INFO Developing a Web Site Privacy Policy. Running Case Solution. Running Case Solution

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INFO 1400

Koffka Khan

Tutorial 5

Dirt Bikes’s management wants to make sure it has policies and

Developing a Web Site Privacy Policy

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procedures in place to protect the privacy of visitors to its Web site.

You have been asked to develop Dirt Bikes’s Web site privacy

policy.

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M d l P i

The TRUSTe Web site at <URL>www.truste.org has Model Privacy

Disclosures in its Privacy Resources that you can download and

review to help you draft Dirt Bikes’s privacy policy.

You can also examine specific companies’ privacy policies by

You can also examine specific companies privacy policies by

searching for Web site privacy policies on Yahoo!, Google or

another search engine.

Prepare a report for management that addresses the following

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issues shown on the following slides:

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1. How much data should Dirt Bikes collect on visitors to its Web site, and why

Running Case Solution

that data? What information could it find out by tracking their activities at its Web site? What value would this information provide the company? What are the privacy problems raised by collecting such data?

DB could benefit from using its Web site to learn more about its customer’s tastes and interests.

The Web site could collect information such as visitors’ age, location, marital

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status, occupation, income level, hobbies, and specific motorcycle interests (including why they might purchase a motorcycle and how they would use it—races, transportation, joining a motorcycle group).

Such information will help DB to know the types of people interestedp yp p p in its products and how it can communicate to them, create more targeted and

personalized advertising and even affect DB’s plans for the future, including designing new products to better fit their interests.

If DB collects such personal data through its Web site If DB collects such personal data through its Web site,

privacy problems would arise if DB tried to share that information with other companies without the knowledge and explicit consent of the Web site visitors. The company would have to state clearly its privacy policy and then carefully follow that policy in order to avoid privacy problems. Otherwise many visitors might find themselves inundated by

advertisements from DB and from any other companies with which DB might have shared the information. It could even cause DB to lose sales and its good reputation. _1-3

Running Case Solution

2. Should Dirt Bike use cookies? What are the advantages of using cookies for both Dirt Bikes and its Web site visitors? What privacy issues do they create for Dirt Bikes?

Cookies could be very useful for both DB and visitors to its site

Cookies could be very useful for both DB and visitors to its site.

The visitors would find their return to DB’s site easier and more

personal, while DB could use the cookie data to provide to them

with information of greatest interest to them. Moreover it might

induce visitors returning more often.

However, Web site visitor information collected from cookies could

be misused by DB and by companies the collect that data,

creating problems for both the visitor and for DB’s reputation

creating problems for both the visitor and for DB’s reputation.

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Running Case Solution

3. Should Dirt Bikes join an organization such as TRUSTe to certify it has adopted approved privacy practices? Why or why not?

Joining TRUSTe or other such organizations can only help DB

because many of its site visitors may want to see their privacy

protected. On the other hand many visitors would not care, and in

any case few will notice the certification, so that its impact would

probably be minor. Also many organizations such as TRUSTe are

not necessarily diligent in enforcing its standards. One real

question for DB is how important is it to DB management and

employees that they help protect individual privacy regardless of

its minor affect on DB’s business A search of the Internet will

its minor affect on DB s business. A search of the Internet will

highlight several other organizations. The real issue is which ones

are most respected and well known; these would be the best

certification organizations.

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Running Case Solution

4. Should Dirt Bikes design its site so that it conforms to P3P standards? Why or why not?

While P3P works only on sites that support it, it is capable of giving

site visitors more control over the use of their personal information

site visitors more control over the use of their personal information.

Giving site visitors such control will certainly enable some people

who have privacy concerns to explore DB’s site and perhaps

become a DB purchaser. DB management must realize that it has

to have a long range perspective on its success because DB’s bike

must be of high quality and last for years, and must draw customers

back to purchase again after a number of years, and it must also

inspire them to help promote DB’s bikes to family friends and

inspire them to help promote DB s bikes to family, friends and

acquaintances.

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Running Case Solution

5. Should Dirt Bikes adopt an “opt-in” or “opt-out” model of informed consent?

Obviously the “opt-in” approach puts more power in the hands of site

visitors and therefore does not enable DB to collect as much

information. DB would have to make the choice between collecting

more information and having some visitors not being happy with the

policy choice, or collecting less information but leaving more of its

isitors happ to ha e been there

visitors happy to have been there.

Running Case Solution

6. Include in your report a draft privacy statement for the Dirt Bikes Web site. You can use the TRUSTe model privacy statement as a guideline if you wish. The TRUSTe Web site (http://www.truste.org/) is a good place to obtain

i f ti d d l i t t t Th i t t t th information and a model privacy statement. The privacy statements they develop would address the following:

• what personally identifiable information the company or a third party collects from Web site visitors;;

• how the companies use this information;

• whether Dirt Bikes shares such information with other companies. If a privacy statement is based on these TRUSTe guidelines, Web site visitors will know:

• the organization collecting the information, • how the information is used,

• with whom the information may be shared • with whom the information may be shared,

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1. How does Salesforce.com use cloud computing?

Case Study - Salesforce.Com: Cloud Services Go Mainstream

Salesforce.com provides customer relationship management and other software applications using the software-as-a-service business model over the Internet. Cloud

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computing, also known as on-demand computing, eliminates the need for a business to make large up-front hardware and software investments and reduces the time to implement new programs. Subscribers to Salesforce.com don’t have to purchase or maintain any hardware (albeit personal computing devices) nor do they have to install any maintain any hardware (albeit personal computing devices) nor do they have to install any special operating systems, database servers, or application servers. Other than the monthly user subscription fee, businesses reduce their licensing and maintenance fees. Users access the Salesforce.com cloud through a standard Web browser or a mobile handheld device. Businesses using the Salesforce.com’s cloud have an easier time scaling their system as they increase or decrease their workforce – they adjust the number of subscriptions to the cloud.

Salesforce.com offers some customization of its software so a business can adjust the software to unique business processes. It offers three types of clouds: Sales cloud, service cloud and the custom cloud The sales and service clouds help businesses improve sales cloud, and the custom cloud. The sales and service clouds help businesses improve sales and customer service. The custom cloud provides a venue for customers to develop their own applications for use within the broader Salesforce network.

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Case Study - Salesforce.Com: Cloud Services Go Mainstream

2. What are some of the challenges facing Salesforce as it continues its growth? How well will it be able to meet those challenges?

Challenges include:

Increased competition both from traditional industry leaders and new challengers hoping to replicate Salesforce’s success E di it b i d l i t th

Expanding its business model into other areas Ensuring the system is available 24/7 with no outages Defending the system against security breeches

Salesforce is answering the first two challenges by partnering with Google and combining its services with Gmail, Google Docs Google Talk and Google Calendar to allow its customers to accomplish more tasks via the Web Salesforce com Docs, Google Talk, and Google Calendar to allow its customers to accomplish more tasks via the Web. Salesforce.com and Google both hope that their Salesforce.com for Google Apps initiative will galvanize further growth in on-demand software. By partnering with Apple, Salesforce.com can expand its applications to iPhone users who will have access to their data anywhere any time. Through its partnership with Amazon.com, Force customers can tap into Amazon.com’s cloud computing services that can handle “cloud burst computing” tasks that require extra processing power or storage capacity.p y

Salesforce opened up its Custom Cloud (also known as Force.com) application development platform to other independent software developers and listed their programs on its AppExchange. The company introduced a development tool for integrating with Facebook’s social network that allows customers to build applications that call functions at the Facebook site. Small businesses can go online and download software applications, some add-ons to Salesforce.com

d th th t l t d and others that are unrelated.

In order to grow its revenues to levels that industry observers and Wall Street eventually expects, Salesforce will need to change its focus from selling a suite of software applications to providing a broader cloud computing “platform” on which many software companies can deliver applications.

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To ensure system availability, Salesforce.com provides tools to assure customers about its system reliability and also offers PC applications that tie into their services so users can work offline.

Case Study - Salesforce.Com: Cloud Services Go Mainstream

3. What kinds of businesses could benefit from switching to Salesforce and why?

Small to medium-size businesses are probably the most likely ones to switch to

Salesforce.com because of cost factors and the lack of having in-house

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resources to provide the same level of computing capacity. Businesses that are

trying to increase the sophistication of their computing capabilities could also

benefit from switching to Salesforce as long as the two are compatible.

Businesses that rely on smart customer management would benefit greatly from

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using the tools available at Salesforce.com. Also companies that have small

sales and marketing teams can benefit from the software-as-a-service business

model.

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Case Study - Salesforce.Com: Cloud Services Go Mainstream

4. What factors would you take into account in deciding whether to use Saleforce.com for your business?

Businesses should assess the costs and benefits of the service, weighing all

people, organization, and technology issues.

Does the software-as-a-service applications integrate well with the existing

systems?

Does it deliver a level of service and performance that’s acceptable for the

business?

Does the SaaS fit with the business’ overall competitive strategy and allow the

company to focus on core business issues instead of technology challenges?

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Case Study - Salesforce.Com: Cloud Services Go Mainstream

5. Could a company run its entire business using Salesforce.com, Force.com, and App Exchange? Explain your answer.

Depending on the type of business, a company probably could run its entire operations using Salesforce com Force com and App Exchange All four major functional areas of a business are Salesforce.com, Force.com, and App Exchange. All four major functional areas of a business are supported: Sales and Marketing, Manufacturing and Production, Finance, and Human Resources. There are dozens of applications available to fully support all of these areas. It would be a matter of integrating the software from Salesforce.com and App Exchange with any existing legacy systems within the b i

business.

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Running Case Assignment: Improving Decision Making: Making the Rent

vs. Buy Decision for Hardware and Software

This project provides an opportunity for you to help a real-world company make a decision about whether to rent or buy new technology. You’ll use spreadsheet software to compare the total three-year cost of licensing and maintaining new manufacturing software or renting the software from an application service provider.

Dirt Bikes would like to implement new production planning, quality control, and scheduling software for use by 25 members of its manufacturing staff Management is trying to determine whether to purchase use by 25 members of its manufacturing staff. Management is trying to determine whether to purchase the software from a commercial vendor along with any hardware required to run the software or to use a hosted software solution from an application service provider. (The hosted software runs on the ASP’s computer.) You have been asked to help management with this rent vs. buy decision by calculating the total cost of each option over a three-year period.

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The costs of purchasing the software (actually for purchasing a license from the vendor to use its software package) include the initial purchase price of the software (licensing fee of $100,000 paid in the first year), the cost of implementing and customizing the software in the first year ($20,000), one new server to run the software (a first-year purchase of $4000), one information systems specialist devoting half of his or her time to supporting the software ($55,000 in full-time annual salary and benefits with a pp g ($ , y 3% annual salary increase each year after the first year), user training in the first year ($10,000), and the cost of annual software upgrades ($5,000).

The costs of renting hosted software are the rental fees ($2500 annually per user), implementation and customization costs ($12,000 in the first year), and training ($10,000 in the first year).

Calculate the total cost of renting or purchasing this software over a three-year period. Identify the lowest-price alternative that meets Dirt Bikes’s requirements.

What other factors should Dirt Bikes consider besides cost in determining whether to rent or buy the

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Running Case Solution: Improving Decision Making: Making the Rent vs.

Buy Decision for Hardware and Software

Review Questions

1. What is IT infrastructure and what are its components?

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Define IT infrastructure from both a technology and a services perspective.

Technical perspective is defined as the shared technology resources that

provide the platform for the firm’s specific information system applications. It

consists of a set of physical devices and software applications that are required

to operate the entire enterprise.

Service perspective is defined as providing the foundation for serving

customers, working with vendors, and managing internal firm business

processes. In this sense, IT infrastructure focuses on the services provided by

all the hardware and software. IT infrastructure is a set of firm-wide services

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Review Questions

1.2 List and describe the components of IT infrastructure that firms need to manage.

IT infrastructure includes hardware, software, and services:

1. Computing platforms: Includes mainframes, midrange computers, desktop and laptop computers, and mobile handheld devices – anything that connect employees, customers, and suppliers into a coherent digital environment.

2. Telecommunications services: Data,, voice,, and video connectivityy between employees, customers, and suppliers.

3. Data management: Store, manage and analyze data.

4. Application software: Includes enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, supply chain management, and knowledge management systems.g , pp y g , g g y 5. Physical facilities management: Develop and manage the physical installations for

computing, telecommunications, and data management.

6. IT management: Planning and developing the infrastructure, coordinate IT services among business units, manage accounting for IT expenditures, and provide projectg , g g p , p p j management.

7. IT standards: Policies that determine which information technology will be used, when, and how.

8. IT education: Employee training in system use and management training for IT

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investments.

9. IT research and development: Research future IT projects and investments that can help the firm differentiate itself from competitors.

Review Questions

2. What are the stages and technology drivers of IT infrastructure evolution? 2.1 List each of the eras in IT infrastructure evolution and describe its distinguishing characteristics.

1. General-purpose mainframe and minicomputer era (1959 to present): Consists of a mainframe performing centralized processing that could be networked to thousands of terminals and eventually some decentralized and departmental computing using networked minicomputers.

2. Personal computer era (1981 to present): Dominated by the widespread use of standalone desktop computers with office productivity tools.

3. Client/server era (1983 to present): Consists of desktop or laptop clients networked to more powerful server computers that handle most of the data management and processing.

4. Enterprise computing era (1992 to present): Defined by large numbers of PCs linked together into local area networks and the growing use of standards and software to link disparate networks and devices into an enterprise-wide network so that information can flow freely across the organization.

5. Cloud and mobile computing era (2000 to present): A model of computing where firms and individuals obtain computing power and software applications over the Internet, rather than purchasing their own hardware and software.

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Review Questions

2.2 Define and describe the following: Web server, application server, 2.2 Define and describe the following: Web server, application server, multitiered client/server architecture.

Web server: Software that manages requests for Web pages on the

computer where they are stored and that delivers the page to the user’s

computer where they are stored and that delivers the page to the user s

computer.

Application server: Software that handles all application operations between

browser-based computers and a company’s back-end business applications

or databases.

Multitiered client/server architecture: Client/server network in which the work

of the entire network is balanced over several different levels of servers.

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Review Questions

2.3

Describe Moore’s Law and the Law of Mass Digital Storage

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Moore’s Law: The number of components on a chip with the smallest

manufacturing costs per component (generally transistors) had

doubled each year Moore later reduced the rate of growth to a

doubled each year. Moore later reduced the rate of growth to a

doubling every two years.

Law of Mass Digital Storage: The amount of digital information is

roughly doubling every year. The cost of storing digital information is

falling at an exponential rate of 100 percent a year.

Both of these concepts explain developments that have taken place in

computer processing, memory chips, storage devices,

telecommunications and networking hardware and software, and

software design that have exponentially increased computing power

while exponentially reducing costs.

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Review Questions

2.4 Describe how network economics, declining communication

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costs, and technology standards affect IT infrastructure.

Network economics: Metcalfe’s Law helps explain the mushrooming use of

computers by showing that a network’s value to participants grows exponentially

computers by showing that a network s value to participants grows exponentially

as the network takes on more members. As the number of members in a

network grows linearly, the value of the entire system grows exponentially and

theoretically continues to grow forever as members increase.

Declining communication costs: Rapid decline in communication costs and

the exponential growth in the size of the Internet is a driving force that affects

the IT infrastructure As communication costs fall toward a very small number

the IT infrastructure. As communication costs fall toward a very small number

and approach zero, utilization of communication and computing facilities

explodes.

Technology standards: Growing agreement in the technology industry to use

computing and communication standards that define specifications that

establish the compatibility of products and the ability to communicate in a

network Technology standards unleash powerful economies of scale and result

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network. Technology standards unleash powerful economies of scale and result

in price declines as manufacturers focus on the products built to a single

standard. Without economies of scale, computing of any sort would be far more

expensive than is currently the case.

Review Questions

3. What are the current trends in computer hardware platforms?

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3.1 Describe the evolving mobile platform, grid computing, and cloud

computing.

Mobile platform: More and more business computing is moving from PCs and desktop machines to mobile devices like cell phones and smartphones. Data transmissions, Web surfing, email and instant messaging, digital content displays, and data exchanges with internal corporate systems are all available through a mobile digital platform. Netbooks, small low-cost lightweight subnotebooks that are optimized for wireless communication and Internet access, are included. The mobile platform is expanding to include tablet computers (iPad) and digital e-book readers.

Grid computing: Connects geographically remote computers into a single network to create a “virtual supercomputer” by combining the computational power of all computers on the grid. Since most computers use their central processing units only about 25 percent of the time, they can be used for other tasks.

Cloud computing: A model of computing where firms and individuals obtain computing capacity, data storage, and software applications over the Internet, rather than purchasing

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their own hardware and software. Data are stored on powerful servers in massive data centers, and can be accessed by anyone with an Internet connection and standard Web browser. Public clouds are maintained by external service providers while private clouds are restrained inside a proprietary network or a data center.

Review Questions

3.2 Explain how businesses can benefit from autonomic computing,

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virtualization, green computing, and multicore processors.

Autonomic computing

Systems that automatically do the following: Systems that automatically do the following: 1. Configure themselves

2. Optimize and tune themselves 3. Heal themselves when broken

4 Protect themselves from outside intruders and self-destruction 4. Protect themselves from outside intruders and self destruction 5. Reduce maintenance costs

6. Reduce downtime from system crashes Virtualization

Virtualization

1. Run more than one operating system at the same time on a single machine. 2. Increase server utilization rates to 70 percent or higher.

3. Reduce hardware expenditures. Higher utilization rates translate into fewer computers required to process the same amount of work

required to process the same amount of work.

Review Questions

Green computing

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1. Businesses can minimize their impact on the environment by adopting better

practices and technologies for designing, manufacturing, using, and disposing

of computers, servers, and other computing devices.

2 Reducing power consumption in data server centers is the leading practice in

2. Reducing power consumption in data server centers is the leading practice in

the green computing movement.

Multicore processors

1. Cost savings by reducing power requirements and hardware sprawl

2. Less costly to maintain as fewer systems need to be monitored.

3. Performance and productivity benefits beyond the capabilities of today’s

single-core processors

single-core processors.

4. Run applications more efficiently than single-core processors – giving users

the ability to keep working even while running the most processor intensive

task in the background.

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Review Questions

4. What are the current trends in software platforms?

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4.1 Define and describe open source software and Linux and explain their

business benefits.

Open-source software provides all computer users with free access to the program code so they can modify the code, fix errors in it, or to make improvements. Open-source software is not owned by any company or individual. A global network of programmers and users manage and modify the software By definition open source software is not restricted to any manage and modify the software. By definition, open-source software is not restricted to any specific operating system or hardware technology.

Linux is the most well-known open-source software. It’s a UNIX-like operating system that can be downloaded from the Internet free of charge or purchased for a small fee from can be downloaded from the Internet, free of charge, or purchased for a small fee from companies that provide additional tools for the software. It is reliable, compactly designed, and capable of running on many different hardware platforms, including servers, handheld computers, and consumer electronics. Linux has become popular during the past few years as a robust low cost alternative to UNIX and the Windows operating system

as a robust low-cost alternative to UNIX and the Windows operating system.

Thousands of open-source programs are available from hundreds of Web sites. Businesses can choose from a range of open-source software including operating systems, office suites, Web browsers and games Open source software allows businesses to reduce the total

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Web browsers, and games. Open-source software allows businesses to reduce the total cost of ownership. It provides more robust software that’s often more secure than proprietary software.

Review Questions

4.2 Define Java and Ajax and explain why they are important.

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Java: Java is a programming language that delivers only the software functionality

needed for a particular task. With Java, the programmer writes small programs

called applets that can run on another machine on a network

With Java

called applets that can run on another machine on a network. With Java,

programmers write programs that can execute on a variety of operating systems

and environments. Further, any program could be a series of applets that are

distributed over networks as they are needed and as they are upgraded.

Java is important because of the dramatic growth of Web applications. Java is an

operating

system-independent,

processor-independent,

object-oriented

programming language that can run on multiple hardware platforms It provides a

programming language that can run on multiple hardware platforms. It provides a

standard format for data exchange on Web sites.

Ajax: Ajax is short for Asynchronous JavaScript and XML. It allows a client and

server to exchange small pieces of data behind the scene so that an entire Web

page does not have to be reloaded each time the user requests a change. It’s

another Web development technique for creating interactive Web applications that

make it easier and more efficient for Web site users to complete forms and other

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make it easier and more efficient for Web site users to complete forms and other

interactive features.

Review Questions

4.3 Define and describe Web services and the role played by XML.

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Web services offer a standardized alternative for dealing with integration across

various computer platforms.

Web services are loosely coupled software

components based on XML and open Web standards that are not product specific

and can work with any application software and operating system. They can be

used as components of Web-based applications linking the systems of two

different organizations or to link disparate systems of a single company.

Web

services are not tied to a particular operating system or programming language.

Different applications can use them to communicate with each other in a standard

way without time-consuming custom coding.

Businesses use Web services to tie their Web sites with external Web sites

creating an apparently seamless experience for users. The benefit derives from

not having to re-create applications for each business partner or specific functions

within a single company.

XML provides a standard format for data exchange, enabling Web services to

pass data from one process to another It performs presentation communication

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pass data from one process to another. It performs presentation, communication,

and storage of data whereas HTML simply describes how data is presented on

Web pages. XML allows computers to manipulate and interpret data automatically

and perform operations on data without human intervention.

Review Questions

4.4 Name and describe the three external sources for software.

1. Software packages and enterprise software: Prewritten commercially available set of software programs that eliminates the need for a firm to write its own software program for certain functions like payroll processing or order handling. Large-scale enterprise software certain functions like payroll processing or order handling. Large scale enterprise software systems provide a single, integrated, worldwide software system for firms at a cost much less than they would pay if they developed it themselves.

2. Cloud-based software services and tools: A business that delivers and manages 2. Cloud based software services and tools: A business that delivers and manages applications and computer services from remote computer centers to multiple users using the Internet or a private network. Instead of buying and installing software programs, subscribing companies can rent the same functions from these services. Users pay for the use of this software either on a subscription or a per-transaction basis. The business must use of this software either on a subscription or a per transaction basis. The business must carefully assess the costs and benefits of the service, weighing all people, organizational, and technology issues. It must ensure it can integrate the software with its existing systems and deliver a level of service and performance that is acceptable for the business.

3. Outsourcing custom application development: An organization contracts its custom software development or maintenance of existing legacy programs to outside firms, frequently firms that operate offshore in low-wage areas of the world. An outsourcer often has the technical and management skills to do the job better, faster, and more efficiently.

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as e ec ca a d a age e s s o do e job be e , as e , a d o e e c e y Even though it’s often cheaper to outsource the maintenance of an IT infrastructure and the development of new systems to external vendors, a business must weight the pros and cons carefully.

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Review Questions

4.5 Define and describe software mashups and apps.

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Mashups are new software applications and services based on combining different online software applications. Users create new software applications and services by combining different online software applications into a new application. The idea is to take different sources different online software applications into a new application. The idea is to take different sources and produce a new work that is “greater than” the sum of its parts. Web mashups combine the capabilities of two or more online applications to create a kind of hybrid that provides more customer value than the original sources alone.

Apps are small pieces of software programs that are downloaded to computers or cell phones. Apps turn mobile handheld devices into general-purpose computing tools. They cost much less than full-fledged software programs and perform one particular task. They tie customers to a specific hardware platform like the Apple iPhone or Android operating system and increase specific hardware platform like the Apple iPhone or Android operating system and increase switching costs. Business-related apps allow users to create and edit documents, connect to corporate systems, schedule and participate in meetings, track shipments, and dictate voice messages.

Businesses benefit most from these new tools and trends by not having to re-invent the wheel. Apps have already been developed by someone else and a business can use them for its own purposes. Mashups let a business combine previously developed Web applications into new ones with new purposes. They don’t have to re-invent the previous applications from scratch—

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o es e pu poses ey do a e o e e e p e ous app ca o s o sc a c merely use them in the new processes.

Review Questions

5. What are the challenges of managing IT infrastructure and management

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solutions?

5.1 Name and describe the management challenges posed by IT infrastructure.

Creating and maintaining a coherent IT infrastructure raises multiple challenges including:

1. Dealing with platform and infrastructure change: As firms grow, they can quickly outgrow their

infrastructure. As firms shrink, they can get stuck with excessive infrastructure purchased in better times., y g p Scalability refers to the ability of a computer, product, or system to expand to serve a larger number of users without breaking down. Businesses that bring mobile computing and cloud computing platforms into the mix need new policies and procedures for managing them.

2 Management and governance: Involves who will control and manage the firm’s IT infrastructure Will the 2. Management and governance: Involves who will control and manage the firm s IT infrastructure. Will the

IT infrastructure be centrally controlled and managed or divided among departments and divisions? How will infrastructure costs be allocated among business units?

3. Making wise infrastructure investments: IT infrastructure is a major capital investment for the firm. If

too much is spent on infrastructure, it lies idle and constitutes a drag on firm financial performance. If too little is spent, important business services cannot be delivered and the firm’s competitors will outperform the underinvesting firm. The organization needs to determine if it will buy or rent all or portions of its IT infrastructure.

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4. Coordinating infrastructure components: Firms create IT infrastructures by choosing combinations of

vendors, people, and technology services and fitting them together so they function as a coherent whole.