Organisational culture
Broadly speaking there are two schools of thought on organisational culture. The first, suggests that culture is tangible and exists in much the same way an organisation chart can be produced to give a sense of an organisation’s operating processes. This view suggests that the organisation possesses culture in the same way it may keep resources or products.
In contrast, culture can be viewed as something much less tangible, which only exists when individuals interact, speak to each other, ‘act’ out the culture of an organisation through behaviour and actions, the ‘personality’ of an organisation (Morgan, 1986, Oswick et al. 1996). Here, culture is said to be hidden amongst organisational life which requires a level of awareness and knowledge to see what is going on.
One of the leading pioneers Schein (1985) has developed a model suggesting that there are a number of levels or layers to how organisational culture exists. Emphasising that much of the culture exists beneath the most visible aspects of an organisation although not always discernible it can have a significant impact on how decisions are made. This sometimes come more to the forefront when senior managers may make decisions which appear to be out of the blue or irrational, but often can be influenced by how the organisation operates and thinks about itself.
“The bottom line for leaders is that if they do not become conscious of the cultures in which they are embedded, those cultures will manage them. Cultural understanding is desirable for all of us, but it is essential to leaders if they are to lead”.
Figure 1. Schein’s levels of organisational culture
Visible organisational structures and processes (hard to decipher)
Artefacts
Strategies, goals and philosophies (espoused justifications) Espoused
Unconscious, taken-for-granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts and feelings
(ultimate sources of values and action) Basic underlying
assumptions
Artefacts: These are the most visible aspects of an organisation – this may include its structure and processes. Although can be seen it’s not always clear what they mean for an organisation. Schein advises not to draw conclusions from artefacts alone without gaining some understanding of the deeper levels of culture which may explain them.
Espoused Values: This aspect operates at a cognitive level and can include strategies, values and philosophy of the organisation. Sometimes wrote down as a mission statement. It can sometimes feel like the statements produced by an organisation are rather aspirational to where they would like to be, rather than what happens in reality and to what employees experience.
Basic underlying assumptions: These elements of the organisation may be aspects which we are not necessarily happy about but they do in reality form part of the organisation’s culture. For example a culture where middle managers are not encouraged to question or challenge senior management which can have an impact upon organisational performance if not recognised.
These views are usually held unconsciously and not normally challenged, which can make it difficult for newcomers to the organisation to make suggestions for change. It can be difficult to identify basic assumptions as when challenged, individuals may only be able to see them when principles surrounding these assumptions are challenged.
Johnston and Clark (2005) suggest that to gain some understanding of an organisation’s culture one has to understand the ‘unconscious’ element of the organisation which is done within a framework provided to employees to provide opportunity to discuss and begin to
understand impact of behaviour and subsequent impact upon a service a client may be receiving.
What does culture affect, and what is affected by it?
Every organisation is different; consequently, each organisation’s culture is different. To understand current behaviour and predict the future behaviour of an organisation under different circumstances, you need to first analyse these differences.
An organisation’s culture contains discrete sub-cultures, defined by many things including: geography function language values rules behaviours.
Differences between sub-cultures can produce tensions or conflicts. However, in most cases an over-arching culture is strong enough to bind sub-cultures and ensure they share a single vision.
A positive culture can facilitate good performance. Conversely, an inappropriate or outdated culture can compromise performance.
Cultural Mapping
The aim of cultural mapping is to understand how an organisation's culture will affect its ability to change and adapt to new policies or environments.
Depending upon the environment, organisations respond differently. The behaviour which is adopted collectively by managers and employees are influenced through a frame of reference (the paradigm) which is created by the culture of the organisation (the basic assumptions and beliefs at a deeper level). The paradigm is basically how we view the world – through a set of values, principles and possible prejudices which influence our
judgements, similar to the description ‘worldview’, the glasses through which we see the world.
A cultural audit allows you to: Understand that culture;
Understand how the culture contributes to the problem; and
Work out how it needs to change in order for the organisation to deliver the strategy effectively
The Cultural Web
The Cultural Web, developed by Gerry Johnson and Kevan Scholes (1992), provides one such approach for looking at and changing your organisation’s culture. Using it, you can expose cultural assumptions and practices, and set to work aligning organisational elements with one another, and with your strategy.
The Cultural Web identifies six interrelated elements that help to make up what Johnson and Scholes call the "paradigm" – this is the set of assumptions about the organisation, which is held in common and taken for granted in the organisation. By analyzing the factors in each, you can begin to see the bigger picture of your culture: what is working, what isn't working, and what needs to be changed.
There are six elements that help to make up the paradigm.
Stories – the past events and people talked about inside and outside the
organisation. Who and what the organisation chooses to immortalise says a great deal about its values.
Symbols – the visual representation of the organisation, including logos, offices, and the formal or informal dress code.
Rituals and routines – the daily behaviours and actions of people that signal acceptable behaviour. This determines what is expected to happen in given situations, and what is valued by management.
Organisational structures – this includes both the structure defined by the
organisation chart and the unwritten lines of power and influence that indicate whose contribution is valued.
Control systems – the way the organisation is controlled. These include financial systems, quality and performance systems, and rewards (including the way they are measured and distributed within the organization.)
Power structures – the 'pockets of real power' in the organisation. This may involve senior managers, councillors, individuals or even a department. The key is that these people have the greatest amount of influence on decisions, operations and strategic direction.
what is working what isn't working
what needs to be changed.
To help you with this analysis Local Government (LG) Improvement and Development have provided a set of questions for each element (Word Attachment: Understanding your cultural paradigm)
Learn more...
A collection of publications, case studies and video clips have been put together through the Local Government (LG) Improvement and Development website as part of a developing resource of learning and good practice around cultural change.
http://www.idea.gov.uk/idk/core/page.do?pageId=10815731
Community Care article: Trish Hafford-Letchfield argues that the role of organisational culture is crucial to deliver effective change in social care
http://www.communitycare.co.uk/Articles/2007/01/08/55181/Organisational-culture-is-crucial-to-improving-social-care.htm
A study is reported which addresses how performance in human service organisations is defined and measured and the factors which are seen as impacting it. Factors seen to be important in affecting performance included adequate funding for the program, leaders having a positive attitude, staff being motivated and committed, a facilitative organisational structure, and a budgeting process which ensures effective resource allocation. Client satisfaction was rated as the best measure of
performance, followed by employee job satisfaction, and the agency’s ability to adapt to changes in the community.
http://www.scie-socialcareonline.org.uk/profile.asp?guid=74b1174d-4df4-4293-8475-f19c2851a2bf References:
Davis, S.M. (1984) Managing Corporate Culture
Johnston, G. and Scholes, K. (1993) Exploring Corporate Strategy. London: Prentice Hall Johnston, R. And Clark, G. (2005) Service Operations Management: Improving Service Delivery. London: Prentice Hall
Morgan, G. (1986) Images of Organization. Newbury Park: Sage.
Oswick et al. (1996) ‘Organisational culture as personality: lessons from psychology?’ in Oswick, C. And Grant, D. (eds) Organisation Development, Metaphorical Explorations. London: Pitman
