Topics
Infancy Toddler Preschooler School-aged Adolescent Early Adult Middle-aged Adult Late-aged AdultInfancy
Physiological Development
The younger the child, the more
rapid the pulse and respirations.
Blood pressure is related to
age and weight.
Weight
Normal birth weight is 3.0 – 3.5 kg.
Weight drops within first week due to excretion of extracellular fluid.
First month infants grow
approximately 30 grams per day.
Infant’s head is equal to 25% of the total body weight.
Infants double their weight
by 4 to 6 months old and triple it by
9 to 12 months.
Cardiovascular System
Several changes occur to
transition the infant from fetal
to pulmonary circulation:
The ductus venosus constricts.
The foramen ovale closes.
The ductus arteriosus constricts.
Pulmonary System
Infant’s airway is shorter, narrower, less stable, and more easily
obstructed than at any other time.
Infants are obligate nose breathers.
Lung tissue is fragile.
Accessory muscles are immature.
Chest wall is less rigid; ribs are
horizontal, causing diaphragmatic breathing.
Renal System
Kidneys are unable to produce
concentrated urine, so infants
are much more easily
Immune System
The fetus acquires some of the
mother’s immunity which may
remain active for six months
to a year after birth.
Nervous System
(1 of 2)Infants lack ability to localize
pain.
Infants have several reflexes
that disappear over time:
Moro reflex (startle)
Palmar grasp
Rooting reflex
Nervous System
(2 of 2)Fontanelles allow for compression of head during childbirth and allow for rapid growth of brain.
Newborns sleep 16–18 hours daily, evenly distributed over a 24-hour period.
Sleep decreases to 14–16 hours, with a 9–10 hour period at night.
Musculoskeletal System
Extremities grow from growth
plates.
Epiphyseal plates are
Other Characteristics
(1 of 3)Two Months Recognizes familiar
faces and objects.
Three Months
Moves objects to mouth, displays primary emotion.
Four Months Reaches out to people. Five Months
Sleeps through the night, differentiates between family and strangers.
Other Characteristics
(2 of 3)Six Months
Sits upright, makes single syllable
sounds.
Seven Months Exhibits fear of strangers.
Eight Months
Responds to the
word "no," sits alone, plays "peek-a-boo." Nine Months Pulls up to standing position, explores objects by mouthing, sucking, chewing, and biting them.
Other Characteristics
(3 of 3)Ten Months Pays attention to name, crawls well.
Eleven Months
Attempts to walk without assistance, shows frustration about restrictions.
Psychosocial Development
Family Processes and
Reciprocal Socialization
Crying
Attachment
Crying
Crying is an infant’s only means
of communication.
Mothers quickly learn to
distinguish the differences
between cries.
Attachment
Secure attachment—infant learns that caregivers will be responsive and helpful when needed.
Anxious resistant attachment—
infant learns to be uncertain about whether or not caregivers will be responsive.
Anxious avoidant attachment—
infant learns that caregivers will not be responsive or helpful when needed.
Trust
vs.
Mistrust
Infant wants the world to be an orderly place where causes and effects can be anticipated.
Infant develops trust when he or she can count on consistent
parental care.
Mistrust develops if he or she cannot count on parental care.
Scaffolding is a teaching/learning
method whereby the infant builds on what he or she already knows.
Scaffolding is a teaching/learning
method whereby the infant builds on what he or she already knows.
Temperament
Easy child:
Regular body functions.
Low or moderate intensity of reactions. Accepts new situations.
Difficult child:
Irregular body functions. Intense reactions.
Withdrawal from new situations.
Slow-to-warm-up child:
Low intensity of reactions and somewhat negative mood.
Parental Separation Stages
Protest
Despair
Toddler and Preschool Age
A toddler beginning to stand and
walk on his own.
Body System Changes
(1 of 3)Cardiovascular:
Capillary beds better developed and assist in thermoregulation.
Hemoglobin levels approach normal adult levels.
Pulmonary:
Alveoli increase in number.
Body System Changes
(2 of 3)Renal:
Kidneys well developed.
Urine characteristics similar to adult.
Immune:
Passivity immunity is lost and child is susceptible to minor respiratory and GI infections.
Nervous:
Brain at 90% of adult weight. Myelination has increased. Fine motor skills developing.
Body System Changes
(3 of 3)Musculoskeletal:
Muscle mass and bone density increase.
Dental:
All primary teeth have erupted by the age of 36 months.
Senses:
Visual acuity is 20/30 during toddler years.
Hearing reaches maturity at 3 to 4 years old.
In the preschool-age child,
Psychosocial Development
(1 of 2)Cognition:
Starts to grasp meaning of words at 1 year. By 3 or 4, has mastered basics of language. Between 18 and 24 months, begins to
understand cause and effect.
By 24 to 36 months, develops magical thinking and engages in play-acting.
Play:
Able to play simple games and follow basic rules.
Psychosocial Development
(2 of 2)Sibling relationships:
Sibling rivalry may occur.
Peer group functions:
Provide source of information about other families and the outside world.
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian parents are
demanding and desire instant obedience.
Authorative parents believe both they and the children have rights and try to maintain a balance.
Permissive parents take a tolerant, accepting view of a child’s behavior.
Divorce and Child
Development
(1 of 2)Express feelings of shock,
depression, and fear that their
parents no longer love them.
May feel abandoned.
Cannot see the divorce from the
parent’s perspective.
Divorce and Child
Development
(2 of 2)Television:
TV violence increases aggression.
Increases passive acceptance of use of aggression by others.
Modeling:
Begins to recognize sexual differences
and begins to incorporate gender-specific behaviors of parents, siblings, and peers.
School Age
School-age children are allowed more
self-regulation and independence as
Physiological Development
Average child gains 3 kg per year.Vital signs reach adult levels.
Lymph tissues are proportionately larger than those of an adult.
Brain function increases in both hemispheres.
Primary teeth are being replaced by permanent ones.
Psychosocial Development
Development of self-concept.
Begins to develop self-esteem.
Moral development begins:
Pre-conventional reasoning.
Conventional reasoning.
Adolescence
Children reach reproductive maturity
during adolescence.
Physiological Development
Usually experience a rapid
two-to three-year growth spurt.
Both males and females reach
reproductive maturity.
Muscle mass and bone growth
are complete.
Psychosocial Development
Family conflict may occur as the
adolescent strives for autonomy and parents strive for continued control.
Privacy and modesty become important.
There is a need to be treated as an adult.
There is increased idealism, which leads to disappointment.
Depression and suicide are more common at this age than any other.
Ethical Development
Development of logical,
analytical, and abstract
thinking occurs.
A personal code of ethics
develops.
Early Adulthood
Peak physical conditions occur in early
adulthood.
Physiological Development
(1 of 2)The body begins its slowing process.
Spinal discs settle, leading to decreased height.
Fatty tissue increases, leading to weight gain.
Physiological Development
(2 of 2)Muscle strength decreases.
Accidents are the leading cause
of death.
The highest levels of job stress
occur.
Middle Adulthood
People in middle adulthood still
function at a high level.
Physiological Development
(1 of 2)Hearing and visual changes
occur.
Cardiac output decreases and
cholesterol levels increase.
Cancer often strikes this age
group.
Physiological Development
(2 of 2)For women in their late 40s and
early 50s, menopause commences.
Offspring have left home, and
“empty-nest syndrome” may occur.
Often there are financial
commitments to elderly parents and young adult children.
Late Adulthood
The ability to learn and adjust continues
throughout life.
Cardiovascular System
Vessel walls thicken.
Increased peripheral vascular
resistance, and reduced blood flow to organs.
Decreased baroreceptor sensitivity.
Decreased vessel elasticity.
Heart starts showing disease.
Functional blood volume decreases,
Respiratory System
Trachea and large airways increase in diameter.
Decreased surface area of lungs as well as decreased elasticity in the lungs.
Coughing is less effective due to weakened chest wall and bone structures.
Endocrine System
Glucose metabolism and insulin production decrease.
The thyroid shows diminished triiodothyronine production.
Cortisol is diminished by 25%.
The pituitary is 20% less effective.
The reproductive organs atrophy in women.
Gastrointestinal System
(1 of 2)Tooth loss can lead to dietary changes, increased chance of
malnutrition, vitamin and mineral deficiency.
The swallowing mechanism changes.
Peristalsis is decreased and the gastric sphincter is less effective.
Gastrointestinal System
(2 of 2)Stomach secretions decrease.
Intestines atrophy.
Metabolism and absorption
change.
Renal System
Reduced kidney function leads to decreased clearance of some drugs and decreased elimination.
The kidneys’ hormonal response to dehydration is reduced.
The kidneys are less able to modify vitamin D to a more active form.
The Senses
Taste buds diminish.
Smell declines, and parts of the
brain involved in smell degenerate.
Response to pain is diminished.
Ability to sense movement diminishes.
Visual acuity decreases, reaction times increase.
The Nervous System
Neurotransmitters are
decreased.
Loss of coordination and
memory.
Psychosocial Development
The terminal drop hypothesis
states that death is preceded by
a five-year period of decreasing
cognitive function.
Challenges
Housing becomes a challenge.
Maintaining a sense of self-worth becomes a problem as it is harder to care for themselves.
Finances become stressful with retirement and the decreased
Dying Companions
or Death
Because of the death or impending death of companions, fear and grief are present.
People must go through the stages of the grieving process.
