further. Models may be built for haptic perception of the design , or alt ern atively as digital mod els to be viewed on-screen or as plots. Th e proces s of find ing an idea, a shape and a form h as two different sta ges th at intersect with each oth er closely. The deficits of the existi ng site an d th e future deman ds are analyzed an d deal t wit h at a r atio n al , te chnical and knowledg e-b as ed des ign level. The best possible form and the app ropriate ways of repr ese n ting and com m unicatin g it are devel oped at th e cre a -tive, in tuitive and su bjective des ign level. This level of design cannot be made object ive. It is als o th e sea t of something very important to landscape ar chi tecture : the perception of space as a bodily experience. If intui-tions cannot be communicated objectively, they can be expressed intersubj ectively. Due to th e way human be-ings th ink and experience the world, th ese two levels of thinking cannot simultaneously contribute to the same result. Ins tead, each tr ies to arrive at its own res ult.

The first , rational step is to record and analyze the site's existing infrastructure. Designers sho uld always inves-tigate whether the existing site has any exception al properties - such as ecologically valuable ar ea s - that should be protected and develop ed , and wh ether it h as an y histori cal significan ce th at sh ou ld be taken in to account (not only when the site is listed). They should assess th e position occupied by the proje ct area within its su rroundin gs - including, for inst an ce, the existing access routes and ba rr iers th at will need to be t aken into account. This als o means evaluating th e profiles of fu tur e us ers . These and oth er as pects are investigated individually for each specific planning assignmen t de-pending on its parti cular demands , with visual pr esen-t aesen-tions of esen-these differenesen-t aspecesen-ts serving as a ba sis for design . These presentations give th e first indications of possible ways of improving the existi ng sit u ation , but a design cannot be evolved solely from this functio n-oriented data.

It is only with the inclusion of intui tion and creativity, wh ich foll ow th eir own ru les , that a design becomes in dividu al , harmonious and suited to its location . It is the creative potential that ultimately en ables open sp aces to be perceived and used as spa ces for sensory expe rience, as a un ified who le. Any eval u atio n of th e design m ust be based on th ese two aspects of function and form . Alth ough certain theories and approaches to design emphasize one or the other of these two aspects, a viewp oint based on only one aspec t will ul tima tel y be insufficien t .

The crea tive part of the planning pr ocess is very per-sonal in nature, varying according to th e landscape ar-chitects' personalities as well as the location. TYpically the re is no predetermined end result for this process, which follows few hard and fast ru les or formulas . As a consequence, it produces highl y indi vidu al solutions. The creative part of the plannin g pro cess ma kes the

proces s as a whole more difficult to map out. At the initial state, during the idea-finding phase, an awareness of how a design would be experienced at the subjective level is particularly important.

Creative methods are more varied than the rational methods . Abandoning normal and familiar elements can help in finding new and better solutions . Systems can be subverted and re-imagined . Designers will always dra w on their own knowledge and experiences ; trends from other areas of life , ways of working from other professions and methods drawn from other disciplines can be called on , espe cially at the beginning of a design process.

The process of finding ideas and forms is lengthy and sometimes tedious . It is characterized by cyclical repeti-tions , which ideally represent an upward spiral of ideas being refined, compared , discussed , modified , detailed and repeatedly discarded. As it is unpredictable and has no definable goal, it may be unsettling for a time . It is a good idea to begin by posing questions rather than by formulating ans wers .

Rather than taking place on vague terrain, the idea-find-ing process is often affected by the object and its attend-ant conditions. The requirements placed on open spaces are often contradictory and impossible to reconcile. In other cases, the area 's spatial proportions prevent cer-tain requirements from being implemented. The con-flicting goals often encountered in planning processes can and must be resolved differently for each location ; since open spa ce design deals with limited sites, which cannot be expanded to accommodate different require -ments , decisions mu st be made , weighing up all the options and then developing the best possible solution. This deliberation pro cess is another area wh ere draw-ings ha ve a central role .

The images created at the beginning of the indi vidual idea -finding process do not ha ve to be generally com-prehensible' as they are rarely published. Instead, they are used as a basis for internal revision and further development , which often involves representing and communicating ideas in the form of drafts and other dra wings. Sketching, shaping and modeling ideas helps to make them feasible and executable ; anything that can be represented, drawn or shaped can also be dis-cussed , compared, checked and built. By drawing and building models as a means of designing and of checking the feasibility of designs , and by bringing ideas together in drawings, new possibilities are created for taking ideas further.

Often a motto is developed as the central theme and further developed in its relevance to the design : is an idea or a theme sufficient for the whole of the project or only for a part of it? Is it workable at all? A workable idea drawn in a graphically reduced way may turn into a symbolic icon. A simple but effective sketch helps peo-ple to recognize and identify the conceptual approach to the overall project (Ill. 0.14). Most sketches of this kind appear as if they were da shed off quickly ; they reproduce the particular characteristics of the location and the new view that is the basis for the design with a certain lightness.

The decisions landscape architects make on the design, the uses , etc. give them a major role in shaping modern societies. Every open space expresses an attitude to a society's possible path and development, including its creative developm ent. Conversely, citizens of demo-cratic societies (an d not merely decisi on-makers and disseminators) are increasingly becoming involved in the shaping of open spaces, as they are the ones who will experience the social , ecological and economic consequences of planning and construction measures most directly. Laypeople can pro vide suggestions for

INTRODUCTION

0 .14

Hand -drawnvariants oniIscarecrow - symbol iz ing

Ih e d evelopm e nl of an ag rar ia n la n d s ca p e In Ihe Pare Agrlc Dle In Han over, Germany. Kamellouaf l. The d ra wing s may be us e d Indivi d u ally a s ttlustratlons o f Ihe tel t rnc tl ! Dr comb ined and va rie d fr ee' y 10 cre at e a g raph ical ba llet th a t d raws Ihe viewe r's attent ion .

sensible functional use of open spaces, while landscape architects, who are able to bring expertise to bear on these rational requirements , retain responsibility for the creative part of design development.

One important part of a project, which is also crucial to the acceptance of the proposal, is the involvement of the community. Suitable participation processes such as user consultations or charettes have been developed for this purpose. These are prepared and moderated by landscape architects, and the results ar e incorpo-rated into the overall process . Participatory methods are usually based largely on photos and drawings, some of which are developed during the collective meetings.

In this situation , one clear advantage of working visu-ally is that design and discussion can take place as the plans are being drawn . Not only does participation pro-mote acceptance of the design, it also propro-motes use of the planned open space. This can be important - in the case of open spaces attached to schools , for instance. The techniques employed to create visual representa-tions in the idea and form-finding process are many and varied. Often the traditional pencil sketch will be u sed for the first approximation, but there is no limit to the materials that can be used. In contrast to later phases of the workflow process , diversity may actually be at its greatest at this stage.

0 .15

New struct ure for an ope n space as part 01 the des ign lor Im provi ng the bu ilt env ironment inthe Gesun db runnen district 01 Baut zen. Germ anv . Adelhe ld Rosenkranz . This ske tch shows draw -ings 0 1 the existing site super imposed w ith trac ing pa pe r present ing the l irst des ignIdea s.

Finding ideas and forms by drawing

Along with the models discus sed later, drawings are the most significant tool for the creative form-finding proc-ess . The examples reproduced here demonstrate that this process cannot be separa ted from the conditions on the site, and that it involves the constant checking,

improvement and further development of the planning st ages already undertaken . Accord ingly, the dra win gs are part of a process , and ar e not the results of com-pleted working stages , as with the visualisations in the following parts.

INTRODUCTION

0 .16-18

Var io us form ·flndlng altornatlvos at tho Ini ti a l des ign phaso for tho open spaces of a res ldont lal devolopmont In Horgon In tho canton of Zur ich . Swltzor land . In ga Schr6do r.

0 .19 t h e ir respect ive fur ther e lab e ra t lo n , Turenscape .Collection of sketches fo r t h e QI. oyu. n P.rk In Tlan lln , Ch in. , with 0 .20 -23

Ph.se. In the d eve lo p me nt o f th e fo rm for the Green Dr. go n P. rk In Sh.ngh. l. Ch in a , Turansc a pe .

INTRODUCTION

0 .24

0 .25

Checking the d e. lgn for the new citV Kh.llt. CltV C. Abu Oh.bl . United Ar. b Emlr.te • •• nd It . In t egr. lI o n Into the ex l.lIng landscape . Han d dr.w lng overl. ld on an . . rl.1 picture . Neum.nn Gu.enburger.

Overview an d colleetl o n of Indlvl d u.1 d r. wln g. fro m t he form · fin ding pr oce s s fo r t he Green Or. go n P. rk.

0 .26 -28

Result s of. p.rt lclp.tlon wor kshop for develop ing the Gr.n dPa rade Prov ince Ho use Ar.. In H.IIf. x,

C.n. da ,canLimi t e d.

In a democratic model for developing public spaces (Ills. 0.26-28), the results of discussions with and sugges-tions from citizens , planning offices, designers and poli-ticians provide important information on how to shape functions and amenities for the future. Marking visual presentations on a prepared map makes them more easily comprehensible than any amount of text could

do. The image is an important way of placing needs and functions in context , a first step in establishing the intentions and how the different key points relate to each oth er. People can participate through charettes , work shops, moderated discussions , exhibitions or via the internet.

INTRODUCTION

0 .29

Finding ideas and forms

by

modelmaking

Th e design for th e Prin ce ss Diana m em orial founta in emerged from a complex process based on an ana-logue model , which later became the basis for a digital model. The first step involved creating a model (Ill. 0.29) in clay representing the fountain and the su rrounding area of Hyde Park . From this a rubber form was taken , which was then scanned and transformed into a threedimensional digital form with the aid of an automobile -de velopment computer program . This digital mo-del was u sed to cre ate sections , which wer e used as th e basis for the detailed design of indi vidual areas. In the course of further digital reworkings , the precise form and arrangement of all 545 granite blocks were calcu -lated . Like the motto "Reaching Out - Letting In", which expres ses the design' s central concept, the elaborate

Model lor theD I~n~ .Princess 01W~ les Memor l~1 Fount. ln In London. Cre.tBrit a in.Cust~ lsonPorter.

combin ation of modern and tra dition al methods in the design , detailing and implementation of the memorial was intended to reflect the personality of the individual it commemorates.

Finding ideas and forms is a complex process indispen-sable to the subsequent proj ect. The effort expe n de d generally creates few visible results, and the visu al presentations created during this phase are not usu-ally seen by anyone outsid e the des ign practice; th ey are only pre sented to clients (and sometimes to the public) after being refined in the later design stages. The following chapters deal with visual representations created specifically for an audience.

0.30-31

0.32

Des ign mo de l for a m u se um gar d e n In Boston , Massachus etts . USA. Ab iga il Feldman .

The organ ic f orms wer e created by m ol d in g cla y over styropore , and the final surfaces were cut In ca rdb oard using la se rs .

30131

PARTl FUNCTIONS

For all planning processes in landscape architecture,

pictures, plans and visualizations in general are the

most important tools for communicating necessary

information. In the following pages, they are presented

according to their dimensionality. The two-dimensional

representations on a flat plane are dealt with first,

followed by the three-dimensional, spatial

representa-tions. The third chapter of this part discusses ways of

visualizing the fourth dimension of time, always im

-portant in landscape architecture. This includes

visual-izing the development of open spaces and how they are

experienced over the course of time . For the purposes

of this book, the emphasis in all descriptions is not on

the design content of the images but on their visual

features .

Every technical method or representation has its

own communicative potential, and also its specific

limitations. Given the complexity of planning today,

no image can fulfill all requirements on its own.

De-spite this, the first part of the book mainly contains

individual drawings, simulations and models . These

were created for specific design purposes but are

shown here without their context, focus ing instead on

their own particular communicative strategies.

Look-ing at individual representations separated from their

project context demonstrates the diversity of

visuali-zations used to convey design: similar representation

techniques used for similar design tasks may produce

entirely different images.

Gab rie le Holst , Diagonal , spatialI.

A visual representation is an expression both of the

design tasks involved and of the approach of its

cre-ator. It also expresses a social vision and the landscape

designer's applied ability to think of the future both

in a global and in a space-related way, and to convey

these thoughts to the public.

As well as presenting design ideas , visual material also

helps to convince financial investors and present or

future users. Today, illustrations are also checked very

carefully for practicability, making it important to

present the rational functionality of a plan as well as

how it will improve open spaces technically, ecologic

-ally and aesthetic-ally. The first sign of a good plan is

an effective visual representation.

FUNCTIONS

PLANE

Two-dimensional presentations:

possibilities and limitations

When landscape ar chitects are designing and transforming areas of the Earth's

surface it is treated as a two-dimensional plane in the first place, even though it

is actually a landscape with lively topography, open to experience only in

indi-vidual parts at any given moment. The height aspect is not dealt with looking at

a surface as a plane.

globe has a smooth surface, just as atlases and maps are

usually printed on flat paper. Topography is gen erally shown on maps by drawing

in contours and colouring. Road maps and other orientation plans are pre sented

as vertical projections. For this reason, most people are used to understanding

this method of representation , and they have no trouble in reading plans. Google

Earth is widely used as a way of looking at all kinds of places by computer. The

resolution deployed there is of little use for planning purposes, but if the lighting

conditions are right, these shots can be used to convey an aerial impression of

a terrain . This program offers other possibilities such as representing journeys

through time and calculating the position of the sun . Landscape architects do not

as a rule use these at present, but may well do so in future .

Sche me of the ground pl.nas •

ve , tic .1 p.,. lIel project ion .

o

In landscape architecture, twodimensional drawings are vertical or horizontal parallel projec -tions. As in cartography, a ground plan represents a view of the Earth 's surface vertically from ab ove. Thes e types of drawings make it possible to survey the whole project area , perceiving simultaneously the en tire open space illustrated. They are suitable for representing both the condition of the existing terrain, an alysing it at the initial stage of a design process, and also for illus trating th e design ideas, for drawi ng up technical plans and for cre ating compleme ntary images , us ually emphasizing distinct ar ea s. In order to be readable, all content must be pre-sented to sc ale, an d th e poin ts of the compass mu st be indicated, usually by provi ding a no rth arrow.Itis helpful to presen t th e project ar ea' s surroun dings , for orientation, and to check how the planning will fit in .

Unlike maps , which illu strate the situation as it currently is, plans represent a condition that will em erge in the fut ure . They are us ed for orientation pur poses, but to an even greater extent as m ean s of com m unica tion betwee n their au th ors an d th ose who look at them , t he us ers and decision-makers about the future development and des ign of a place . A two-dimensional rep resentation of an area conveys a view th at cannot be experienced in reality in that form . Therefore, laymen - despite an offer of orien ta tion that seems sim ple at a first glanc e - often find it difficu lt to unders tand what pla ns are saying and to imagi ne them realized . They not only have to get their bearings in the project area and its environs, they also have to get to grips with the plans and add the third dimension in their own imagination , for example by fitti ng several drawings together virtually to arrive at an overall picture. For th is reason , authors of two-dimensional plans must present three-dimensional qualities in such a way that th ey can be understood without ambiguity. Designers have a wide range of possibilities open to them for doing this.

Th e two-dim en sion al drawing is to be see n in this process as coding for objec ts , floor cover-ings , veget atio n, access points, connections and bou nda ries . It can rep rodu ce only one eleme nt of three- dimensio na l reality - and thus also of pl anning. Written n ote s can be added to the grou n d plan, as well as dra win gs as other vis u al information, for ex ampl e complementary two- dim ension al illu stration s. A groun d plan , for example, is often complemented by sections or sec tion al ele va tion s, repro duc ing th e run of the relief con to urs an d showi ng pla nts and bui ldings to scale.

Ground plans or sec tio na l views can ne ver be experienced in rea lity as th ey ar e presented, bec ause the effect of three-dimensional vision - all objects seem to taper with increasing dis-tance - cannot be conveyed in two-dimensional representations. But even so, there is a la rge repertoire of two -dimensional illustrations , serving m ainly to communicate the project and make it comprehensible. There are very few rules . Ultimately the criterion for judging illus tra tions is whether they make the planning, the ideas and implementation possibilities unam -biguously comprehensible. If this is achieved, ground plans in particular are superior to tex t , not just because they are clearly comp rehensible, but also because they make it possible to understand th e project all over th e world regardless of language.

The ground plan as the basis for design

In most cases, ground pla ns pr ovide a basis for all furth er representation of the design idea s. They ca n be us ed for impleme ntation in buil t form and as point of refer en ce for furth er ex-planatory drawings. They define th e ideas, links , details, uses, spatial allocati ons and the terrain division. They mu st be comprehensible, un amb iguous in th eir message, express ive and of cour se open to actua l implementation . As th e required tasks are very different in their character and purpose and depe ndent on the condi tions at the spec ific site , each piece of graphic

representa-FUNCTIONS PLANE

tion will address the given conditions and requirements , wh ile the authors' design approach and attitude will be expressed here as well .

Ground plans are limited in their ability to convey th ree-dimensional plan content , but to a certain extent this can be indicated by the us e of grap hic means such as drawn shading, applied to elements of the plan such as buildings or woodland that make a height impact, or sh ades of colour and gradations of grey, depicting the elements closer to the eye in darker shades than th e distant ones, or also by using lines of differing th icknesses, contrasts or oth er techniques . The ground plan also acquires its particular significance because it clearly demonstrates the proportions of all parts in relation to each other and shows organization and spatial formatio n, along with what seem to be the focal points, connections and bou ndaries of the ind ividua l ar-eas . The se functions are supporte d by appropriate graphic design and emphasized in the work as a who le.

When comparing two -dimensional drawings by landscape architects from various countries and different cultures , plan contents and mes sages tend to agree in essentials . Differences tend to arise ma inly from the individual approaches of the designers, not from certain regional conventions. They can als o be caused by different legal requirements in individual countries, or by different availabil ity of maps as a basis for planning.

Ground plans as bas e dra wings for planning are complemented in the des ign process by detail, section and elevation drawings , perspective views and oth er representations in order to define all dimensions of the intended solution . Th ese complementary dra wings all relate to the two-dimensional ground plan and are derived from it. For thi s reason it still occupies a central position in the design pro cess , despite the limitations cited. Ground plans are used to present design ideas in the context of competitions and other strategic processes, in documenting and analysing the existing situation, at all preliminary design and design stages, implementation planning and also in large-scale landscape planning. Other intentions are also conveyed via the ground plan . Th ey allow, for example, a comparison of approaches to potential users or options for dividing up and allocating terrain, as part of a competition pr ocess.

A pla n of the present state of the site as built is usually drawn up at the beginning of th e project, identifying information abo ut the present situation that is important for the following interven tions. This can include the existing topog raphy, existing bui ldings, roads or pathways, and frequently also show how the project area is located within its relevant sur ro u n din gs. Subsequent preliminary design and design drawings will form th e basis for th e actual imple-mentation of the ideas, so they are not neces sarily intended for show, and often already contain te ch nical informat ion such as heights and materials to be used . Plans of the exist ing terrain and of the design are often on th e same scale, so that th e planned changes are clearly discern-ible. The working plans then mainly present clearly marked areas and contain dim ensions with oth er details for the actual building process, oft en including concise written explanations as well. In landscape planning the detailing is usually less pre cise, as the areas are usually larger and so the scale is smaller. Several ground plans of an area are often needed to present the necessary information, as levels of information would overlap too much in a single plan and become unmanageable.

Individual, reduced two-dimensional structural plans are often drawn up for different project phases. These emphasize particular aspects of the existing and the planned situation , for ex -ample h ow an area is tied into its surrou ndings , indicating inte rna l and external access routes, or fu nc tions and uses . Structural pla ns are also in two dimensions, and usually on a sm aller scale. They serve as drawn explanations of the particular project phase and make the comp lex messages of the planning intelligible. The design plans themselves may be used for the presen-tation of the design intentions, or else special presenpresen-tation plans can be drawn up, emphasizing

Sche me of the s ecti onal view as a horizonta l paralle l projection .

o

the core ideas more strongly and allowing other aspects of the design planning to fade into the background. Presentation plans are often drawn up for competitions or used in discussions as a basis for community participation.

Height as a second dimension: sections and elevations

Sectional drawings show a vertical cut through terrain . This is a particularly appropriate way of illustrating the relief of the ground as well as height and length ratios in open spaces. Together with the ground plan, the different types of two-dimensional drawings make it possible to il-lustrate all three dimensions in which our surroundings are experienced. As a sectional drawing can only sho w the conditions along one sectional line , numerous sections may be needed to give a complete impression of a project ar ea .

If the sections indicated in the ground plan are complemented with planning content situ-ated behind the section line , this produces a sectional elevation, a combination of section and elevation or view. The sectional elevation is a device commonly used to introduce the vertical elements of a design in combination with other open space elements beyond the section line . It offers the advantage of reducing what could become a greater number of sectional drawings , and is also more expressive , as both the elevation at a certain point and the depth of the emerg-ing image can be conveyed . Although a sectional elevation does not correspond with normal human sight, as a complement to plain sections it can contribute much to the understanding of a design.

It is possible to convey the height of the terrain and of trees , buildings and all other design elements involving height effectively in sectional elevations. Yet as they are two-dimensional representations, viewers must still create the three-dimensional impression for and by them-selves , on the basis of a number of drawings .

Sectional elevations serve mainly to explain the ground plan; they relate to it directly and use the same or similar modes of representation . However, they possess their own message and aesthetic . They are used both at the design phase and also in the process of drawing up working plans, details and construction drawings for implementation . As technical dra wings, they are created on an often larger scale of detail.

FU NCTIONS PLANE

SCHILLANLAGEN UNO WIESE VOR OEM HANSA-GYM NASIUM STRALSUNO

BESTAND '

1.1

Plans and analyses of the existing fabric

PI.n of tho •• Is ti ne sit. for tho Sch lll.nl'e •• nd St r.losund In front of tho H.nso H1eh Schoo l In Str. lsund . G.rm.ny. St./on Pulkon.t .

Prior to th e actual process of design, a plan is often made of the terrain in its existing condition, or sh owing imp ort ant features of the area . It is often not possible to identi fy planning require-ments in detail at this stag e. As part of their task , landscape architects then ha ve to present the site not just in its present condition, but also to indicate the area 's strengths and weaknesses. In this way these plans are also used to better define the planning requirements, an d to elabo ra te first in dica tions of planning necessit ies. Their scale will be dependent on the degree of det ail re quired; usu ally it will be the same as th at subsequently use d dur ing design . Th is makes it poss ible to com pa re the existing con dit ion s and the desig n pla nnin g directly. Th e input and con tent of plans show ing the area as built depen d on the site, its location and size, and also on whe th er the terrain might be polluted, for example by soil contamination .

Graphic statem ents mu st be made particul arl y clear here, as plans of the existing terrain ra rely include written expla na tio ns , although the legend usually conveys ad ditiona l informa-tion . Pla ns of the existi ng site tend to differ from th e subsequen t design plans at a first glance in thei r cho ice of colour: th ey are often less colour ful, and contain less detail.

1.2 N

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1.3

PI. n of t he ex ist ing s ite on Or.nge Isl.nd lIuz lzhoul , In Ch.ngsh. , Chin • . Turense> pe .

This example of a plan of th e existing site (Ill. 1.1) is in black and white and shades of grey only. It is based on a survey plan, details from which are included in the drawing. Th e boundary be twee n th e project are a and its env irons is cle ar ly ide n tified by a line , an d yet the adja cent area is sh own for orientation purposes , comp let e with roads and bu ildin gs. In the right -h and section of the plan , th e secon d building phase, th e t rees are drawn as oval or egg-shaped , as they actually ha ve grown and extended at the time the su rvey was made . The locations of the trees are draw n in precisely, and their crowns show n according to th e reality of the individual trees . Th is could indicate necessary cha nges, for exa mp le, if trees should turn ou t to be unsta-ble because of th eir slanting growth and lopsided crown formation . Street n ames are given on the plan , as well as public facilities, as an orien tation aid. The plan provided the bas is for the design , and for agreement between th e pr actice an d its clien ts.

FUNCTIONS PLANE

The two-dimensional plan for Qiaoyuan Park (Ill. 1.2) has coloured areas. There were ponds and wet areas on the site before planning. These are drawn in colour, and identified by text in the areas concerned. The buildings around the open space, which are part of the site , are also shown in colour. Few colour shades are used overall , and their significance is explained in a short legend . The site as drawn is surrounded by roads forming its borders : these are coloured grey, and are not part of the project area .

Another plan of an existing state of Orange Island (Ill. 1.3) is accompanied by photographs of selected buildings and open spaces, some with lines indicating their locations. Photographs are a current means of documenting the original state of a project area , so that an eye can be kept on the terrain throughout the process while reducing the number of visits to the site. The photographs convey impressions and views that are then presented and analysed in the plan; they help to make it more comprehensible, and can form the record of the first step of a planning sequence.

A village renewal plan (Ill. 1.4) shows details of all the open spaces, the existing vegetation and the buildings including their date, type and roof covering. It also presents vegetation that is important for the apperance of a townscape and a landscape, and evaluates the buildings in terms of town planning and monument preservation. The plan includes the strongly coloured village area and the street patterns, as well as the vegetation and topography of its surround-ings , the latter shown in black and white. An extensive explanatory legend is added to cover the copious amount of detailed information. The design can then be prepared in the same way as this drawing, on the same scale, with similar colouring and analogous detailing, so that the original state of the site and the planned project can be compared.

The history of the former mining activities in this town is important for the design of this garden for the Louvre collection museum in Lens (Ill.1.5),therefore the site of th e former pit s, extraction areas and former rail connections were included, as well as the topography and soil conditions. The man-made landscape is shown as it was before the new design , so that it could be taken into account in the further design process.

PI.n of tho . xlstlng s it •• s • bas ts for pl.nn lng • vlll.g. r.n.w. l ln B. " sodow . G.rm. ny. Stot.n Pulkenat ,

1.5

PI.n of tho topogr.phy .nd land use for .. museum garden in lens , Fr.nc • . C.th.rln. Mosb.ch .

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Preliminary design and design plans

Pre llm ln. ry des ig n pla n , pref e rred v.ri.nt , for the fDrti fl c. ti Dn . re' in Ne ubr. ndenb urg , Germ. ny. St e fa n Pulken . t.

Prelim inary desi gns as part of the design process pre sent a planning concept, examine possib le alternative solutions and evaluate them acc ording to given requirements. A preliminary design is typically drawn in a clearly stru ctured form, so that the alternatives can be quickly discerned, in order to identify solutions am ong th e variants tha t ultimately lead to th e best development for the project area . Preliminary desi gn plans are usually ground plan s, the varian ts are often underlaid in colour, and descriptions and evaluations of the alternatives a re often appended as text or incorpora ted into a legen d.

This preliminary design for a fortification area (Ill. 1.6) shows one of several planning options . Itis exp ress ly marked as th e pre ferre d op tion , so th a t here th e plann ers are pres en ting the result of the ir deliberations and demonstrating th eir ability not ju st to explore options but also to assess them an d put forward th e best pla n. Here notes desc ribing the prelim inary des ign are bu ilt into th e dr awing, listing the advantages of thi s solution and also clear ly iden tifying one disadvantage , n am ely th at th e proposa l wou ld requi re interven tion on a privat e plot of land . Unlike other as-built and design plans, h ere the en tire ar ea is in colour, and th e project area is ma rked with a lin e. Often only the project area is coloured , an d th e su rroundings sketched as a black -and-white drawing.

1.7

P,ellmln.,y des ignplan fa' the flo,. I h.1I at the

tnternatl-ona leG,One Woche t,.de f. l, In Oe,lIn , Ge,m.ny. Neum.nn

Gusenbu,~e,. _1.8

Prellm ln.,ydesi~nplanfor the flo,.1 h.1I at the tnter na

-tiona IeCrOne Woche trade fa ir.

MOsheets (Ills.1.7-8)show alternative designs for the floral hall at the InternationaleCrune

Woche trade fair in Berlin, where the flower show is traditionally staged with a motto . The hand-coloured drawings first develop a similar framework for the same theme, then put forward various possible designs for the covered space.

The next section presents design drawings, following preliminary planning in the workflow and showing the best solution, typically as a basis for implementation. This plan type represents the best combination of the various aspects involved : users' requirements, ecological ment of the location, formal design quality in terms of aesthetics and style, urban develop-ment, technical requirements and economic conditions. Sections, sectional elevations or other illustrations usually complement the ground plans in order to represent the third dimension of the design .

There is considerable diversity in planning for open spaces of all kinds and uses. The following section uses examples of classical garden and park design , from domestic gardens via cemetery design to public gardens and parks. The first examples are adequately represented by ground plans, while the subsequent examples sho w the combination of ground plans with sections.

FUNCTIONS PLANE

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1.9 De.lln pl.n lor. domestic I.rden . Stel.n PulkenOl.

This design for a dom estic garden (Ill. 1.9) is presented in areas of colour and provided with a cla ssical legend. The choice of colours is immediately comprehensible according to their con-venti onal meanings: th ey are d early distinguished from each other and their significance is easy to understand. The surrounding area is almost completely omitted. The buildings and trees, as th ree-dimension al components making an impact through height, are given a shadow edge , a device that helps to suggest the third dimension already in this two -dimensional representa-tion. The shadow edge is not drawn to look natural , but kept in a darker shade of grey for the buildings and a dark er shade of green for the trees . In reality, the surface covering would appear darker in shaded ar ea s. For th e purposes of graphic presentation , the shadow was attached to the elements casting the shadow, usu ally in a size appropria te to pla n graphics, and this devi-ates from shadows as actually cast, which also change their size and posi tion constantly. This kind of shading is used mainly to ma ke th e pla nned spatial situa tion more readily read able .

The fine and lu cid struc tures for th is dom est ic garden design make it possible to build ad -ditional content into the drawing. It identifies the exis ting vegetation th at is to be taken over for the fur th er development of the gar den , and also the new vegetation to complement it . In addition, technical detai ls of radi i, dr ain age placement and pa th widths are included: typically, th ese are worked out at later design stages, in the working pla ns .

1.10

Des ign pl. n for the[a pa nes eG. ,den of Conf luent W.te, i n the M.... hn dist rict recru tl o n p. rk In Be rlin . Germ.ny. Puct lce of Shun myo M.suno .

This hand-drawn plan for a closed Japanese garden (Ill. 1.10) shows the vegetation as an impor-tant element in different colour shades. The plan identifies the key areas of the Japanese garden: the front , back and central gardens , and contains main technical information such as contour lines. The plants are particularly emphasized, with the shadows they cast lightly marked. Other important areas such as the dry waterfall, the functioning waterfall and the dry garden are also identified, while emphasis is given to individual rocks and the surface structures of the paths. The lucid plan already contains the full range of the future garden spaces.