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Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Walden Dissertations and Doctoral StudiesCollection
2017
Exploring Patterns of Resilience in Individuals
Who Identify as Native American
Kimberly Ann Landrau
Walden University
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Walden University
College of Social and Behavioral Sciences
This is to certify that the doctoral dissertation by
Kimberly Landrau
has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects, and that any and all revisions required by
the review committee have been made. Review Committee
Dr. Barry Linden, Committee Chairperson, Psychology Faculty Dr. Ray London, Committee Member, Psychology Faculty Dr. Robert Meyer, University Reviewer, Psychology Faculty
Chief Academic Officer Eric Riedel, Ph.D.
Walden University 2017
Abstract
Exploring Patterns of Resilience in Individuals Who Identify as Native American by
Kimberly A. Landrau
MS, Walden University, 2013 MPA, City University of New York, 1983
JD, University of Massachusetts, 1998
Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy Clinical Psychology
Walden University August 2017
Abstract
Native Americans experience a higher rate of homicide, suicide, and injury, on average, than do others in the United States. There has been little research, however, on turning point and epiphany experiences as factors that contribute to resilience in Native
Americans. The purpose of this study was to add to this body of knowledge, and promote social change such as greater engagement and dialogue within Native American
communities. The theory that informed the study was resilience theory. Two questions were answered: (a) the ways in which turning point life experiences have correlated with resilience in Native American individuals, and (b) the manner in which characteristics (e.g., gender, age, socioeconomic status, spirituality, disability, and sexual orientation) are influential with respect to the turning point experiences that Native Americans report relative to resilience. Inclusionary criteria were purposefully broad in order to encourage participation in the process. Narratives were invited that detailed life histories, for a psychological study. Snowball methodology was also employed in an area where census records indicated that Native Americans resided, resulting in a sample of 4 adult
individuals (2 men and 2 women) of Native American descent. Data from the
autobiographical narratives were analyzed for themes. These participants experienced a pivotal experience or group of experiences that led them to engage in behavior that produced beneficial results impacting career prospects and producing subjective life satisfaction. Findings support the theory that certain turning point experiences (specifically, interactions with supportive family and community members) enhance resilience in Native American individuals.
Exploring Patterns of Resilience in Individuals Who Identify as Native American by
Kimberly A. Landrau
MS, Walden University, 2013 MPA, City University of New York, 1983
JD, University of Massachusetts, 1998
Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy Clinical Psychology
Walden University August 2017
Dedication
I wish to dedicate this dissertation to my children and to the memory of my mother, Yolanda C. Landrau, Ed.D.
Acknowledgments
I wish to extend thanks to my dissertation committee members, Dr. Augustine Baron, Jr., Dr. Tony Wu, Dr. Barry Linden, and Dr. Ray W. London. I am grateful for their guidance and for the insights they have provided throughout this process.
i
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study ...1
Introduction ...1
Background ... 1
Problem Statement ... 4
Purpose of the Study ... 5
Research Questions ... 6
Conceptual Framework ... 6
Nature of the Study ... 8
Definitions... 9
Assumptions ... 10
Scope and Delimitations ... 11
Limitations ... 12
Significance... 13
Summary ... 14
Chapter 2: Literature Review ...15
Introduction ...15
Problem and Purpose ...15
Synopsis of the Current Literature ...16
Major Sections of the Chapter ...17
Literature Search Strategy...17
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Key Search Terms and Iterative Search Process... 18
Addressing the Gap in the Literature ... 18
Conceptual Foundation ...18
Theory and Source of Theory ... 18
Major Theoretical Hypotheses ... 20
Analysis of How the Theory Similarly Applied ... 21
Rationale for the Choice of this Theory ... 22
How the Theory Relates to the Present Study ... 23
Literature Review of Native Americans and Resilience ...24
Summary and Conclusions ...68
Chapter 3: Research Method ...70
Introduction ...70
Purpose of the Study ... 72
Major Sections of the Chapter ... 72
Research Design and Rationale ...72
Research Questions ... 72
Central Phenomena of the Study... 73
Research Tradition and Rationale for the Chosen Tradition ... 73
Role of the Researcher ... 73
Research Bias and Other Ethical Issues ... 74
Methodology ...75
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Instrumentation and Validity ... 76
Follow-up and Debriefing Procedures ... 77
Procedures for Data Collection ... 77
Issues of Trustworthiness ...78
Credibility, Transferability, Dependability, and Confirmability ... 78
IRB Approvals, Ethical Procedures, and Protections for Confidential Data ... 79
Summary ...80 Chapter 4: Results ...81 Introduction ...81 Demographics ...82 Data Collection ...82 Data Analysis ...83 Evidence of Trustworthiness...84 Analysis of Findings ...85
Application of Rutter’s (2006) Theory of Resilience ...87
“In Vivo” Quotations of Participants Evaluated ...88
Summary ...91
Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations ...92
Introduction ...92
Interpretation of the Findings...92
Limitations of the Study...93
iv
Implications...94
Conclusion ...94
References ...96
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Introduction
The topic of this study is resilience, and the way it is manifested in the lives of Native Americans in the United States. The study was necessary to explore the resilience capabilities of an underserved population. Study findings may assist clinical
psychologists to promote resilience in their clients of Native American descent. This researcher sought to increase the body of knowledge on resilience issues in clinical psychology and provide useful guidance on ways to allocate resources to support resilience in Native Americans. In this chapter, this researcher will explore the reasons that resilience has become a topic of interest; and will identify the types of experiences contributing to resilience, and the types of characteristics associated with resilience. In this chapter, this researcher will present the conceptual framework, provide definitions, and state assumptions of the study. Finally, the limitations of this study will be
considered and a summary will be provided.
Background
Resilience studies with Native Americans have been few and characterized by employing various methodologies. One group of researchers selected a group of Native Americans, and used a resilience measure to determine the level of resilience experienced by the participants. Specifically, the 185 participants were aged 55 and older, and the data was obtained from a study that was conducted with elderly persons from a Native
determined based on their findings that these participants, who were mostly female and single, ranked high on a resilience scale. Besides resilience, the research team looked at other pertinent physiological conditions that the participants were experiencing, such as pain (Schure, Odden, & Goins, 2013). Another group of researchers collected
autobiographical information and determined that the challenge to identifying the source of resilience in aboriginal persons in Canada is related to the communal nature of their experiences, meaning the ways in which they are connected to the community by sharing history, language, customs, etc. (Kirmayer et al., 2011). There are a number of studies that use college students, presumably due to the ability to gain access to this convenience sample. One study determined that family was extremely important, but this may also correlate with the developmental stage of young adulthood (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Developmental factors may also have influenced research results of one study with adolescents that determined peer relationships led to greater resilience (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). Adolescents experience a high degree of affinity for their peers. For this reason, a pattern of responses highlighting the importance of peers is predictable, and may not be indicative of a stimulus for resilience.
In a rare study that examined attitudes, it was found that the level of aspiration, or the desire to live up to one’s inherent capabilities, was correlated with resilience in school achievement, but again the population studied were young adults (McMahon, Kenyon, & Carter, 2012). Looking through the lens of a young person, who possesses certain values and goals, may furnish a different perspective than that from a person in their thirties, forties, or fifties. Certainly, the aspirations of each group changes, and something other
than ‘school achievement’ may be desirable. Erikson (1950, 1997, 1982) described a concept he defined as ‘generativity,’ or the desire by persons who are aging to help others (Gruenewald, Liao, & Seeman, 2012).
Another study with a similarly youthful population found that adolescent Native Americans were interested in interpersonal sources of strength and acquiring resources (Wexler et al., 2013). These young people valued the relationships they had with others primarily, but also were concerned with obtaining adequate material resources to permit them to function as members of their society (Wexler et al., 2013).
One qualitative study yielded results showing a tremendous depth of insight in the participants’ responses (Goodkind et al., 2012). This qualitative study built upon work such as that produced by Goodkind et al. (2012), by studying adult Native Americans who reside apart from the reservation to determine sources of strength and resilience. Goodkind (2012) studied 74 individuals of various ages through the use of ethnographic interviews conducted in 2009. The author focused on the role of historical trauma, or trauma as the result of the negative impacts of colonialism, in the lives of resilient Navajo individuals. This study examined resilience by looking specifically at experiences that produced resilience, such as a specific relationship or educational or vocational programs. The Goodkind (2012) study also had the purpose of designing improved mental health services that incorporated awareness of issues related to historical trauma. This study did not involve a community intervention. This qualitative study focused instead on the narrower topic of resilience and attempted to obtain respondents from similar populations and age groups who are not residing on the reservation, and use similar qualitative
methodologies. This study was necessary to fill the gap in the literature that existed by describing factors resulting in resilience for Native American persons, and based on a positive psychological framework.
Problem Statement
Although Native Americans have higher rates of homicide, suicide, injury due to accidents, and alcoholic substance abuse than the national average, there are fewer resources available to the Native American communities in the areas in which they reside (Stumblingbear-Riddles & Romans, 2012). An examination of injury statistics is relevant to the subject of resilience because it is indicative of health, both physical and mental. For example, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) reported that Native Americans sustained injuries at the rate of 276 per 1,000 persons in the population compared to the general population rate of 120 per 1,000 persons for a twelve-month period (Centers for Disease Control, 2012). These injuries are described as “medically consulted injury and poisoning episodes” (Centers for Disease Control, 2012, p. 20). Wexler and Gone (2012) stated that suicide rates are higher for Native American individuals. Rutter (2012) has documented the potential impact for turning point experiences to enhance resilience in persons exposed to trauma such as orphans and soldiers.
Researchers have documented that research about Native American resilience is lacking and needed (Stumblingbear-Riddles & Romans, 2012). This specific research focused on Native American adults who are residing outside of reservations, and constitute the majority of tribal members, serving to fill a serious gap in the literature
(Stumblingbear-Riddles & Romans, 2012). Although the body of research on the subject of resilience has been growing incrementally in recent years, there was still a gap in the literature for resilience studies of adult Native Americans, especially living outside of reservations (CNPAAEMI, 2000). This study attempted to address the nature of resilience among an adult group of Native Americans living off reservations.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to describe resilience factors of adult Native Americans who are living in communities located outside of reservations in order to increase understanding of what factors are involved in the transformative process among Native Americans that result in the experience of resilience. Understanding how
resilience is affected, and the specific transformative experiences that effectively produce resilience may be instrumental in assisting practitioners and planners to implement interventions that foster resilience. This study was implemented using exploratory phenomenological methods. Autobiographical data was collected in order to develop an understanding of how Native American individuals experience resilience in their lives, and how their life experiences have been a factor in producing resilience. In particular, the experience of turning point life experiences that produced a re-alignment of priorities and values was examined closely.
Research Questions
RQ1: What are the turning point life experiences that have promoted resilience in Native Americans?
RQ2: Which characteristics (such as gender, age, socio-economic status [SES], spirituality, disability, and sexual orientation) influence the pivotal or turning point experiences that Native Americans report relative to resilience?
Conceptual Framework
Resilience theory, based on positive psychology, is the conceptual framework that was used in this study (Linley et al., 2006). The definition used has been advanced by Rutter (2006), who defines resilience as a phenomenon that occurs consequent to a transformative experience resulting in a beneficial psychological result (Rutter, 2006). The author has indicated that psychologists should determine the status of resilience by identifying those who have experienced a “good psychological outcome” due to
resilience factors such as “ ‘turning point’ experiences in adult life” (Rutter, 2006, p. 1). A turning point experience may be the net result of a diversity of experiences such as a meaningful relationship or participation in a growth enhancing activity (Rutter, 2006). This study evaluated autobiographical data that was submitted by participants to determine ways in which Native American individuals experience pivotal, or turning point resilience experiences in their lives.
The concept of resilience has been explored in its many aspects. Different researchers describe this abstract concept using different criteria, making it difficult to
measure, and hence difficult to correlate with specific stimuli. A person may experience deprivation and hardship and still experience results that suggest a resilient nature. It is not unusual to find that a theorist will define resilience in multiple ways. Rutter (2006b) has defined resilience as a healthy and affirmative psychological condition, and mental status, which is the product of harmful encounters that have been ameliorated or mitigated in some fashion.
A phenomenological study that examines meaning in person’s lives, is the best way of identifying resilience themes in Native American lives. The question of
evaluating transformative experiences and identifying pertinent characteristics was achieved by looking at autobiographic data that was prepared by the participants and supplemented with open-ended interview questions. (Atkinson, 1998).
The positive psychology/resilience conceptual framework has guided this study and informed the development of methodological approaches of inquiry including the use of research questions designed to empower the participants to produce their own
construction of what specific factors they believe have produced resilience. By focusing on strengths and attributes, this researcher developed a study that may guide future researchers to predict under what circumstances a resilient outcome may be expected.
The respondents described their life histories in detail without direction or interference by the researcher. Then this researcher examined the constructed narratives to identify life altering circumstances that have produced resilient outcomes, and
Nature of the Study
This study utilized Ryle‘s (1949) “thick description” in the interest of providing the maximum amount of information to clinicians, researchers, and other interested stakeholders (Geertz, 1973, p. 6). The use of ‘thick description’ as a methodology involves the use of interpretation along with vivid descriptions (Ponterotto, 2006). Ponterotto (2006) has suggested that the writer must be mindful of both the “context” of the situation, and the “intention” of the actor (p. 539). Ponterotto (2006) stated that this approach popularized by Geertz (1973), enhances the credibility of the writing, because the reader is invited to identify which “constructions” belong to the researcher, and which of those may be attributed to the participant (p. 539). Denzin (1989) has indicated that reflecting “meaning” is an essential component of writing that employs “thick
description” (Ponterotto, 2006, p. 540). The use of “thick description” should invoke a feeling of empathetic understanding in the reader (Ponterotto, 2006, p. 543). The technique is now widely utilized as a methodology in a variety of qualitative social science research activities (Ponterotto, 2006).
Although there are approximately 600 tribes in the United States, this study captured the stories of tribal members of less than a handful of tribes (CNPAAEMI, 2000). This study used “The Life Story Interview” as a qualitative methodology to derive data and to interpret and codify resilience themes (Atkinson, 1998). Interviewing
participants for their life story is a technique that involves asking open-ended questions to collect autobiographical data (Atkinson, 1998). This study attempted to identify the
pivotal experiences that produce resilience in the lives of Native Americans living away from the reservation. It is important to note that Atkinson (1998) did not recommend that any particular set of questions was required, and that the most effective way of acquiring information was to give the respondents as much latitude as possible by not explicitly directing their narratives in any way, but simply by asking for the story of their lives.
Among the potential choices for qualitative methodology approaches there are: narrative, grounded theory, ethnography, case study, or phenomenology (Creswell, 2007). The narrative approach uses autobiography to explore a single person’s life (Creswell, 2007). When a researcher wishes to explore the lives of several individuals, then phenomenological inquiry is the better method to select (Creswell, 2007). The use of phenomenological theory guided the interpretation of the experiences of the individuals who were the subjects of this study. A case study would be appropriate to study one individual (Creswell, 2007). Ethnography looks at the cultural group as an entirety, in one locale (Creswell, 2007). Grounded theory is best utilized to create a theory and obtain the data to support it (Creswell, 2007). Out of these five methodologies, it is the
phenomenological approach that is designed to accurately provide the information that was desired in this study.
Definitions
American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN): Native Americans residing in the
Native American: Persons who identify as members of the tribes of the United
States and are considered indigenous (Wexler & Gone, 2012).
First Nation: Indigenous persons from Canada (Kirmayer et al., 2011).
Pivotal, epiphany, or turning point experiences: An experience that causes a
transformation that promotes resilience (Rutter, 2006).
Resilience: A person has adversity but is able to realize a positive psychological
outcome (Rutter, 2006b).
Assumptions
This research is predicated on the assumption that autobiographical data is a representation of actual facts and experiences as recalled, based on memory. Persons who are asked to describe past events may interpret the events differently in later years than they would if asked about the events while they were occurring, or immediately
thereafter.
The researcher assumed that the participant identified the actual reason that they have experienced resilience, although in fact, the resilient experience may be attributable to numerous causes that have not been mentioned by the respondent in his or her
autobiography. The researcher assumed that the intervening circumstance described was of a nature that one could reasonably anticipate could produce resilience.
Scope and Delimitations
This study focused on learning about and recording pivotal experiences that have occurred in the lives of persons who are Native American and residing away from the reservation. The participants identified if these experiences helped or hindered their life course events. The researcher noted whether or not the recurring themes such as gender, age, socio-economic status (SES), spirituality, disability, and/or sexual orientation influenced the pivotal experiences producing resilience.
This study was implemented by extracting resilience themes from
autobiographical data that was provided by Native American adults who reside away from the reservation. The data was provided via written autobiographical statements and through individual interviews. The study described the results in detail so that
interpretations could be made regarding how resilience is defined by the participants of the study. Various theorists have attempted to explain the causative factors that determine resilience. One theorist has suggested that it is a turning point experience that is
predictive of resilience (Rutter, 2006). In order to determine how resilience is nurtured in people, and to learn about this, the strategy of asking the open-ended question: “Tell me about your life,” was used in order to obtain autobiographical responses that were genuine and not in any way suggested to the respondent by the researcher.
Native American individuals were invited to participate, and were screened for ethnicity during the intake process, in order to ascertain ability and willingness to provide autobiographical data. Respondents were asked for names, addresses, gender, ethnicity,
level of education, employment and disability status, and other routine demographic questions. Both males and females participated from varied socioeconomic and
educational backgrounds. To enhance the diversity of experience and background, this study was conducted using respondents from different geographic regions of the country, although generalizability to all Native Americans, all Americans, or all human beings is not feasible. Because of the geographic diversity, more than one tribe was represented in the results. The decision to expand the study to more than one geographic location with a Native American population was made due to logistical concerns.
Limitations
Limitations of this study include generalizability due to the small numbers of tribes represented by the participants. The majority of the participants interviewed resided in smaller towns rather than either urban or rural settings.
The researcher evaluated the data to determine if the experiences that are the subject of the narratives have constituted evidence of resilience. The participants were consulted to member check the interpretations of the researcher. This was especially important because the researcher is not Native American, and may perceive the life histories from a different worldview than that embraced by the participants. The
researcher maintained a diary to record reflexive experiences during data collection and interpretation in order to eliminate potential bias.
Autobiographies are a form of self-reporting, and fall into the category of any self-reported observations such as those obtained in personality inventories and through
the use of other measurement devices. These instruments rely on the honesty and insight of the individual, as well as their ability to remember the past. There will be times when useful data is obtained and times when the data has limited value because it does not pertain to the topic of resilience. There will be some individuals who are better able to express themselves in a narrative writing venue and others who are more articulate at expressing themselves during an interview. For this reason, the autobiographical data will be supplemented with a reflexive exit interview (DeWaele & Harre, 1979). The reflexive exit interview will elicit data on the experience of the participant during the process, and their thoughts and feelings about the process and the researcher.
Significance
This study enhanced professional practice by providing information to
psychologists about factors that may increase Native Americans’ resilience, in order that they may have better outcomes with their patients. This study has relevance because of the gap that exists in the literature identifying factors contributing to Native American resilience in adults. There are a few studies that focus on resilience in members of Native American tribes, although there are several that discuss resilience factors for individuals who are members of First Nation tribes of Canada. It is anticipated that this study will create positive social change by opening up a dialogue that fosters understanding about Native Americans, but other positive social change may occur.
This study may inform policies by state and local governments and federal agencies that affect Native Americans by identifying factors that promote resilience, so
that resources might be more efficiently allocated. This study may improve practice by directing the attention of clinicians and other health practitioners to relevant aspects of Native American lives that can enhance resilience and positive psychological attributes. This study may provide useful information for practitioners to develop collaborative goals that support resilience. This study has added to the scholarly research and literature in the field, by describing in detail what Native Americans identify as the pertinent factors in their lives that support resilience.
Summary
This chapter explored the reasons that resilience has become a topic of interest, as a concept originating in humanistic and positive psychology with relevance to Native American communities today. This study was designed to identify pivotal, turning point, or epiphany moments experienced by Native American adults that result in resilience, and other characteristics that may be correlated with the experience of resilience. This study provides information that identifies where gaps now exist in the literature related to the resilience of adult Native Americans residing away from the reservation. In particular, the work of Rutter (2012, 2006, 2006b, 1999) was relevant for the analysis and the
interpretation of the data. The next chapter will provide a review of the literature related to resilience and Native Americans.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction
When Europeans first arrived in America, they regarded the Native Americans as less civilized than persons from mainstream Europe; yet despite the attitude of the Europeans, Native Americans frequently extended hospitality in all areas, including providing agricultural advice and instruction (Collier, 1947). This fact was observed wryly in a publication by one of the past U. S. Commissioners of Indian Affairs, now known as the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Subsequent interactions with the Europeans, some of whom eventually became the first Americans, included numerous incidents of armed conflict (Thornton, 1987).
Evans-Campbell (2010) has stated that it behooves clinicians to emphasize during work with Native American families, the personal narratives that illustrate how the Native Americans have successfully overcome adversity. Cross (1998) has defined the Native American world view regarding resilience as interventions that assist families to develop strengths.
Problem and Purpose
Native Americans experience serious mental health maladies at a higher rate than the general population (Centers for Disease Control, 2012). Experts in the field have verified that research on Native Americans is limited (CNPAAEMI, 2000). The purpose
of this study was to identify pivotal, turning point, or epiphany moments in the lives of Native Americans that may define resilience in their lives.
This study used phenomenological methods to elicit data on resilience themes from Native American participants in order to expand the knowledge base that currently exists in the literature. This information may contribute to our understanding of resilience in general, as well as providing information on how best to serve American indigenous populations. Resilience is a necessary concept to explore for Native Americans because information is needed on strengths in Native American communities in order to promote the development of programmatic interventions that enhance these factors.
Synopsis of the Current Literature
More than half of the studies of Native Americans on the subject of resilience have studied the lives of adolescents and young adults (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010; Stumblingbear-Riddle, & Romans, 2012; McMahon, Kenyon, & Carter, 2012; Wexler et al., 2013). Although it must be emphasized that these studies have tremendous value, the results may be influenced by the weight of developmental issues that may have a
tremendous impact on perceptions, attitudes and emotions. The remaining three studies have sought a more balanced mix of age groups, and reveal a great deal about cultural values and practices that determine to what extent an individual is able to realize his or her life goals and sustain resilience (Schure, Odden, & Goins, 2013; Kirmayer et al., 2011; Goodkind et al., 2012). Most of these researchers have employed qualitative
methodologies, although the exact details of the studies reveal a variety of techniques succeeded in eliciting informative data.
Major Sections of the Chapter
This chapter will present the results of the literature search on resilience and Native Americans, including a discussion of resilience theory. The reasons for the choice of resilience theory will be provided, and its relationship to this study. The conceptual framework for this study is based upon the work of Rutter (1999; 2006; 2006b; 2012), which emphasizes the significance of turning point experiences as being instrumental in promoting resilience in a person‘s life. Resilience themes in the participants’ lives will be described and interpreted in this study. This chapter will conclude by identifying the existing gaps in the literature.
Literature Search Strategy Databases and Search Engines
The psychology database PsychARTICLES, maintained through the American Psychological Association (APA), and available at the Walden University library was the primary search engine utilized for this study. The Walden University search engine was used to search for full text, scholarly, peer reviewed journals using resilience as the key term for the period from 2000 to 2015 (Ling Pan, 2004, p. 27). This yielded 630 articles on the topic of resilience. The search was then limited to resilience articles which focused exclusively on psychological aspects of resilience, which produced 73 articles. These
articles reported research on a variety of subjects, such as students and resilience, military survivors and resilience, and Hurricane Katrina survivors and resilience. A small number of these articles provided information on the general topic of resilience theory.
Key Search Terms and Iterative Search Process
A search was next conducted on the subject of resilience and Native Americans, using the Boolean connector “and,” and truncating the word resilience to “resil*” (Ling Pan, 2004, p. 23). This search yielded less than ten articles that were specific to resilience and Native Americans.
Addressing the Gap in the Literature
This search was supplemented with a corresponding search with Googlescholar.com, and a few additional articles and books were identified as having relevance to the topic of resilience and Native Americans. This study was needed to address the gap in the literature that exists.
Conceptual Foundation Theory and Source of Theory
Resilience theory has formed the foundation for this study. Resilience is defined as: “…the maintenance of high levels of positive affect and well-being in the face of significant adversity” (Davidson, 2000, p. 1198). Davidson (2000) indicated that different individuals possess distinct “affective styles” (p. 1196). Davidson (2000) believed that
following stressful events, persons derived meaning from these events and consequently experienced biological changes. His research has involved neuroimaging studies of parts of the brain (Davidson, 2000). Other researchers have studied the relationship of brain activity to traits (Davidson, 2000). Cortisol levels as well, have been found to be related to affective style (Davidson, 2000). The regulation of emotion is controlled by the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex (Davidson, 2000). This is known alternatively by researchers as “recovery from emotional challenge” (Davidson, 2000, p. 1207). Researchers discovered participants had reduced ‘negative affect’ along with
corresponding imaging evidence of ‘left prefrontal activation’ (Davidson, 2000, p. 1208). Studies with animals have demonstrated that increased maternal nurturing resulted in resistance to stress and other indicia of “plasticity” (Davidson, 2000, p. 1208). Similar studies have been conducted with humans who meditate (Davidson, 2000).
Hart and Sasso (2011) suggested that positive psychology (PP) is encapsulated in: “(1) the study of positive subjective experience and (2) positive personal traits” (p. 82). Resilience studies have increased in popularity in recent years, and Hart and Sasso (2011) attribute this dramatic increase in popularity to two factors: (1) the promotion of the concept by past APA President Martin Seligman; and (2) the promotion of research through the allocation of funding sources such as “the John Templeton Foundation,” that financed “forgiveness” research at approximately the same time, in the late 1990’s (p. 85).
Pangallo et al. (2015) conducted a review of studies of resilience and concluded that resilience could best be studied by looking at individual behavior that is consistent
despite changing situational variables. Pangallo et al. (2015) agreed with the definition proposed by Rutter (2006): “Resilience is a phenomenon that results from the interaction between individuals and their environment” (p. 1). Resilience is not considered a trait by these researchers (Pangallo et al., 2015). Pangallo et al. (2015) opined that the type of stressor was a relevant variable to consider, and whether or not the stressor was ‘chronic’ or episodic and ‘acute’ (p. 1). Endler (1983) has been instrumental in defining the
concept of ‘interactionism’ as it relates to personality (Pangallo et al., 2015, p. 2). This process is described as an identification of “defining features of a situation” (Pangallo et al., 2015, p. 2). Interactionism is a personality theory (Pangallo et al., 2015). Pangallo et al. (2015) distinguished between the following four categories of resilience constructs: “process, trait, state or outcome” (p. 4). The construct of outcome most closely correlates with Rutter’s (2006) conceptualization of resilience. Measures typically focus on traits or states (Pangallo et al., 2015). Pangallo et al. (2015) favored the Multidimensional Trauma Recovery and Resilience Scale (MTRR) as the most interactionally oriented measurement tool due to its reliability; however, it has limited applicability to this particular study, due to its focus on trauma recovery (pp. 10, 15).
Major Theoretical Hypotheses
Rutter (2012) explored the concept of “steeling effects” relative to resilience, and reviewed the studies supporting this phenomenon (p. 335). Rutter (2012) discussed both “life course” and “turning point effects” as well (p. 335). One earlier longitudinal study demonstrated a correlation with a limited population with the specific turning point
experience of military service (Rutter, 2012). Rutter and Sonuga-Barke (2010) completed studies with Romanian orphans that revealed that distinct outcomes following adversity were noted and attributed to “risk and protective factors” (Rutter, 2012, p. 342). The studies noted by Rutter (2012) would appear to suggest that additional research is needed on resilience, in order to provide greater clarity on the variables that correlate with resilience. Rutter (2012) stated: “…a key feature of resilience research has been the use of qualitative data to determine the meaning of experiences. The research into marriage constitutes one example of this and the study of positive outcomes following inpatient psychiatric care in adolescence constitutes another rather different example” (p. 342).
Analysis of How the Theory Similarly Applied
Resilience theory informs the interpretation of a few studies on Native Americans, and at times has involved the direct measurement of resilience status (Schure, Odden, & Goins, 2013). In these studies, resilience has emerged as a phenomenon to be described following the administration of interviews or surveys that accumulate data derived from narratives (Goodkind et al, 2012; Kirmayer et al., 2011). Researchers have determined that resilience is correlated to a degree with other states, such as self-esteem, or positive emotions (Schure, Odden, & Goins, 2013; Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012).
Cicchetti and Blender (2006) p. 249 have recommended that the study of resilience occur within an interdisciplinary context. They state that there are numerous paths to resilience, including “psychological, biological and environmental.” They further state that one reaction by the body to adversity is “early and continuing neural plasticity”
(Cicchetti & Blender, 2006, p. 251). Resilience studies have examined long term impacts under a wide variety of circumstances, including studies of children with a history of experiences of abuse. Future neuroimaging studies may focus on the activation of the brain in resilient persons under stress, for example (Cicchetti & Blender, 2006). Scientific research supports the correlation between “the neurotransmitter-metabolizing enzyme monoamine oxidase A (MAOA)” and reduced “antisocial behavior” in persons with histories of maltreatment (Cicchetti & Blender, 2006, p. 255).
Luthar, Sawyer, and Brown (2006) have suggested that socio-economic status (SES) is a relevant variable for consideration in studies on resilience. They provide a specific example: “Whereas limit setting showed positive simple correlations with competence among low-income children, it was negatively correlated with competence among middle-income youth (for whom stringency can imply harshness)” (Luthar, Sawyer, & Brown, 2006, p. 109).
Rationale for the Choice of this Theory
Rutter (2006) believes that as psychologists, we wish to identify those who have experienced a “good psychological outcome” due to resilience factors such as “‘turning point’ experiences in adult life” (p. 1). Rutter (1999) has indicated that “interpersonal relationships” are relevant to the production of resiliency in individuals (p. 120). Rutter (1999) has identified through his work with Romanian orphans that persons can undergo the same experience but have very different psychological outcomes as a result. Turning point experiences can alter a downward trajectory in this manner: “…It is evident that, in
order to break the vicious circle, new experiences which provide a break from the past and open up new opportunities are likely to be important” (Rutter, 1999, p. 132). Rutter (1999) cited a longitudinal study conducted by Elder (1986) which found that
membership in the armed forces constituted a protective factor for low income
individuals. Such events are also referred to as “‘neutralizing’ or ‘fresh-start’ life events (Brown et al., 1988, 1992; Craig et al., 1994; Tennant et al., 1981)” (Rutter, 1999, p. 133). Rutter (1999) has explicated the importance in the development of resilience, of “cognitive processing” or “adding meaning” to lived experiences (p. 134). Rutter (1999) stated that building “on the positive while not denying the negative” may be instrumental in creating resilience in individuals (p. 135). These turning point experiences constitute an epiphany in a person’s life, altering their life course, and leading away from risk, and toward the state of resilience.
How the Theory Relates to the Present Study
This proposed study of Native Americans and resilience builds upon this
framework by attempting to capture descriptions of epiphanies in the lives of individuals as expressed in their autobiographies. Whereas earlier studies have identified phenomena such as interpersonal relationships as having relevance to the enhancement of resilience (Wexler et al., 2013), this study proposes looking at the relationships to determine what meaning is derived from the circumstances surrounding these interrelationships, and identifying the existence of critical turning points.
Literature Review of Native Americans and Resilience
Native Americans experience serious mental health maladies at a higher rate than the general population (Centers for Disease Control, 2012). Experts in the field have verified that research on Native Americans is limited (CNPAAEMI, 2000). The purpose of this study is to identify the pivotal, turning point, or epiphany moments in the lives of Native Americans that may define resilience in their lives.
The majority of the studies of resilience in Native American individuals have focused on adolescents, and only three have included an array of adult age groups. These qualitative studies have been successful at gathering a vast amount of data on the topic of Native Americans and resilience. This chapter presents the studies identified in the literature search, and a discussion about the theories offered by the authors in support of their findings. Approximately one half-dozen articles on the topic of Native Americans and resilience were published between the years 2010 and 2013. Since then, there have not been any relevant publications on this topic.
A Narrative Analysis of 19 Native American College Students
The first of these articles appeared in The Canadian Journal of Native Studies. One researcher from an Oklahoman university interviewed nineteen Native American college students (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Drywater-Whitekiller (2010) focused on the role of cultural resilience in the lives of Native American students of higher
more recent studies in resilience (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). The goal of the Native American student, according to Drywater-Whitekiller, is to further the welfare of their cultural group. Native Americans have had an arduous task of having to transform themselves to adapt to a foreign American culture (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). This change was not volitional, but rather has arisen as a means to adapt out of necessity (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Native Americans value the retention of their traditional Native American identity (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010).
Drywater-Whitekiller initiated this study because a gap existed in the literature identifying the way that culture plays a role in fostering Native American student perseverance in college. Drywater-Whitekiller’s research was based on the theory of cultural resilience as articulated by Strand and Peacock (2003). This worldview conceptualizes cultural resilience as a methodology of using culture to foster personal strengths in order to adapt to aversive circumstances (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Culture is defined by Drywater-Whitekiller (2010) as “commonly shared indigenous values” (p. 3). Qualities that are unique to Native American cultures include: spiritual beliefs and ritualistic practices; a shared history, family, extended family, and
community; and identity as Native Americans (Whitekiller, 2010). Drywater-Whitekiller studied the perspectives of students from various tribes from four separate university systems.
Drywater-Whitekiller stated that the implication of the prosperity of Native Americans is that they are a resilient cultural group. The problem that Drywater-Whitekiller sought to address through this research project is the lower than average
college retention rates of Native Americans. This problem had previously been addressed in the literature by drawing attention to the substandard quality of educational resources available to Native Americans (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Additionally, the studies suggested that Native Americans possessed inferior abilities as students (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). These quantitative research studies failed to address the issue of Native American student retention because of lack of sufficient participation and other errors (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Drywater-Whitekiller posited that a qualitative approach focusing specifically on Native American students would be more effective. Drywater-Whitekiller opined that an examination of Native American students who are successful, and a more focused evaluation of cultural factors would be preferable. This researcher set out to learn how Native American students accomplished successful completion of their goals, and which cultural factors were especially relevant to the process (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010).
The methodology that Drywater-Whitekiller (2010) employed involved using “thick description,” and “narrative analysis” (p. 4). All of the students were in their senior year of college (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Students participated from three separate states in the United States (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Drywater-Whitekiller selected the educational institutions based on their level of service to Native American student populations. A slightly higher number of females than males participated, and nineteen different tribal members were interviewed, aged 20 to 56 (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). The researcher worked with both criterion and snowball sampling (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Drywater-Whitekiller looked at both personal and environmental experience,
based on the responses to open-ended interview questions. The author coded the data based on themes identified by Heavy Runner and Marshall (2003) as being dispositive of resilience (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). These are the Native American cultural qualities enumerated previously in this discussion. Drywater-Whitekiller adhered to ethnographic research procedures by allowing participants greater voice through both the creation and the response to interview questions. In this manner, Drywater-Whitekiller was able to expand on the initial list of Native American cultural qualities.
This researcher commented on the ‘holistic’ nature of Native American understanding, where all knowledge is valued (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). This philosophy is described as both ‘circular’ and unifying, comparable to many Eastern philosophies that advocate promotion of ‘balance’ (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010, p. 6). Drywater-Whitekiller presented the results in an ‘in vivo’ format, quoting the students’ replies. The students commented on their desire to use their education to advance social causes and to be of service to the community (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). They envisioned assisting their respective tribal communities to progress and to address social problems (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010).
One student that was interviewed observed that one of her goals would be to develop a Native American Studies program for school systems (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). More than one student expressed the opinion that Americans are taught both inaccurate and stereotypical information about Native Americans, and these students wished to remediate that (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Another student emphasized the fact that the real danger lies in the credence Native Americans themselves place on the
misinformation and stereotypes (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Therefore, this student proposed a more positive “focus” (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010, p. 9). Among the factors that students described as instrumental in promoting their educational success was the attitude of their families (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Families were described as being proud, helpful, and interested in their day to day progress (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Sometimes families had an active role in providing emotional support
(Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Families expressed their belief in the students’ capabilities and ability to succeed (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Families provided tangible support such as child care, and academic advice (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). More than one student stated their desire to create a lifestyle that other members of the Native American community would be inspired by and wish to emulate (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010).
When the students spoke of spiritual factors producing resilience, they mentioned the significance of prayer (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Some students favored
traditional Native American spiritual practices, and others were Christian or believed in a hybrid form of spirituality that combined both traditional Native American and Christian perspectives (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). What is notable about this study is that the researcher found commonalities among the responses as well as distinctions that were reflective of differences in tribal affiliations and the characteristics of the respondents (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Drywater-Whitekiller (2010) commented that the
perspectives of respondents embodied an optimistic “self-determinism” (p.16). Drywater-Whitekiller (2010) felt that these cultural resources that the participants have enable them to evolve toward a resilient state, within the context of “tribal community” (p. 16).
Drywater-Whitekiller concluded her article by articulating a vision for the future for Native Americans, one that combines progress and adaptation with internalization of traditional beliefs and attributes.
Based on the theory of cultural resilience, Drywater-Whitekiller (2010) used narrative analysis of interview transcripts of nineteen college students to complete her qualitative study. Cultural resilience is a term that means that cultural factors produce resilience (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). The students were from three states, were proportionately male and female, and were 20 to 56 years of age (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). What is unique about this study is the researcher’s ability to obtain data from 19 distinct tribal members (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). The researcher used both criterion based and snowball sampling approaches (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). The subsequent thematic analysis revealed that “giving back,” a practice similar to ‘paying it forward,’ as well as “prayer and family support” were instrumental in producing resilience in the lives of these college students (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010, p. 6). The researcher used ‘thick description’ to report the results of the study (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). This study is pivotal for this researcher’s study because of the age group that participated, and the fact that Drywater-Whitekiller was able to involve so many tribal representatives. It is
difficult to obtain input from numerous tribes due to logistics and limited resources. There are 600 tribes in the United States, and locating individuals who live away from the reservations is more challenging than approaching residents of reservations
(CNPAAEMI, 2000). This dissertation study utilized many of the methodologies described in the Drywater-Whitekiller study, and increased the amount of information
that is now known about resilience. A more in depth analysis of information was performed on fewer participants from two or three tribes, and produced a great depth of information on factors producing resilience.
Understanding Barriers to Resilience in Indigenous Communities
The second of the articles on the topic of Native American resilience was published by the Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Kirmayer et al. (2011) defined resilience as doing “well” in the face of adversity (p. 84). Kirmayer et al. regarded the worldview of their participants as collectivistic. They conducted their study under the auspices of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR; Kirmayer et al., 2011). The writers acknowledged that the literature on resilience that pertains to multicultural populations may not be relevant to persons from indigenous cultures (Kirmayer et al., 2011). The goal of the researchers was to understand barriers to resilience in indigenous communities and to understand cultural collectivistic concepts of resilience (Kirmayer et al., 2011).
Kirmayer et al. equated resilience with the ability of a system to achieve homeostasis, or restore balance. Kirmayer et al. contrasted the perspective with a psychological theory of resilience that relies on specific traits and significant relationships. In contrast, this study aimed to understand ecological foundations of resilience (Kirmayer et al., 2011). Kirmayer et al. (2011) further acknowledged the detrimental impact of historical policies directed toward indigenous populations, having the net impact of institutionalizing “marginalization” (p. 85). These policies have also
interfered with the ability of aboriginal individuals to establish healthy identities (Kirmayer et al., 2011). Kirmayer et al. (2011) theorized that resilient persons can experience “transformation” (p. 85). Their plan was to study individuals, families, and communities through the use of a semi-structured interview (Kirmayer et al., 2011). Kirmayer et al. anticipated that their research would focus on both individual and
community identity formation. The research methodology provided for exploration of the role of narrative in the lives of these persons (Kirmayer et al., 2011). It is through
narrative that cultural intra-generational “transmission” takes place (Kirmayer et al., 2011, p. 86). Kirmayer et al. anticipated that their research would result in the
identification of different manifestations of resilience based on varying characteristics such as age or gender. The researchers encountered many similarities within tribal
communities (Kirmayer et al., 2011). The researchers discussed the role that treaties with the colonizers have had in the lives of Native Americans (Kirmayer et al., 2011). For the Mi’kmaq tribe for example, honoring the treaties is a value that has endured to the present day, and was exemplified by the efforts of Mi’kmaq employees in the
construction trades to help 911 victims in New York City in 2001 (Kirmayer et al., 2011). Mi’kmaq value “harmony” in the community (Kirmayer et al., 2011, p. 87). In addition to the Mi’kmaq, these Canadian researchers have worked with Mohawk persons in Canada and in New York State in the USA (Kirmayer et al., 2011). The Mohawk are members of the Iroquois Confederacy (Kirmayer et al., 2011). Due to expansion of neighboring communities, these individuals have gradually reduced their initial land holdings
to protest the loss of their lands, and to discuss past abrogations of treaty agreements (Kirmayer et al., 2011). Many positive outcomes resulted from this movement for the Mohawk people (Kirmayer et al., 2011). Some of the infractions against Mohawk communities included interference with the use of native language and other types of local autonomy and decision-making (Kirmayer et al., 2011). Language is the vehicle for the expression of worldviews and values (Kirmayer et al., 2011).
These researchers also worked with the Metis, who are a mixture of French and First Nations tribal members (Kirmayer et al., 2011). In Canada, members of Native American tribes are also referred to as First Nations persons (Kirmayer et al., 2011). The Metis are set apart from other First Nation tribal members who are not descended from Europeans (Kirmayer et al., 2011). Thus the Metis are both independent and
individualistic (Kirmayer et al., 2011). Metis consider resilience to be the equivalent of “resourcefulness” or what they call “la debrouillardise” (Kirmayer et al., 2011, p. 88).
Because the Inuits have lived in remote Northern areas, they have lived off the land without assistance from Europeans (Kirmayer et al., 2011). There has been a gradual encroachment on Inuit native lands over the past century (Kirmayer et al., 2011). The Inuits believe in nurturing hope as a method to acquire the benefits of resilience
(Kirmayer et al., 2011). These researchers regarded some of the beliefs of the Inuits as a form of “animism” (Kirmayer et al., 2011, p. 88). The Inuits believe that some things are beyond the control of the individual, and so they strive to achieve “balance” (Kirmayer et al., 2011, p. 88). The Inuits have become advocates for awareness of climate change (Kirmayer et al., 2011).
Kirmayer et al. (2011) observed that aboriginal persons value resilience constructs of “collective history,” language, and “activism” (p. 88). Indigenous persons harbor a strong connection to the “natural environment” as an avenue for “sustenance…and healing” (Kirmayer et al., 2011, p. 89). Kirmayer et al. suggested that their research has resulted in an understanding of resilience that extends beyond the individual and into the community and the environment. As the result of their ethnographic narrative research, Kirmayer et al. (2011) learned that resilience is a function of “collective solidarity” as much as it is the manifestation of an outcome for an individual (p. 89). Kirmayer et al. made an interesting point when they theorized that in a culture where oral history is so pre-eminent a feature of transmission of values and attitudes, the history of the past two hundred years for the Native Americans has been one of both defeat and neglect; and this may have a meaningful correlation to some of the social issues they have experienced. In recent years, the process of litigating to earn their rights has inspired a new generation to feel capable and empowered (Kirmayer et al., 2011). The communal stories are now ones of overcoming adversity in the face of opposition by a more powerful entity (Kirmayer et al., 2011). This has enabled indigenous communities to move forward and to continue to evolve (Kirmayer et al., 2011).
Kirmayer et al. (2011) studied four tribes in Canada: the Mi’kmaq, Mohawk, Inuit, and the Metis. These researchers collaborated with the communities studied, developed key informants, and led focus groups (Kirmayer et al., 2011). This qualitative research project was designed to obtain both individual autobiographies and collective narratives, or communal group histories (Kirmayer et al., 2011).
Kirmayer et al. (2011) suggested that resilience constructs may need to be revised to incorporate the distinct perspectives of indigenous populations, and emphasized the transformative nature of the creation of resilience in individuals. Researchers learned that the Mi’kmaq value a construct which they refer to as “apisiktuaqn,” a word which
signifies “forgiveness” and “reconciliation” (Kirmayer et al., 2011, p. 86). The Mohawk community relies on their “Creation Story,” which is similar to the biblical creation account, with a creator who asks the humans to “beautify the earth” and care for it for “seven generations” (Kirmayer et al., 2011, p. 86). They are also governed by “the Great Law of Peace,” a “democratic covenant” that links together ‘humans,’ ‘nature,’ and the ‘supernatural’ (Kirmayer et al., 2011, p. 86). The Metis value “self-reliance, autonomy, and independence” (Kirmayer et al., 2011, p. 86). The Inuit propose that maintaining an attitude of hope is instrumental in promoting resilience (Kirmayer et al., 2011).
This ethnographic study is limited in its generalizability to United States Native Americans, because the tribes are from Canada, and have a distinct history. This study focused on a wide range of age groups, although exact information on demographics was not provided. These researchers obtained data on tribal myths, language, and spiritual practices that may reflect the subjective ways that these tribal members experience resilience in their lives. This researcher’s dissertation study may be contrasted with the Kirmayer et al. study because it focused on Native Americans in the United States, but it built upon this study by using autobiographical narratives to obtain data on resilience. Although this researcher’s dissertation research project did not use collaboration with the
community to achieve results, it is anticipated that this study may provide an impetus for constructive social change.
A Study of 196 Urban Dwelling Native American Adolescents
A study published by the Colorado School of Public Health the following year, expanded on the resilience themes identified by Drywater-Whitekiller (2010). In addition to the significance of social support that had been previously identified by Drywater-Whitekiller, these researchers from the Oklahoman University system looked at
“enculturation, self-esteem, and subjective well-being” as potential factors inherent in the process of producing resilience in Native American individuals (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012, p. 1). Stumblingbear-Riddle and Romans recruited a total of 196 urban dwelling Native American participants. Again, the number of female participants was slightly higher than the number of males as in the study by Drywater-Whitekiller (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). These Native American individuals were between the ages of 14 and 18 years of age, and resided in the southern and central area within the United States (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). This younger sample emphasized the significance of support from peers, a somewhat predictable adolescent response (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). Stumblingbear-Riddle and Romans commented on the enormous heterogeneity among tribal members. These researchers sought to address the trend of comparably higher mental health issues in Native
and Romans preferred the term ‘American Indian (AI)’ when used to describe their participants.
Like Kirmayer et al. (2011), Stumblingbear-Riddle and Romans identified the history of traumatic occurrences as a relevant factor when attempting to discern causality of the higher mental health treatment needs of AI persons. Stumblingbear-Riddle and Romans (2012) indicated that the mental health field is engaged in a process of “paradigm shift,” where instead of focusing on areas of risks, or individual traits, researchers strive to isolate environmental factors that appear to develop resilience in individuals (p. 2). These authors sought to address a gap in the literature because the majority of studies of AI adolescents are limited to participants who reside on AI reservations (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). Stumblingbear-Riddle and Romans acknowledged the relevance of culture when attempting to understand AI populations. Although urban dwelling AI individuals have access to greater educational resources, feelings of isolation, suicide and the absence of hopefulness have been
identified among these AI individuals (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). The goal of these researchers was to identify “protective factors” within the population
(Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012, p. 3). Stumblingbear-Riddle and Romans (2012) used the term “enculturation” to refer to the amount of connection to AI culture maintained by the individual (p. 3).
These researchers built on the results of earlier studies from between the years 2000 and 2009 to determine which factors were identified as promoting resilience and “school success” (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012, p. 3). School success involved
in part both grade point average and articulation of future educational goals
(Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). The researchers selected a community based research model that incorporated opportunities for participation in the process
(Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). Stumblingbear-Riddle and Romans did not reveal the tribal identity of participants in order to preserve privacy. The sample was selected based on United States Census data (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012).
With this particular study, the lead researcher is a member of a distinct AI tribe from a rural part of the United States and has previously been employed in the area where this research was conducted (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). The method of recruitment of participants was through the distribution of various marketing materials mailed to programs and displayed in areas where AI groups gathered (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). After obtaining both parental consent and participant consent, a variety of questionnaires were administered to the participants in private and a gift card was provided to them (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012).
The first measure utilized was the Native American Community Health Survey: Youth (NACHSY; Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). The questionnaire was re-designed by the researchers to collect demographic information and by adding questions related to tribal membership as well as social support information (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). The researchers described the format as consisting of both open and closed questions (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). The next measure, the American Indian Enculturation Scale (AIES), was expanded from its original format to include additional questions based on suggestions from the community advisory board
(Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). The use of the measure was intended to reveal attitudes about AI cultures (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). The non-modified version of this instrument is reported by Stumblingbear-Riddle and Romans to have construct validity, internal consistency, and reliability. The measure used to report self-esteem was the Tri-Ethnic Center’s Self-Esteem Scale (TECSES; Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). This instrument was reported to have both construct validity and reliability (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). The researchers administered the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) for information regarding subjective well-being (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). This instrument has demonstrated reliability and validity (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). Neither the AIES nor the SWLS had been used with adolescent populations before (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012).
Stumblingbear-Riddle and Romans used both the Perceived Social Support from Family (PSS-Fa) and Perceived Social Support from Friends (PSS-Fr; Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). These scales have both validity and reliability including construct validity (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). Stumblingbear-Riddle and Romans (2012) limited their measure of resilience to a questionnaire on school success, characterized as a “self-report survey” (p. 7). This instrument was determined to have an acceptable rate of reliability (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). Their rationale for this choice is that the focus of their studies of resilience in adolescence is limited to school success (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012).
In the results, these researchers reported a weak relationship between culture and school success (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). They also sought to compare the results to the adolescents that resided on reservations (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). The researchers found that the results obtained from urban dwelling AI adolescents were different from those obtained from reservation dwelling AI adolescents or from AI college students (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). For the latter pool of participants culture was a stronger factor in the production of resilience as expressed by school success (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). Stumblingbear-Riddle and Romans explained this phenomenon as revealing that because reservation resources and culture were not as available to urban dwelling AI adolescents, the influence of culture was minimal. Elsewhere, a higher rate of hopeful attitudes has been noted on the reservation by AI adolescents when compared to either urban or rural areas
(Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). AI adolescents removed from the reservation report feelings of isolation and are less hopeful (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). Stumblingbear-Riddle and Romans conjecture that this experience is due to the inability of urban AI adolescents to become fluently bicultural. This in turn, impacts negatively on rates of school success (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). Certain cultures are less tolerant of biculturalism as well (Stumblingbear-Riddle & Romans, 2012). Previous research has demonstrated that persons capable of adapting and identifying with both European and AI cultures experienced a higher predominance of hopeful feelings