FRANCISCAN VALUES AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS: A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY
OF FOUNDERS OF ANGLICAN FRANCISCAN THIRD ORDERS,
1 8 8 2 - 1 9 3 9 .
Rosemary Ann S harpe.
T h e sis sub m itted f o r th e Degree o f D octor o f Philosophy The London School o f Economics and P o l i t i c a l Science
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This th e s is is an acco u n t of how c e rta in r e s o u rc e s an d th e v a lu e s th e y e x p re ss e d came to be available an d v isib le in so cie ty , a n d of how th e s e v a lu e s w ere ta k e n u p , tra n sfo rm ed and u s e d in p a r tic u la r w ays. I t will d em o n stra te how fo u r in d iv id u als, in d iffe re n t social co n te x ts, a c q u ire d an d tra n sfo rm e d th e se v a lu es, as th e y attem p ted to in itia te v a ry in g form s of th e same ty p e of o rg an isatio n .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 13
A CHRONOLOGICAL CHART OF EVENTS FROM THE BIRTH OF FRANCIS
TO HIS CANONISATION... 14
A CHRONOLOGICAL CHART OF SELECTED EVENTS RELEVANT TO THE
FOUNDERS OF ANGLICAN FRANCISCAN THIRD ORDERS... 16
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 24
1. I d e n tify in g a F ranciscan Problem 24
(1) The Problem of P ast and P re se n t.
(2) The B asic F acts about F ran cis o f A s s is i, 1182-1226.
(3) The Pope’s Proclam ation: A S a in t, an Exemplar o f C a th o lic Values.
(4) A F ran ciscan R evival, 1882-1926.
(5) The Mass Media a t th e High P o in t o f th e F ranciscan R evival in 1926 I l l u s t r a t e a S o c io lo g ic a l Problem.
2. A S p ira l o f F ranciscan R esources... 32. (1) The P roduction of F ranciscan T ex ts: Three
Approaches to a Problem.
(a) Examining th e C on struction o f T e x ts. (b) Examining th e Content o f T ex ts. (c) Examining th e D is tr ib u tio n o f T ex ts. (2) D efining a R eso u rce-S p iral: A S o c io lo g ic a l
Problem o f Production and Consumption. (3) The Consumption of F ranciscan T exts: The
Problems o f Access, Comprehension and I n te r a c tio n .
(4) I d e n tify in g th e Range o f F ran ciscan R esources A v ailab le f o r Consumption.
3. I n v e s tig a tin g Some Aspects of th e Consumption of F ran ciscan R esources: Four Founders o f A nglican
F ran ciscan T hird O rders, 1882-1939... 37. (1) The Sample o f Four Founders.
(2) I n te rr o g a tin g th e Founders. (3) In v e s tig a tin g S o c ia l C o n tex ts.
4. The Research P ro c e ss... 40. (1) I n i t i a l Access to Data.
(2) H is to r ic a l- O u ts id e r and C o n tem p o rary -In sid er. (3) The Second Stage o f Data C o lle c tio n .
(4) A n aly sis o f th e Data ( i ) Using V a ria b le s ( i i ) T e stin g th e P l a u s i b i l i t y o f H ypotheses.
5. The P re s e n ta tio n o f Research R e s u lts ... 44. (1) S itu a tio n a l S tu d ie s.
(2) L ife H is to r ie s . (3) N a rra tiv e s .
(4) T h e o re tic a l P lo ts .
6. Summary o f th e Remaining C h ap ters. ... 45.
PART ONE. 56.
CHAPTER TWO: THE CONSTRUCTION OF FRANCISCAN RESOURCES
AND VALUES... 57. P a r t One: The Legacy o f alm ost Seven C e n tu r ie s .
1. C o n stru c tin g F ran ciscan Resources A fte r C a n o n isa tio n . 57.
(1 (2
(3 (4 (5
(6
(7
A llo c a tin g Sacred Time*
C e le b ra tin g Sacred Topography. A u th o risin g Sacred T exts. Occupying Sacred Space.
A p p ro p riatin g Sacred A r te f a c ts . F o rm alising Sacred O rg a n isa tio n s . Summary.
2. C o n stru c tin g and D im inishing F ran c isc a n R esources in
England, 1224-1558... 68. (1) The Coming of th e F ran ciscan C u ltu s and
F ran ciscan O rders to England.
(2) The Coming of th e P r o te s ta n ts to England. (3) Summary.
3. M o d ifica tio n s to th e R esources... 71. (1) The Growth of th e F ran ciscan O rders: Human
R esources.
4. The Century-Long Storm, 1789-1882. . . '... 74. (1) The Lack o f a Strong F ran ciscan P resence in
P r o te s ta n t England and th e European Mainland in an Age o f R ationalism and R ev o lu tio n . (2) The Reign o f Pope P ius IX.
P a r t Two: Reviving and R ediscovering F ra n c isc a n Resources and V alues. 1882-1926.
5. The C o n stru ctio n o f an Argument Between th e Roman
C a th o lic s and O th ers, 1882-1926... 75. (1) Pope Leo X I I I ’s P ro p o sitio n about S t. F ra n c is
Addressed to Roman C a th o lic s . (a) Commendation o f S t. F ra n c is.
(b) Commendation o f th e F ran ciscan T hird O rder. (2) Paul S a b a tie r ’s a l t e r n a t iv e P ro p o s itio n about
S t. F ra n c is Addressed to th e ‘O th e rs ’ . (a) The C o n tro llin g C o n s tra in ts o f th e
I n s t i t u t i o n in th e I n te r p r e t a t i o n o f S t. F ra n c is.
(b) The D is to r tin g C o n s tra in ts o f th e S a in t- System in th e R e p rese n ta tio n o f S t.
F ra n c is.
(c) The P o s itiv e A lte rn a tiv e : Seeing F ra n c is , th e Man, in h is C ontext.
(d) F ra n c is, th e Man fo r A ll Humanity. (3) The Demarcation o f th e D iffe re n c e s in I n t e r
p r e ta tio n among Roman C a th o lic s and ‘th e O th ers* .
6. The Development o f th e Roman C a th o lic P ro p o s itio n s . . 81. (1) Human O rg a n isa tio n s: The Roman C a th o lic T hird O rder. (2) A u th o risin g F ran ciscan T exts.
(3) C e le b ra tin g F ran ciscan Topographies and B u ild in g s. (4) A llo c a tin g F ran ciscan Sacred Time.
7. ‘The Others* Make a F ranciscan Movement V is ib le in
G reat B r ita in , c. 1850-1926... 84. (1) The Absence o f F ranciscan Sacred Time.
(2) The P ro v isio n o f F ranciscan T ex ts.
(a) Iss u in g G eneral Texts about S t. F ra n c is and F ra n cisc a n s: Is o la te d Examples,
c . 1850-1894.
(b) A u th o risin g S ch o larly T e x ts, c . 1850-1926. (c) Fine A rt C ritic ism : L e ctu res and O ther
T e x ts, c . 1850-1926.
(d) G eneral I n t e r e s t L ib rary T e x ts, 1894-1926. (e) Texts f o r P ersonal L e isu re Reading,
1850-1926.
(3) C e le b ra tin g Topography, c. 1850-1926.
(4) S ile n t Proclam ation by P a in tin g s , c. 1850-1926. (5) A p p ro p riatin g A rte fa c ts fo r New P urposes,
c . 1900-1926.
(6) Occupying Symbolic Space, 1900-1926. 8. The Culm ination a t th e Seventh C entenary of S t.
F ran cis* s Death, 1926... 97.
PART TWO. 108.
CHAPTER THREE: THE SOCIAL DRAMAS OF JAMES GRANVILLE
ADDERLEY... 109. P a r t One: Seeking to be *A S o rt o f F r ia r * . 1861-1893.
1. Imbibing Values from th e S o c ia l C ontexts o f E a rly L ife , 1861-1884... 109.
(1) A Son of Hams H all.
(2) From S tudent to A ctor a t Oxford U n iv e rsity . (3) An A rtic le d C lerk in W estm inster Reads a
Pamphlet.
2. Responding to th e B i t t e r Cry o f th e O u tcast in
B ethnal Green, 1885-1888... 113. (1) An U nconventional Warden o f Oxford House.
(2) A Soap-Box O rato r in V ic to r ia Park. (3) A C urate Among th e Paupers.
3. E xperiencing E th ic a l Dilemmas G enerated in Church and S o c ie ty in P o p la r, West Ham, 1889-1893... 117.
(1) B u ilding a Church o f S t. F ridesw ide.
(2) S et Between Two C lasses in th e 1889 Dock S tr ik e . 4. A cting in N atio n al Arenas, 1892-1894... 120.
(1) A Troublesome Committee Member o f th e C h r is tia n S o c ia l Union.
(2) A W riting and C ycling Member o f th e C la rio n F ellow ship.
(3) A C onfession o f P o l i t i c a l B e lie f a t th e Church Congress.
(4) 'A Black Lamb’ and a Member o f th e Independent Labour P a rty .
P a r t Two: Seeking a F ran ciscan Third O rd er. 1893-1926.
5. From S c h o la rly F act to Popular F ic tio n , 1893... 127. (1) A S erio u s S tudent of F ran ciscan S tu d ie s .
(2) Author o f th e Popular S to ry , Stephen Remarx. 6. N atio n al V ision and P aro ch ial C o n s tra in t: The S o c ie ty
o f th e D ivine Compassion, 1894-1897. . . . . ... 131. (1) Living th e S to ry of Stephen Remarx in th e
Formation o f th e S o ciety o f th e D ivine Compassion.
(2) Reading Paul S a b a tie r ’s F rancis o f A s s i s i. (3) Making Values P la in in th e Language o f th e
People.
(4) Leaving th e S o ciety o f th e D ivine Compassion. 7. Tension Between S p i r i t and L e tte r in West London,
1897-1902... 138. (1) Tenant o f a M ayfair Chapel and a B ro th er o f th e
Holy S p i r i t of T ruth.
(2) Author o f F ra n cis: The L i t t l e Poor Man o f A s s i s i.
(3) Paul S a b a t i e r 's New Third Order C hallenge and F rie n d sh ip .
8. R eturning to Birmingham and War S e rv ic e , 1902-1918. . 142. (1) The V icar o f S a ltle y and D e rite n d , Birmingham.
(2) The F i r s t World War, 1914-1918.
9. Handing Over to O ther People, 1919-1926... 144. 10. Subsequent E v en ts... 146.
CHAPTER FOUR: THE SUGGESTION OF EMILY ESTHER MARSHALL... 159. P a r t One: C o n stru c tin g a Suggestion f o r a D iaconate in
S underland. 1879-1889.
1. Imbibing Values in E a rly and Middle L ife , 1832-1879. . 159. (1) Family C o n tex ts.
(2) L iving in Sunderland, 1879-1889.
2. 'A Lady' in Three Sunderland P a ris h e s , 1879-1889. . . 162. (1) D i s t r i c t V is itin g in S t. M atthew 's, S ilk sw o rth .
(2) 'A Lady o f th e V icarage' a t S t. M ark's, M illf ie ld .
3. Observing Diocesan O rg an isatio n s from a D ista n c e , 1879-1889...
(1) The Auckland Brotherhood. (2) The Daughters of S t. C u th b ert. (3) The White Cross Army.
4. Learning from N ational and I n te r n a tio n a l C ongresses, 1879-1889...
(1) The Church Congresses. (2) The Pan-Anglican Congress. (3) Women’s O rg an isa tio n s.
5. W riting and P re se n tin g A Sugg estion f o r Our Times, and R eceiving Bishop L ig h tfo o t’s Response, 1889...
(1) Completing her Suggestion f o r a D iaconate f o r Women.
(2) Bishop L ig h tfo o t’s Response t o Miss M a rsh a ll’s Suggestion.
(3) The B ishop’s Own S uggestion o f a F ran ciscan T hird O rder.
P a r t Two; The Slow Emergence o f a F ra n c isca n T h ird O rd er. 6. Forming th e League o f S t. C u th b e rt, 1890-1893...
(1) The Dominant In flu e n ce o f Canon Body. (2) W riting a Rule.
(3) Choosing a Name and a P a tro n .
(4) Designing a Badge and Choosing a Uniform. (5) S e le c tin g th e D e f in itiv e Name.
(6) Lack o f a C lear C o n s titu tio n .
7. The B irth o f th e League o f S t. C u th b e rt... (1) The Admission Ceremony.
(2) The F i r s t Members.
8. Overcoming th e D isadvantages o f One S tru c tu r e w ith th e M e rits o f A nother...
(1) 'Duly S ubordinate to th e C lergy*.
(2) C rossing P a ro c h ia l B oundaries by P o stin g L e tte r s .
9. Sharing Acquired In fo rm atio n and Id eas in Pam phlets, 1890-1893...
(1) Converting Imagined Talks in to P rin te d Pam phlets.
(2) Beginning h er Search fo r In fo rm atio n About S t. F ra n c is.
(3) D iscovering Mrs. O lip h a n t’s F rancis o f A s s i s i.
(4) Examining Leo X I II ’s Rule.
(5) A S ile n t Dialogue w ith Bishop W estco tt.
10. Coming to See, Value and Understand Two Faces o f S t. F ra n c is of A s s is i, 1894...
(1) D iscovering S. Frangois d * A ssise and M eeting Paul S a b a tie r.
(2) Coming to Understand th e Roman C a th o lic F ranciscan Third Order, A ncient and Modern. 11. The Moulding o f an Hybrid O rg a n isa tio n , 1894-1897. . .
(1) The Growth of th e Durham F ra n c isc an T hird Order in th e West In d ie s.
(2) Bishop W estcott o f Durham S a n c tio n s D eaconesses. (3) Varying A p p raisals of an Emerging T hird Order
O o rg an isatio n .
12. The New Century, 1900-1915... (1) Longed-for Acceptance in Durham.
(2) Wider L ia iso n s.
(3) Resolving th e R e latio n sh ip Between Appearance and Essence.
13. Subsequent E v en ts...
CHAPTER FIVE: THE ASHRAM EXPERIMENT OF JOHN COPLEY WINSLOW. . . P a rt One: A cquiring In d ian and F ran ciscan V alues.
1882-1919.
1. Imbibing Values in B r itis h S o cial C ontexts o f E a rly L if e , 1883-1914...
(1) Growing up a t Hanworth R ectory, a t Eton, and Studying a t B a llio l C ollege, Oxford.
(2) V is itin g In d ia .
2. F u lle r Im pressions o f In d ia , 1914-1915... (1) Deciding to Work in In d ia .
(2) C onsidering th e E ffe c ts o f Being B r i t i s h and a Member o f th e Church of England.
3. A cquiring Values from Indian R esources, 1915-1919. . . (1 ) Asking C. F. Andrews to be h is *S p i r i t u a l
D ir e c to r ’ .
(2) Learning from S. E. Stokes* and Sundar S ingh’s F ran ciscan Experiment.
(3) Learning from Sundar Singh.
192.
194.
197.
199.
2 1 2
.
2 1 2
.
214.
(4) Turning to Ashram Experim ents.
(5) Learning from Gandhi’s Ashram Experim ent. (6) Learning from Tagore’s Ashram Experim ent. (7) Learning from an Ashram Experim ent o f th e
C h ris tia n Orthodox Church.
(8) Winslow’s Ideas f o r L itu r g ic a l Experim ent. (9) Learning from Narayan Vaman T i l a k ’s C h r is tia n
Ashram Experiment.
4. C onsidering th e Global Context of 1919...
P a r t Two: The Development o f C h rista Seva Sangha. 1920-1934.
5. C reatin g a C h ris tia n -In d ia n Ashram in Ahmednagar, 1920-1926...
(1) The F i r s t Two Experim ental Y ears.
(2) R eceiving E piscopal B lessin g f o r C h r is ta Seva Sangha.
(3) A ssessing th e Indian C h ris ta Seva Sangha E xpeirim ent.
6. E xplaining In d ia n and F ranciscan Values on a Tour o f B r ita in in th e Year o f th e F ranciscan C entenary. . . . 7. A Growing I n te r- R a c ia l Experiment, 1927-1928...
(1) Englishmen Jo in th e Ashram a t a New C entre in Poona.
(2) The F i r s t Months in Poona.
8. Tension in a Small and Complex In d ian and F ran ciscan O rg a n isa tio n , 1927-1929...
(1) L iste n in g to O ther P ip ers P laying a D if fe r e n t Tune.
(2) Tension in D iscerning F ranciscan and In d ian V alues.
(3) Tension in Choosing F ranciscan and In d ia n O rg a n isa tio n .
(4) R esolving Tensions.
9. R e a lis in g th e P o te n tia l o f P r in t, 1928-1930... (1) Composing The P r in c ip le s o f C h rista Seva Sangha. (2) D escrib in g C h ris ta Seva Sangha.
(3) Advocating The Dawn o f Indian Freedom.
10. Extending C h r is ta Seva Sangha to England, 1930-1933. . (1) Meeting w ith th e Fellow ship o f th e Way.
(2) C o n s titu tin g th e Third Order of th e S o c ie ty o f S t. F ra n c is.
11. A c tiv a tin g D isp ersio n in In d ia , 1931-1939. (1) M u ltip ly in g Experiments in 1931. (2) The D iv isio n of C h ris ta Seva Sangha. 12. Subsequent E v en ts...
CHAPTER SIX: THE FRANCISCAN-GANDHIAN VENTURE OF VERRIER ELWIN. . P a r t One: A cquiring F ran ciscan and M y stical Values in England and in In d ia . 1902-1932.
1. Imbibing Values in S o c ia l Contexts o f E a rly L ife , 1902-1926...
(1) A B ishop’s Son, a P upil a t Dean Close School, a S tudent and V ic e -P rin c ip a l a t Oxford
U n iv e rsity .
(2) S earching f o r M ystical and Romantic Values a t Oxford U n iv e rsity .
(3) Extending h is E n q u iries w ith th e A ssista n c e of V is itin g S ch o lars.
(4) D eciding to Go to A s s is i, and th en to In d ia to J o in C h ris ta Seva Sangha.
2. M odifying M ystical and F ranciscan Values in In d ia and England, March 1927-November 1929...
(1) Enjoying M u lti-R e lig io u s In d ia .
(2) V is itin g Gandhi’s Ashram a t Sabarm ati and A nalysing h is Experiences There.
(3) R eturning to England.
(4) A cquiring an I t a l i a n F ran ciscan S p i r i t u a l D ire c to r.
(5) E xperiencing S p ir itu a l E n ten te.
3. Tension in I n d ia , 1929-1930... (1) Finding Change a t C h ris ta Seva Sangha and
S abarm ati.
(2) Being a ’Son of S t. Francis* and a ’Son of Gandhi *.
4. Advocating F ran ciscan and Gandhian Values in P u b lic A renas, 1930-1931...
(1) Becoming a Franciscan-G andhian Rebel. (2) Expounding F ranciscan V alues.
(3) Proclaim ing Ganhian Values.
248.
249.
260.
260.
264.
268.
5. R esolving T ensions... 273.
(1) S e le c tin g th e Most Im portant V alues. (2) D eciding to Become a F ranciscan T hird Order Herm it. P a r t Two: Transform ing Franciscan and Gandhian Values a t S t. F ra n c is Ashram and Gond Seva Mandal. 1931-1939. 6. Problems in Founding a Small and Complex Gandhian and F ran ciscan O rg an isatio n among th e Gonds... 277.
(1) Finding a New Context and a Companion among th e Gonds. (2) W itnessing G andhi's A rre st and Becoming h is Em issary. (3) E ventual New Beginnings a t S t. F ra n c is Ashram, K aran jia . 7. Taking h is G andhian-Franciscan Message to B r ita in . . . 281.
(1) P o l i t i c a l A ctions. (2) F eelin g ‘O u tc a ste ' Before R eturning to th e Gond. (3) R eturning to K aranjia. 8. R e a lis in g th e P o te n tia l of P r in t, 1923-1933... 285.
(1) Turning F ranciscan and Gandhian Poverty in to L ite r a r y Expression and A n th ro p o lo g ical R esearch. (2) E xpressing Franciscan and Gandhian Love in J o u rn a ls and Newspapers. (3) Taking F ranciscan and Gandhian Obedience in to a N ation. 9. Subsequent E v e n ts... 292.
CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSIONS... 306.
1. T h e o re tic a l Main P l o t ... 306.
2. T h e o re tic a l S u b -P lo ts... 312.
3. S uggestions f o r F u rth e r Research... 327.
I t will be e v id e n t t h a t th e w ritin g of th is th e s is h as o n ly b een p o ssib le b ecau se of th e a s sis ta n c e of o th e r people. I sh o u ld like to th a n k P ro fe s so r E. V. B a rk e r fo r s u p e rv isin g th e r e s e a r c h a n d fo r a r r a n g in g a s e rie s of sem inars in th e Sociology of Religion w hich I h av e alw ays fo u n d stim u latin g . I have also ap p re c ia te d m eetings w ith P ro fe s so r A. D. Smith, an d w ith o th e r s ta ff an d s tu d e n ts of th e London School of Economics an d Political Science, esp ecially a t th e re c e n tly in s titu te d sem in ars fo r r e s e a r c h s tu d e n ts .
The Society of St. F ran cis h as allowed me a c c e ss to its a rc h iv e s , an d I am g ra te fu l to th e members of th e Society, in all th r e e of its O rd e rs, liv in g an d d e p a rte d , who have o ffered me p r in te d , m a n u sc rip t a n d o ra l inform ation. In ad d itio n , I should like to th a n k th e follow ing fo r perm issio n to c o n su lt o r q uote from th e ir ho ld in g s: th e Bodleian L ib ra ry , Oxford; th e World Council fo r Mission; th e In d ia Office L ib ra ry ; th e Mahatma G andhi Museum; th e Sm arak Sang S an g rah alay a; th e Dean a n d C h a p te r L ib ra ry , Durham; th e F ra n c isc a n S tu d y C en tre, C a n te rb u ry ; th e F aw cett L ib ra ry ; th e Guildhall L ib rary ; an d th e Local S tu d ie s c e n tr e s a t S u n d e rla n d , D arlington, K ensington, Hackney a n d Tow er Hamlets. I am g r a te fu l to th e following fo r allowing me to c o n s u lt t h e ir r e s e a r c h p a p e rs fully: Jo h n Sw aby, F a th e r Lucian Hunt, O.F.M., S is te r B a rb a ra N oreen, C.S.M.V. an d Douglas Smith. Family an d f rie n d s h av e o ffe re d th e ir en co u rag em en t an d s u p p o rt. The th e s is would p ro b a b ly n e v e r h a v e b een com pleted h ad my h u s b a n d , David, failed to p e rs u a d e me t h a t a w ord p ro c e s s o r could be u s e r- fr ie n d ly , an d th a t he could s o r t o u t my s q u a b b le s w ith it. He an d Kate Compston have alw ays b een willing to d is c u s s commas a n d o th e r co n fu sio n s.
1182. B irth of son, Giovanni (la te r called F ran cesco ) to P ie tro a n d Pica B ern ard o n e. F ra n c is receiv ed a simple L atin ed u catio n .
1198. A ccession of Pope In n o c e n t III.
1202. F ra n c is in p ris o n in P e ru g ia a fte r b a ttle of C o llestrada.
1206. F ra n c is s o u g h t k n ig h th o o d , b u t r e tu r n e d home a f te r v isio n . Loved Lady P o v e rty . Became T roubadour. Em braced le p e r. E xchanged clo th es w ith a b e g g a r. Gave away f a th e r ’s p o sse ssio n s. B ro u g h t b efo re th e Bishop of Assisi. H eard Gospel callin g him. F ir s t p re a c h in g . H eard C h rist from crucifix. R esto red c h u rc h e s . Twelve d iscip les jo ined F ran cis.
1210. F ra n c is jo u rn e y e d to Rome. Pope In n o c e n t III gave v e r b a l a p p ro v a l to Rule of Life. G roup continued simple way of life a t Rivo Torto. P o rtiu n c u la became c e n tre .
1212. Clare jo in ed F ra n c is an d b ro th e rs. F oundation of Second O rd e r a t San Damiano. F ra n c is s e n t b ro th e rs o u t in p a irs. V isited Gubbio. F ra n c is prom ised people a t Cannara he would p ro v id e a w ay fo r them to follow in h is p a th w ithout leaving th e ir homes o r o c cu p atio n s. Luchesio an d Bella Donna were f ir s t te r tia r ie s . C o ntinued c a re fo r le p e rs an d poor. H erm itages a t Mount S ubasio an d elsew h ere.
1215. L a te ra n Council. M eeting w ith Dominic.
1216. D eath of In n o c e n t III an d accession of H onorius III.
1219. F ra n c is w en t to C ru sa d e s an d met Muslim S u ltan . P re a c h e d to b ird s a t Bevagna.
1220. P e te r C atanii ap p o in te d M inister G eneral of F ir s t O rd er. 1221. Pope a p p ro v e d T h ird O rd er Rule.
1223. Pope a p p ro v e d F ir s t O rd er Rule. F ra n c is c e le b ra te d C h ristm as a t Greccio w ith live Crib.
1224. Mount La V erna g iv en to F rancis b y a te r tia r y . A ccom panied th e r e b y B ro th e r Leo. F ra n c is received Stigm ata. F ra n c is w ro te Leo a note of en co u rag em en t. F ria rs a rriv e d a t C a n te rb u ry .
1225. F ra n c is com posed C anticle of th e Sun. T reatm en t fo r ey e illn e ss a t Rieti.
1226. F ra n c is b ro u g h t b ack to A ssisi. F ra n c is w ro te h is T estam ent. Died on 3 O ctober.
1227. C ard in al Ugolino, P ro te c to r of F ra n c isc a n s, becam e Pope G reg o ry IX. 1228. C anonisation of St. F ran cis. B lessing of fo u n d a tio n of Basilica.
1832. B irth of Emily M arshall.
1850. R esto ratio n of th e Roman Catholic H ie rarc h y of B ishops to E ngland. 1858. G overnm ent of In d ia Act. B ritish In d ia u n d e r c o n tro l of th e Crown. 1861. B irth of J. G. A dderley, son of S ir C h arles an d Lady A dderley. 1868. Pope P ius IX, S y lla b u s o f E rrors,
1875. J. B. L ig h tfo o t a p p o in te d Lady M arg aret P ro fe s so r of D ivinity a t Cam bridge.
1878. C h u rch of E ngland R ep o rt ‘The Rise, P ro g re s s an d P r e s e n t P osition of S iste rh o o d s an d Deaconess I n s titu te s in th e C h u rch of England*. Lam beth C onference co n sid e re d th e q u e s tio n of re -e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e Diaconate as a p erm an en t, d istin c tiv e o r v o catio n al m in istry . C ardinal Pecci of P e ru g ia elected Pope, ta k in g name of Leo XIII. 1879. A dderley le ft Eton.
L ightfoot e n th ro n e d Bishop of Durham.
J. Ellice H opkins, A Plea fo r th e Wider A ction o f th e C hurch o f E ngland in th e P reven tio n o f th e D egradation o f Women,
J. R. P rety m an , V oluntary v e r s u s Legal Relief,
Miss M arshall w itnesed erec tio n of new civic b u ild in g s in S u n d e rla n d . 1880. F ir s t Durham Diocesan C onference.
Form ation of th e Cam bridge Mission to Delhi.
1881. L ightfoot p re sid e d a t C h u rch C ongress a t Newcastle. 1882. Leo XIII, A usp ica to Concessum (S ep t 17 1882).
L ightfoot d eliv ered P rim ary Charge to th e C lergy of th e Diocese of Durham ad v o catin g diaconate fo r women.
A d derley g ra d u a te d w ith a h isto ry d e g re e from Oxford U n iv e rsity . 1883. A nonynous p u b licatio n , The B itte r C ry o f O utcast London,
A d derley v isite d in B ethnal Green. Death of Karl Marx.
Leo XIII ‘p ru d e n tly mitigated* F ran cisc a n T h ird O rd er Rule. Fabian S ociety fo u n d ed .
L ig h tfo o t p re a c h e d a Serm on on St. C u th b e rt a t C h e s te r-le - S tre e t. Canon G. Body ap p o in ted Canon M issioner of Durham.
F ir s t m em bers of White C ross Army e n ro lle d a t Bishop A uckland. W. P. Sw aby m arried Helen Matilda M arshall.
C reation of an In d e p e n d e n t Anglican P ro v in ce of th e West In d ie s.
1883. Form ation of Durham Diocesan B ranch of P u rity Society. J. C. Winslow b o rn a t Hanworth, Middlesex.
1884. Leo XIII, Humanum Genus (On F reem asonry).
F o rtu n a ta P ie tro Luigi Jo sa ap p o in ted R ector of Holy T rin ity , E ssequibo, Diocese of Guiana.
Dr. Howson a t C h u rch C ongress a t R eading a rg u e d case fo r M inistry of D eaconesses.
Sw aby in d u c te d Vicar of St. M ark’s Millfield.
T h ird Reform Act: household fra n c h ise was ex te n d e d to c o u n tie s. 1885. R e d istrib u tio n Act: P arliam entary C o n stitu en cies w ere defin ed .
H ouses of Laymen asso ciated w ith th e C onvocations of each P ro v in ce w ere e lected b y Diocesan Conferences.
Bishop of Alabama o rd e re d D eaconesses w ith th e lay in g on of h a n d s. Form ation of In d ia n National C ongress in Bombay.
A dderley a p p o in te d W arden of Oxford House, B ethnal G reen. Wider u se of lin o ty p e an d monotype p r in tin g sy stem s.
1887. Queen V ictoria’s Ju bilee.
Winslow san g a t W indsor Castle.
L icensing of f i r s t Women C hurch W orkers in th e Durham Diocese. Form ation of Women’s B ranch of C h u rch Army.
D eath of Helen M athilda Marshall.
A dderley w as soap box o ra to r in V ictoria P ark .
A dderley o rd a in e d a deacon an d ap p o in te d c u r a te of St. J o h n ’s, B ethnal G reen.
1888. Lam beth C onference.
P an-A nglican C onference in Durham a tte n d e d b y b ish o p s, c le rg y an d la ity . L ightfoot ill afte rw a rd s.
C h u rch C o n g ress a t M anchester d isc u sse d lay m in istry . Canon Body p ro p o sed O rd e rs of V irgins and Widows.
L ightfoot p re s id e d a t Durham Diocesan C onference in S u n d e rla n d . A d derley an d Henson im itated St. F ra n c is of A ssisi in B eth n al G reen. A d derley a p p o in te d C h rist C hurch M issioner.
1889. A d derley a t St. F rid e sw id es’s C hurch, Brom ley-by-Bow .
The London Dock S trik e . A dderley a t dock g a te s w ith Ben Tillet. L ig h tfo o t r e tu r n e d to h is diocese in May.
Form ation of th e C h ristian Social Union. A d d erley w as a London committee member.
D unlop’s pneum atic ty r e making fo r im provem ents in b icy cles.
Canon Body w rote in The Church Times a b o u t th e fin a n cia l b u rd e n of s u p p o rtin g women’s c h u rc h work.
C harles Gore ed ite d L u x Mundi, 'new n e e d s, new p o in ts of view , new questions*.
An A ppeal A g a in st Women’s S u ffra g e.
[M arshall], A S u g g e stio n fo r Our Times,
L ig h tfo o t died in December.
1891. F irs t Is s u e of The Clarion.
1891. Miss M arshall an d six o th e rs became th e f i r s t m em bers of th e League of St. C u th b e rt.
[M arshall], Deacons a n d Deaconesses, a n d a P roposed A d aptation, in P art, o f th e T hird O rder o f S t. Francis.
1892. Keir H ardie elected M. P. fo r West Ham, S outh.
1893. Swaby c o n se c ra te d Bishop a t W estm inster A bbey (M arch).
A dderley spoke on 4 O ctober ab o u t L abour Q uestions a t th e C h u rch C ongress.
W estcott a t Durham Diocesan C onference s ta te d t h a t Theology w as th e w ork of T heologians (October).
Swaby h av in g b een co n se c ra te d Bishop sailed fo r B ritish G uiana (November).
Paul S a b a tie r, S. Frangois d A ssise .
A dderley jo in ed th e In d e p e n d e n t L abour P a rty a n d a d d r e s s e d w orking men.
A dderley a d v e rtis e d fo r F ran ciscan f ria r s .
1894. A dderley w ent to All Hallows, B a rk in g -b y -th e -T o w e r, w ith A. S. Mason.
Miss M arshall v isite d F ren ch R iviera an d A ssisi. Miss M arshall met Paul S ab atier.
W escott o rd a in e d f i r s t Durham D eaconesses w ith th e la y in g on of h an d s.
H arco u rt b u d g e t in tro d u c e d r e d is tr ib u tiv e taxatio n . A dderley, S te p h e n Remarx.
Paul S ab a tie r, St. F rancis o f A ssisi, E n glish tra n s la tio n .
Paul S a b a tie r’s S. Frangois d 'A ssise liste d on In d ex of F o rb id d e n Books.
A dderley an d o th e rs form ed th e Society of th e Divine Com passion in Plaistow.
G e rtru d e Bomby an d o th e rs form ed th e S ociety of th e In c a rn a tio n in Plaistow.
A d derley fo u n d ed a n d ed ited , Goodwill.
A dderley tra m p ed a ro u n d a num ber of co u n tie s. A dderley, The L eg en d o f th e Way o f Grief.
A dderley, The New Floreat.
A dderley, Social A s p e c ts o f th e Gospel.
1895. N arayan Vaman Tilak b a p tise d in A hm ednagar. 1896. F ir s t iss u e of The Daily Mail.
[M arshall], The Dawn B reaking.
Leo XIII, Apostolicae Curae.
1897. A dderley, Paul Mercer.
A dderley le ft th e S ociety of th e Divine Compassion. A d derley h ire d th e B erkeley Chapel in th e West End. A dderley w as a soap box o ra to r a t Hyde P a rk C orner.
[M arshall], Some T h o u g h ts on th e T h ird O rder o f S t. F rancis.
1900. A d derley, F rancis, The L ittle Poor Man o f A ssisi,
1901. D eath of Queen Victoria.
S a b a tie r fin d s T h ird O rd er Rule a t C ap istran o . He h ad th e Rule p r in te d in P aris.
A d derley an d M arson, Franciscan T h ird O rders.
B eginning of th e f u tu r e B ritish S ociety f o r F ra n c isc a n S tu d ie s. T agore e s ta b lish e d A shram a t S a n tin ik e ta n .
Winslow w ent u p to Balliol College, Oxford.
A d d erley became V icar of St. M ark’s, M arylebone Road.
1902. B alfour E ducation Act in tro d u c in g s ta te -p ro v id e d se c o n d a ry ed u catio n .
B irth of V e rrie r Elwin.
1903. A d d erley e d ite d Critical Serm ons.
A dd erley , A New E a rth .
Death of Leo XIII.
1904. C. F. A ndrew s jo in ed Cam bridge Mission a n d B ro th erh o o d in Delhi. A d d erley a p p o in te d V icar of St. S a v io u r’s, S altley.
[Miss M arshall], F o u ndation of Anglican T h ird O rder M agazine.
1905. A d d erley e d ite d P ractical Q uestions.
S u n d a r S in g h b a p tise d . A ndrew s in E ngland. Winslow v isite d In d ia.
1907. S. E. S to k es a n d o th e r s form ed th e B ro th erh o o d of th e Im itation of J e s u s in P u n jab .
1908. E. J. Palm er, Fellow of Balliol, ap p o in ted Bishop of Bombay.
1910. E d in b u rg h World C onference on Mission. V. S. A zariah w as a s p e a k e r.
1912. A ndrew s, The R enaissance o f Hinduism.
Winslow te a c h in g a t St. A u g u stin e 's College, C a n te rb u ry , to k e s v is ite d St. A u g u stin e 's College.
1913. A zariah c o n se c ra te d f i r s t In d ia n Bishop of D ornakal.
1914. Winslow a r riv e d in In d ia , sp o n so red by th e S ociety fo r th e P ro p a g a tio n of th e Gospel.
War b e g in s in E urope. A d derley goes to F ran ce.
A ndrew s le ft th e C am bridge Mission a n d B ro th erh o o d in Delhi.
1915. G andhi r e tu r n e d to In d ia a n d b eg an to form S a ty a g ra h a A shram a t Sabaram ati.
Winslow a p p o in te d V ice-P rincipal of High School a t A hm ednagar. Winslow form ed a frie n d s h ip w ith N. V. Tilak, an In d ia n , a t ashram of M arathi Mission.
1917. Winslow s tu d ie d B hakti p o e try , esp ecially t h a t of Tukaram a n d Tagore.
N. V. Tilak, a n o th e r b h a k ti poet, became S a n y a sa a t A hm ednagar. The R u ssian Revolution.
Winslow v isite d B ethel Ashram. 1919. Winslow, L itu r g y fo r India.
The Rowlatt Act followed by S a ty a g ra h a p r o te s ts a c ro s s India. Siege of A m ritsar.
N. V. Tilak died.
The T re a ty of V ersailles. The G overnm ent of In d ia Act.
Form ation of th e C hurch of England Addem bly. F oss W estcott e n th ro n e d as M etropolitan of In d ia .
Winslow in Ham pshire had a Vision* of an a sh ra m in India. F ir s t is s u e of Young In d ia .
G. G. Coulton, C hrist, St. Francis an d Today.
1920. Winslow, E u c h a rist in India, p re se n te d a t Lam beth C onference. Winslow r e tu r n e d to In d ia to begin h is a sh ram exp erim en t w ith six In d ia n s.
1921. G andhi p re s id e d o v e r bonfire of fo re ig n clo th in Bombay (Ju ly ). G andhi a d o p te d h is ‘m ourning costum e’ (S ep t.).
V isit of P rin c e of Wales to India.
1922. T agore e s ta b lis h e d V isabharati U n iv ersity a t S h an tin ik e ta n . Mahatma Gandhi a rre s te d .
C h rista S eva S an g h a (Fellowship of St. B arn ab as) b le sse d b y Bishop Palm er.
Housm an’s f i r s t L ittle Plays o f St. Francis. 1923. G. K. C h e ste rto n , St. Francis o f A ssisi.
C h rista S eva S an g h a moved to Ahm ednagar. Winslow, Narayan Vaman Tilak.
W. S. R o b ertso n ap p o in ted S. C. M. Sec. to B ritish Theological S tu d e n ts .
Winslow v is ite d England. Christian Yoga.
1924. Winslow v is ite d Gandhi, fa stin g fo r th e u n ity of th e In d ia n People. G andhi re le a se d from p rison.
Elwin g ra d u a te d from Merton College, Oxford. Elwin a p p o in te d V ice-Principal of Wycliffe Hall. Winslow, Ja g a d g u ru .
E. M. F o r s te r , A Passage to India.
1925. M adeleine Slade joined Gandhi’s ashram a t S abarm ati.
1926. C eleb ratio n of th e S ev en th C entenary of th e d e a th of St. F ra n c is. P ro fe s s o r H eiler an d Nicolas A rseniev v is ite d Oxford.
S ad h u S u n d a r S ingh v isite d Oxford. J. C. Winslow v isite d Oxford.
R. H. Taw ney v isite d Oxford. Winslow, The In d ia n M ystic.
1926. The C h u rch Assem bly R eport, The Call from India,
The G eneral S trik e .
Dame Monica Wills, S. P. G. and o th e rs gave Winslow m oney to b u ild ash ram in Poona.
Lord Irw in a p p o in te d Viceroy of India.
1927. In d ia n S ta tu to ry Commission s e t up u n d e r c h airm an sh ip of L ord Simon.
V. Elwin, W.S. R obertson, 0. Fielding C larke a n d o th e r Englishm en a r riv e d a t C h rista Seva Sangha.
Winslow r e tu r n e d to C h rista Seva S a n g h a w ith Royal, Coles an d H untley.
Elwin a n d o th e r Englishm en v isite d A ssisi a n d K erala, an d a r r iv e d a t C. S. S.
C. S. S. had e ig h t E nglish and eig h t In d ia n m em bers.
In d ia n C h u rch M easure p a ssed by C h u rch A ssem bly, P arliam en t a n d Crown.
1928. The new C. S. S. Ashram building an d S tudents* Hostel o p en ed a t Poona.
Elwin v isite d S abarm ati, was ill, r e tu r n e d to E ngland to re c u p e ra te . St. F ra n c is form ally ad o p ted as a second p a tro n of C. S. S.
D iscussion an d adoption of Rule an d C o n stitu tio n a t C. S. S.
B eginning of complex p ro c e d u re of s e ttin g u p th r e e F ra n c isc a n O rd ers.
Bishop A zariah of C ornakal succeeded Bishop Palm er a s V isitor of C. S. S.
A rriv al of Simon Commission in In d ia m arked b y a ll-In d ia h a rta l. Elwin a t Oxford s tu d ie d life of R ichard Rolle, a n E n g lish m ystic. Elwin b eg an to c o rre sp o n d w ith S orella Amata of T rev i, Ita ly . Elwin became member of th e C o n fra te rn ity of S p iritu a l E n ten te. Elwin met Olive Wyon an d Evelyn U nderhill, who w ere also s tu d y in g m ysticism .
1929. Winslow v isite d England.
Elwin was a c h y ra of C. S. S. in his ab sen ce.
Elwin a ctiv ely e sp o u se d cause of In d ia n n atio n a lists. Winslow r e tu r n e d to C. S. S. in December.
C o n stitu tio n of th e T hird O rder of C. S. S. re v is e d an d m em bership ex ten d ed .
R o b ertso n an d o th e rs became S ad h ak s (novices).
Winslow made h is p ro fessio n as a S id d h a (p ro fe ss e d m em ber).
C hrista S eva Sangh a Review f ir s t p u b lish e d . Fellow ship of th e Way was formed in England. W. Q. Lash ap p o in te d c u ra te a t St. Mary*s, P o rtse a.
P arliam ent r e je c te d th e Deposited Book ("1928 P ra y e r Book").
1930. In d ia n p led g e to ob tain P u rn a S w araj [Complete In d e p e n d e n c e ], (Ja n u a ry ).
G andhi an d 78 ash ram v o lu n te e rs led walk from S ab arm ati to Dandi fo r salt.
G andhi a r r e s te d an d p u t in Y eravada P rison. G andhi named Elwin, ‘my son*.
1930. M eeting in London to form English b ra n c h of th e T h ird O rd e r of C. S. S. (O ctober).
R o b ertso n in d u c te d a s Vicar of St. Iv e s, H unts. (A ugust).
R o b ertso n p ro fe sse d as member of C. S. S. in E ngland (O ctober). G andhi a t Round Table Conference in Whitehall.
Winslow an d Elwin, The Dawn o f Indian Freedom.
1930. R ep o rt of th e Simon Commission (May). F ir s t Round Table C onference.
1931. G andhi re le ase d from p riso n (Jan). G an d h i-Irw in P act (March).
L ord Irw in r e tu rn e d to England (April).
G andhi, A zariah, S orella Amata and A ndrew s a d v ise d Elwin.
G andhi w ent to Second Round Table C onference in London (S ep t.). Elwin ed ite d special St. F ran cis num ber of C. S. S. R eview .
In d ia n le a d e rs ad v ise d Elwin to go to t e r r i t o r y of th e Gond. Bishop of N agpur s u g g e ste d K aranjia a s a su ita b le place. Sham rao Hivale a sk ed to accompany Elwin to Gond t e r r ito r y . Second Round Table Conference en d ed in London (Dec.).
New T h ird O rd er A shram s e sta b lish ed a t A undh an d a t Malaegon. Growth in E ngland from St. Ives, H unts, an d M orden, S u rre y . W. Q. Lash a rriv e d a t C. S. S. Ashram (December).
G andhi in p riso n .
1932. G andhi an d Hivale a r riv e d a t Bombay.
G andhi co n su lted In d ia n lead ers an d s e n t teleg ram s to V iceroy. G andhi befo re a r r e s t w rote a note to Elwin an d a b o u t Elwin. G andhi p u t in Y eravda P rison.
Elwin an d Hivale w ent to Karanjia.
Elwin took The T ru th A b ou t India to Bombay a n d met In d ia n le a d e rs. Elwin had p a s s p o rt d ifficu lties, b u t sailed fo r B ritain.
Elwin re c eiv ed by Irw in and Sankey, b u t n o t b y S ir Samuel Hoare. Elwin re fu s e d a p a s s p o r t to r e tu r n to India.
Ramsay MacDonald an n o u n ced th e Communal Award (17 A u g u st). G andhi fa ste d u n to d e a th in p ro te s t a g a in s t th e s e p a ra te e le c to ra te s. G andhi w rote to Elwin. Elwin w rote to S orella Amata.
Y erav d a P act sig n ed an d Gandhi concluded f a s t (26 S ep t.). G andhi made W ardha his new n e rv e -c e n tre .
Elwin v isite d A ssisi, Sorella Amata, Gandhi an d W ardha. Elwin a sk e d Bishop of N agpur not to renew h is license.
Elwin r e tu r n e d to St. F ran cis Ashram an d Gond S eva Mandal. Elwin an d sev en In d ia n C h ristian s a t St. F ra n c is Ashram. W orkers of d iffe re n t F aith s a t Gond S eva Mandal.
1933. G andhi a r r e s te d an d re le ase d (May).
G andhi lau n ch ed w eekly, Harijan to re p la ce Young India.
G andhi a r r e s te d an d re lea se d (A ugust).
G andhi b eg an to u r on b ehalf of U ntouchables.
Elwin a n d his com pany beg in w elfare w ork, esp ecially among le p e rs. Lack of financial re s o u rc e s fo r ashram an d mandal.
1934. C h rista S eva S an g h a divided.
C h rista Prem a S eva S angha occupied fo rm er C. S. S. b u ild in g a t Pune.
C. S. S. in In d ia (now mainly a T h ird O rd e r a n d m ainly In d ia n s) moved to A undh.
C. P. S. S. also had T h ird O rder members. Winslow le ft fo r England.
1937. Elwin o pened a n o th e r ashram a t S a u b rw a ch la p u r.
Elwin ap p o in te d r e s e a rc h asso ciate of S ir D. J. T ate a t Bombay. 1939. Elwin, The Baiga.
O u tb reak of Second World War. 1942. D eath of A dderley.
Elwin’s ash ram renam ed Bhumijan S eva Mandal. Quit In d ia R esolution (A ugust).
1944. Elwin a p p o in te d A n thropologist to G overnm ent of O rissa. Elwin aw ard ed Oxford D.Sc.
1946. Elwin a p p o in te d D eputy D irector of D epartm ent of A nth ro p o lo g y a t C alcutta.
1947. In d ia c e le b ra te d h e r In d ep en d en ce. 1948. G andhi sh o t, 30 J a n u a ry .
1949. Elwin, Tribal A r t R esearch Unit.
1954. Elwin in v ite d by P an d it Jaw aharlal N ehru to become A d v iser fo r T rib al A ffairs.
INTRODUCTION.
1. IDENTIFYING A FRANCISCAN PROBLEM.
(1) The Problem of P a s t an d P re s e n t. As David Low enthal h as o b s e rv e d , T h o u g h th e p a s t is a topic of almost u n iv e rs a l c o n c ern , little r e s e a r c h fo c u se s on how people in g en eral see, v alu e a n d u n d e r s ta n d it\* This th e s is is an in v e stig a tio n f ir s t, of how people h av e seen , v a lu e d a n d u n d e rsto o d F ra n c is of A ssisi since h is d e a th in 1226, a n d second, of how Jam es A d d erley , Emily M arshall, John Winslow, a n d V e rrie r Elwin came to fo u n d em bryonic A nglican F ran ciscan T h ird O rd e rs in th e p e rio d 1882-1939. The main a rg u m e n t is t h a t if we would know how men a n d women come to see, v alu e a n d u n d e r s ta n d symbolic relig io u s r e s o u rc e s , we m ust examine th e social co n te x ts in w hich th e y do so.
(2) The Basic F a c ts a b o u t F ran cis of A ssisi. 1182-1226. The b asic fa c ts a b o u t F ra n c is of A ssisi w hich few would d isp u te a re th e se : F ran ce sc o (in E n g lish tra n s la te d F ran c is) was b o rn in A ssisi in 1182, th e son of P ie tro B ernadone, a clo th m erch an t. In e a rly manhood, he re je c te d w orldly am bitions to follow C h rist. O thers followed h is example, an d w hen th e n u m b ers w ere su ffic ie n t, th re e Religious O rd e rs w ere form ed w ith Rules a p p ro v e d b y th e Pope. F ran cis an d his b r o th e r s in d u e c o u rse became know n a s th e F ir s t O rd er, th e O rder of th e F r ia r s Minor, a n d a re commonly nam ed F ra n c isc a n s. Clare an d some o th e r women became know n a s th e Second O rd er, a n d a re o fte n named Poor Clares. Those who rem ained in
th e ir own homes an d places of w ork, who w ere o fte n m arried a n d owned p r o p e rty , became know n a s th e T hird O rder, an d a r e f re q u e n tly named te r tia r ie s .
F ra n c is le ft v e r y little p erso n al re c o rd of h is ho p es an d in te n tio n s. A fter h is d e a th he was fo u n d to have w ritte n little more th a n a poem an d some p r a y e r s in p ra ise of God, an d a few le tte rs .
(3) The P ope’s Proclam ation: a S aint, a n Exem plar o f C atholic V alues. F ra n c is ’s C h ristia n life had, how ever, made s u ffic ie n t im pact on h is g e n e ra tio n fo r th e Pope to canonise him le ss th a n two y e a rs la te r . By g iv in g him th e title , Saint, th e Pope e lev ated F ra n c is B e rn a rd o n e to be *a
* p e rso n , now d ead , whom th e C hurch allows to be p u b lic ly v en erated * . By can o n isin g F ra n c is th e Pope proclaim ed t h a t th e v a lu e s a n d v ir tu e s d isp la y e d in F ra n c is ’s life w ere th o se of th e C h u rch w hich h o n o u re d him. U sing th e a lre a d y ex istin g m ethods of what- may c o n v e n ie n tly be d e s c rib e d a s th e S a in t S y s te m, Catholics n a r r a te d th o se e v e n ts in St. F ra n c is ’s life w hich w ere th e cause of th is v e n e ra tio n to e n s u re th e ir c o n tin u in g prom inence. T hey allocated time, c e le b ra te d to p o g ra p h ie s, occu p ied sp ace, a u th o ris e d te x ts , a p p ro p ria te d a r te fa c ts , an d s tr u c tu r e d o rg a n isa tio n s to make inform ation ab o u t St. F ra n c is av ailab le a n d v isib le. St. F ra n c is, in sociological lan g u ag e, w as p r e s e n te d to th e Catholic p u b lic a s a sp ecific resource. Catholics u se d ‘th e m eans of s u p p ly in g w h at is needed* to accum ulate ‘available a s s e ts ’ an d c o n s tr u c t *a sto ck t h a t can be d raw n on*, to f o s te r v e n e ra tio n of St. F r a n c is / This sto c k of a s s e ts from w hich inform ation a b o u t St. F ran cis could be d raw n will in th is th e s is be called F ranciscan reso u rces.
T hese F ra n c isc a n re s o u rc e s w ere in te n d e d to co n v ey th e va lu es, th e ‘w o rth , d e s ira b ility an d utility*, which th e Catholic C h u rch a s c rib e d to h e r
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hero ic follow er of th e F aith of C h rist, he was a n exem plary member of th e Catholic C h u rch , an a g e n t of m iracles, an in te r c e s s o r in h ea v en , an e v a n g e list, an d a fo u n d e r of relig io u s o rd e rs . S t. F ra n c is was p r e s e n te d a s of w o rth , d e s ira b ility an d u tility b ecause th e s e a ttr ib u te s w ere h ig h ly v alu e d b y th e Catholic C hurch.
D espite th e v ic iss itu d e s of its h isto ry , th e C atholic C h u rch m aintained th is e v a lu atio n of St. F ra n c is, b u t th e in te r e s t of h e r m em bers in St. F ra n c is h ad re a c h e d a low ebb by th e m id -n in e te e n th c e n tu ry .
(4) A F ra n c isc a n Revival. 1882-1926. In th e p e rio d , 1882-1926, how ever, th e r e was a q u ite rem ark ab le rev iv al of d ev o tio n to St. F ra n c is, s e t betw een c e le b ra tio n s of th e s e v e n th c e n te n a rie s of h is b ir th a n d d e a th . Since th is was a p erio d o fte n d e sc rib e d b ro a d ly a s a p e rio d of d ecline in re lig io u s devotion, th e Roman Catholic F ra n c isc a n re v iv a l p o ses a problem fo r a sociologist to explain.
An e v e n g r e a te r problem a rise s from th e re d is c o v e ry of St. F ra n c is b y th o se o u tsid e th e Roman Catholic C hurch. The ‘others*® also ren ew ed i n te r e s t in St. F ra n cis in th e p eriod from 1882 to 1926. In 1882, i t would h av e b een v e r y d iffic u lt fo r a n English r e a d e r, who was n o t an e d u c a te d Roman Catholic, to fin d te x ts ab o u t St. F ran cis. By 1926, th e r e w as an a b u n d a n t choice of re a d in g m atter fo r coming to see, v alu e an d u n d e r s ta n d him.
F ranciscan va lu es in th is th e s is is u se d to d e sc rib e a n y of th e v a lu e s w hich people fo u n d in St. F ran cis.
(5) The Mass Media a t th e High P oint of th e F ra n c isc a n R evival in 1926 I llu s tr a te a Sociological Problem . I t will be u s e fu l to illu s tr a te th e problem of th e m an y -faced p u b lic re p re s e n ta tio n s of St. F ra n c is b y p a u s in g to examine th e situ a tio n in 1926 a t th e z e n ith of th is wave of F ra n c isc a n re v iv a l.
Of St. F ra n c is ’s w o rth , d e sira b ility a n d u tility , th e r e was s u r p r is in g ag re e m e n t among th e Catholics an d 'th e o th e r s ’. The Q u a rterly R eview
proclaim ed th e e ffe c t of ch an g ed a ttitu d e s to St. F ra n c is. fWe a r e all F ra n c isc a n s now; w h a te v e r th e te x tu re of o u r p e rso n a l relig io n may be*. F ra n c is w as 'm ore th a n a Churchm an, more th a n a Saint*. A lead in g a rtic le in The Times a g re e d . The Roman Catholic C h u rch in h e r c e le b ra tio n of th e S a in t’s c e n te n a ry :
Will h av e w ith h e r th e sy m p ath y of many th o u sa n d s who a r e n o t of h e r Communion, an d of n o t a few who h ave little o r no dogm atic b elief.8
In 1926, sim ilar sen tim en ts w ere e x p re sse d b y a n u m b er of w rite rs . Some w ere p u zzled b y th e phenom enon an d s o u g h t to defin e it. Jo h n
Q
Dobson, a C o n g reg atio n alist, d isc e rn e d *a n e o -F ra n c isc a n cult*. F a th e r Bampton, a J e s u it, was am azed b y 'th e s e rem ark ab le people* who h a d 'ta k e n up* St. F ra n c is a n d 'm ade him th e o b je c t of a s o r t of fa sh io n a b le cult*:
Claiming a s one of th em selv es a man whose re lig io u s s ta n d p o in t w as in fla t c o n tra d ic tio n to th e ir own.
What th e s e w rite rs term ed a *neo-Franciscan*, ‘fashionable* o r ‘F ra n c isc a n cult* was most e v id e n t in n e w sp a p e rs a n d jo u rn a ls . T h eir p a g e s an d colum ns a b o u t St. F ran cis had th e t r a i t s of b o th a jo u r n a lis t’s ‘scoop* an d re c o n d ite re s e a rc h . What is more, th e two w ere n o t alw ays s e p a ra te d , fo r th e le a rn e d w ere called u p o n to make th e ir ‘expert* sta te m e n ts to th e p u b lic th ro u g h th e a g en cy of n e w sp a p e rs.
Num erous fe a tu re s of th e Catholic a s s e ts a n d s to c k s b u ilt u p o v e r th e c e n tu rie s to co n v ey th e w o rth of St. F ra n c is w ere new s fe a tu re s . The
Times, m aking u se of new p r in t technologies, re p ro d u c e d a p ic tu re of th e c u r r e n t p r e s s h e ro copied from of an Ita lia n fre sc o . I t w as d e s c rib e d by a n e x p e rt in Fine A rt. The next day, a n o th e r, who h a d s tu d ie d th e m edieval F ra n c isc a n te x ts, w rote to th e e d ito r q u o tin g th e L atin of tw elve lin es of Thomas of Celano’s Legenda to inform r e a d e r s t h a t th e fre s c o was a n in a c c u ra te la te r r e p re s e n ta tio n of th e S aint.
Public a rg u m e n t was n o t confined to polite d isa g re e m e n t a b o u t St. F ra n c is ’s facial f e a tu re s . The w ounds w hich Roman C atholics claim ed St. F ra n c is had re c e iv e d a s a m ark of his devotion to C h rist became new s w o rth y . Bishop B arnes of Birmingham, ren o w n ed fo r h is m o d ern ist th eo lo g y , in an a rtic le , "The Unwashed S a in t”, p r in te d in The Daily E xp ress, s u g g e s te d t h a t F ra n c is had not w ashed p ro p e rly . His b leed in g w ounds w ere b ecau se he s c ra tc h e d him self due to a n ir r ita tio n on th e sk in from h is woollen garm ent.
F a th e r Bampton a sk e d b y w hat p ro c e ss of r e s e a r c h th e Bishop ‘came b y th is c u rio u s piece of re c o n d ite h isto rical lore* a n d rem in d ed h is r e a d e rs :
C h ro n iclers of th e liv es of g re a t men, s a in tly o r o th erw ise , do n o t g e n e ra lly in tru d e u p o n th e p riv a c y of th e ir d re s s in g room o r th e ir bathroom . Nor is it u su ally co n sid ered to be m a tte r of good
b re e d in g in th is c o u n try , a t le a st, to make su c h p u b lic r e fe re n c e to s u c h m a tte rs.
of th e C h u rch of E ngland, re p o rte d a m eeting h e ld a t C h u rch House in W estm inster. Walter Seton, S e c re ta ry of th e B ritish S ociety of F ra n c isc a n S tu d ies, ’amid loud applause* had been able ’to d eal v e r y faithfully* w ith th e problem , c a stin g g ra v e d o u b ts on th e a c c u ra c y of th e Bishop*s c o n te n tio n t h a t F ra n c is did n o t u se linen g arm en ts.
The n a r ra tiv e s of Celano contain se v e ra l r e fe r e n c e s to his
u n d e rg a rm e n ts , an d it seems to be qu ite p ro b a b le t h a t th e y w ere n o t woollen ... . What we c e rta in ly know is t h a t a f te r h is
stig m atisatio n he r a re ly w ashed his fe e t an d t h a t he g e n e ra lly w ash ed only h is fin g e rs , n o t his whole h an d s.
The New castle Chronicle k e p t th e N orth E a st inform ed. I ts lead in g
a rtic le su g g e ste d :
The stig m ata w ere a s n a tu ra l to F ran cis a s b re a th in g an d th in k in g . I t is th e a b se n c e of them which would n e e d explaining.
O th er m ass-m edia m arketed fo r th e re a d in g p u b lic prom oted re la te d them es. St. F ra n c is ’s r a p p o r t w ith animals, fo r in sta n c e , w as lin k e d w ith a n u m b er of c u r r e n t is s u e s , in cluding th e p ro te c tio n of b ird s a n d a coal s tr ik e in N orth E ast England. The New Statesm an: A W eekly R eview o f P olitics a n d L ite ra tu re a s s e rte d :
C learly St. F ra n c is was b efo re his time in a d v o c a tin g a Wild B ird ’s P ro te c tio n Act.
The N ew castle Journal drew in sp ira tio n from one of th e s to rie s in The L ittle
F low ers o f S t, F rancis c o n tra stin g th e c u r r e n t fa ilu re to reco n cile th e p a r tie s in a coal s tr ik e w ith St. F ra n c is’s su cc e ss in reco n cilin g a wolf an d th e people of Gubbio. R ead ers w ere told th a t h is ’rem ed y in p e rp le x ity w as to th ro w him self in to th e breach*:
P e rh a p s we aw ait only a St. F ran cis now to show u s th e d iv in ely sim ple way o u t of th e w o lf-a n d -th e -p e o p le -o f-G u b b io -d iffic u lty .
h e r d re s s in g room:
And y o u ’ll p u t in a b it a b o u t how I ad o re th e c o u n try an d p ig s a n d d u c k s a n d th o se s o rts of th in g s?
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The jo u rn a lis t in te r r u p te d , *1 w rote all th a t p a r t b e fo re I came*.
I t was little w onder t h a t Pope Pius XI d rew th e a tte n tio n of h is ’V enerable B rethren* to th o se who w ere seein g , v a lu in g a n d u n d e rs ta n d in g St. F ra n c is ’a c co rd in g to th e ir own caprice* r a t h e r th a n ’b y th e will of th e Roman P o n tiffs, canonically elected*. The P o n tiff rem in d ed them:
The h e ra ld of th e g r e a t k in g did n o t come to make men d o tin g lo v e rs of flow ers, b ird s , lam bs, fish e s an d h a r e s , b u t lo v e rs of th e C ross of J e su s .
This comment by P ius XI found s u p p o rt in some B ritish p u b lica tio n s.
A ppreciatio n a la Mode em phasised th is point:
A la d y in th e la te s t gown
S p eak s to me th u s in London Town: "Of all th e s a in ts t h a t really w ere, I alm ost th in k th a t I p re fe r
F ra n c e sc o of A ssisi. He
seem s a b so lu te ly sw e e t to me". Then to h e r looking g lass she goes a n d p u ts f r e s h pow der on h e r nose.
O th er people took a much more serio u s a p p ro a c h to th e S a in t’s w o rth , d e s ira b ility a n d u tility . The Dean of Durham made a th o u g h tfu l a tte m p t to r e d r e s s th is alleg ed im balance of p o p u lar opinion. In an a rtic le , "Real V alues of Life: In th e F o o tste p s of St. F ra n c is", p r in te d in The Daily
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T elegraph, he drew a tte n tio n to St. F ra n c is ’s com passion fo r th e poor.
He s u g g e s te d t h a t th e S ain t could be more w o rth ily h o n o u red b y some o rg a n isa tio n d ev o ted to th e ta s k of e x p re ssin g th is com passion in th e m odern w orld. O ther people a g re e d w ith him a n d drew a tte n tio n to St. F ra n c is ’s p e rso n a l an d social v irtu e s .
The C hurch Union G azette, an o rg a n of th e Anglo Catholic w ing of
a tte m p ts to make him an ecclesiastical fig u re .
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L aw rence Housman w rote fo r Theology a b o u t ‘F ra n c is, th e m an’, a s p a r t of th is a tte m p t to fre e him from an e cc le sio c en tric cage. Following th e 'human* them e, Housman*s am using p lay s a b o u t St. F ra n c is w ere p erfo rm ed in a nu m b er of halls; fo r in sta n c e , a t St. H ilary in Cornwall, nam ed a f te r a C o rn ish S ain t, an d a t A rm strong College, nam ed a f te r an e n g in e e r, in Newcastle.
The Times L ite r a r y Supplem ent s u g g e ste d St. F ra n c is h ad become:
A v eh icle of a somew hat m arrow less ideal, p re s id in g o v e r a life fla v o u re d w ith p io u s dim inutives, a life t h a t b u o y s its e lf on a w eak belief t h a t b ecau se .a sim pleton may be a s a in t th e r e is a s a in tlin e s s in b ein g silly.
While th is d elu g e of F ra n c is-in sp ire d w ritin g w as in u n d a tin g th e media, many books a b o u t St. F ran cis w ere p u b lish e d . V isito rs to E ngland, su c h a s Nicholas A rsen iev from Russia, o ffe re d f r e s h in te rp r e ta tio n s of a
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Roman Catholic S ain t in le c tu re s a t th e u n iv e rs itie s . E n glish s c h o la rs also d e liv e re d le c tu re s , an d drew th e a tte n tio n of th e p u b lic to th e B ritish sto ck of sc a rc e a n d valu ab le medieval F ra n cisc a n m a n u sc rip ts. The B ritish Museum a r ra n g e d an exhibition in th e c e n tra lly -p la c e d G renville Room on th e g ro u n d floor. D isplayed in g lass ca se s, each m a n u sc rip t h ad a d e s c rip tiv e label say in g exactly how old it w as a n d from w h ere it had come.^
In sum m ary, many S a in ts had achieved alm ost to ta l o b s c u rity b y 1926, w hile St. F ra n c is ach iev ed a new pinnacle of fame. T h a t s u c h a t o r r e n t of E n g lish w o rd s an d in te r e s t should s p rin g from a t h i r te e n th - c e n tu r y Ita lia n
25
The o p p o rtu n itie s fo r e n q u irin g in to th is in te rp la y of v a lu e s an d c o n tex ts ci, ra too v a s t fo r a sin g le s tu d y .
2. A SPIRAL OF FRANCISCAN RESOURCES.
(1) T he P ro d u c tio n o f F ra n c isc a n Texts: T h ree A p p ro ach es to a Problem . Enough h as b een said to show t h a t th e r e w as a m ark et fo r s u c h w ork, b u t th is does n o t explain why th e r e was a m ark et, o r w hy th e a u th o rs chose to exploit it. Was th e m ark et d e lib e ra te ly fo s te re d , o r did w r ite rs re s p o n d to a dem and? Who c o n s tru c te d it? Did th e c o n te n t of th e te x ts stim u late dem and b y m aking pow erful an d r e le v a n t comments a b o u t E n g lish so ciety ? Were th e s e te x ts made available to a wide ra n g e of people, o r w ere th e y confined to th e h ig h ly -e d u c a te d m em bers of th e m iddle a n d u p p e r c la sses?
T hese a re q u e stio n s a risin g from th e p ro d u ctio n of r e s o u rc e s w hich h av e n o t b een a d d re s s e d in d etail in th is th e sis . The q u e stio n s, how ever, have b een u se d to inform th e g e n eral review of F ra n c isc a n r e s o u rc e s in th e following c h a p te r. In tro d u c to ry comments a n d c o n sid e ra tio n s a b o u t th e c o n s tru c tio n , c o n te n t an d d istrib u tio n of th e te x tu a l F ra n c isc a n re s o u rc e s a re s e t o u t in th e following su b -se c tio n s.
s ta r tin g - p o in t in th e se c u la risa tio n p ro c e ss. Catholic monopoly of th e in te rp r e ta tio n of th e sa c re d h ad been ch allen g ed . The p ro c e s s b y w hich th e a u th o r ity of a sa c re d te x t was w eakened w as c o n tin u e d in th e Age of E nlightenm ent. Catholics th em selv es examined th e o rig in a l L atin a n d Ita lia n te x ts a n d e d ite d th e ir more extrem e claims, know ing t h a t w h at th e y w rote in com m entary could be q u o ted a g a in s t them. The se c u la risa tio n p ro c e ss rea c h e d a th ir d s ta g e in 1893 w hen Paul S a b a tie r, a C alv in ist m o d ern ist, inform ed E urope t h a t Roman Catholics had ‘a r b itr a r ily confiscated* an o rig in al a n d u n iq u e man who was re p re s e n ta tiv e of all t h a t was h ig h e s t an d b e s t in all hum anity. His th e s is g e n e ra lised S t. F ra n c is ’s sig n ifican ce. Since Vie de S. Frangois d ’A ssise was tra n s la te d in to alm ost e v e ry E u ro p ean lan g u ag e, its p u b licatio n could be term ed a m ajor s ta g e in th e p ro c e s s of
27
secu larisa tio n . A f o u rth s ta g e was re a c h e d w hen m em bers of ‘non co n fo rm ist’ an d ‘d e v ia n t’ relig io u s g ro u p s o ffe re d m in o rity a n d id io sy n c ra tic d efin itio n s of St. F ran cis. People re a d in g th e ir in d iv id u a l n e w s p a p e rs a t home, in a tram o r a clu b , could be view ed a s c o n s titu tin g a n alm ost com plete se p a ra tio n of St. F ra n c is from th e c o rp o ra te com m unity w hich had can o n ised him.
b u re a u c ra c y ? Was it c o n n ected w ith th e in h e r e n t social te n sio n s betw een c h u rc h -b a s e d , s e c ta ria n an d m ystical form s of re lig io n ? Did i t h av e a n y th in g to sa y a b o u t th e dw indling of one k in d of com m unity an d its rep lacem en t b y a n o th e r? Was th e c o n te n t d e sig n e d to s t i r th e p o o r o r th e ric h , th e p ow erful o r th e p ow erless, in th e prom otion of social m ovem ents, an d if so, w hich m ovem ents? Would th e c o n te n t give m eaning an d en ch an tm en t to in d iv id u a ls? Was F ran ciscan lite r a tu r e c o n s tru c te d to be all of th e s e th in g s , some of them , o r none of them ?
