Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Research Problems: Statements, Questions,
Research Problems: Statements, Questions,
and Hypotheses
Importance of Research Problems
Importance of Research Problems
Formulates a clear, concise, andFormulates a clear, concise, and manageable research problem
manageable research problem
Communicates to othersCommunicates to others
Focus and importance of problemFocus and importance of problem
Educational context and scopeEducational context and scope
Framework for reporting resultsFramework for reporting results
Sources of Problems
Sources of Problems
Casual observationCasual observation
Relationship betwRelationship between cognition and afeen cognition and affectfect
Relative effectiveness of positive or negativeRelative effectiveness of positive or negative
reinforcement reinforcement
Deductions from theoryDeductions from theory
Effectiveness of using math Effectiveness of using math manipulativmanipulativeses
Relationship between instructional style andRelationship between instructional style and
learning style learning style
Sources of Problems
Sources of Problems
Current social and political issuesCurrent social and political issues
Gender and race equityGender and race equity
InclusionInclusion
Practical situationsPractical situations
Evaluations of specific programsEvaluations of specific programs
Effectiveness of local Effectiveness of local initiativesinitiatives
Personal experience and insightPersonal experience and insight
Teaching statistical courses from an appliedTeaching statistical courses from an applied
perspective perspective
Effectiveness of non-threatening classroomEffectiveness of non-threatening classroom
assessments assessments
Formal Problem Statements
Formal Problem Statements
PurposePurpose
Introduces reader to importance of Introduces reader to importance of
problem problem
Places problem in an educational contextPlaces problem in an educational context
Provides framework for reporting results²Provides framework for reporting results²
findings and conclusions findings and conclusions
Problem Formulation in
Problem Formulation in
Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research
Is phrased as statements, questions or Is phrased as statements, questions or hypotheses
hypotheses
Provides identification of population,Provides identification of population, variables, and logic of problem
variables, and logic of problem
Presents logic of Presents logic of constructs, variableconstructs, variables,s, and operational definitions
Construct
Construct
Complex abstraction not directlyComplex abstraction not directly observable
observable
e.g., motivation, meta-cognition, self-e.g., motivation, meta-cognition,
self-concept, aptitude, etc. concept, aptitude, etc.
Derived from theoryDerived from theory
Expresses idea behind a set of Expresses idea behind a set of particularsparticulars
Can combine several variables intoCan combine several variables into
meaningful patterns meaningful patterns
Variable
Variable
An event, category, behavior or attribute An event, category, behavior or attribute
Composed of attributeComposed of attributes s of levels thatof levels that expre
express a ss a constructconstruct
Each variable a separate and distinctEach variable a separate and distinct phenomenon
phenomenon
Two types based on what is measuredTwo types based on what is measured
Categorical variables²grouCategorical variables²groups ps variable intovariable into
attributes (categories) attributes (categories)
Continuous measured variable²canContinuous measured variable²can
assume an infinite number of values within a assume an infinite number of values within a range
Research Variable Types
Research Variable Types
In experimental researchIn experimental research
IndependeIndependent²comes nt²comes first²influefirst²influences nces or or
predicts predicts
Also called manipulated or experimental Also called manipulated or experimental
variable variable
Antecedent Antecedent
Dependent²comes second²if affected or Dependent²comes second²if affected or
predicted by independent variable predicted by independent variable
Research Variable Types
Research Variable Types
In non-experimental researchIn non-experimental research
Independent variable cannot beIndependent variable cannot be
manipulated
manipulated
In correlational studiesIn correlational studies
Antecedent called predictor variable Antecedent called predictor variable
Dependent variable called criterionDependent variable called criterion
Not alwayNot always s possible to tell which cpossible to tell which comesomes
first first
When prediction not goal, but rather to see if When prediction not goal, but rather to see if there is a relationship between variable
Operational Definition for
Operational Definition for
Variable
Variable
Assigns meaning to a variable by Assigns meaning to a variable by specifying activities or operations
specifying activities or operations
necessary to measure, categorize, or
necessary to measure, categorize, or
manipulate variable
manipulate variable
Tells researcher whaTells researcher what t is necessary tois necessary to answer question or test hypothesis
Problem Formulation in
Problem Formulation in
Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research
Identify population, variables and logic of Identify population, variables and logic of
problem problem
Specific research questions and hypothesesSpecific research questions and hypotheses
Questions²simpQuestions²simple and le and directdirect
Descriptive²typically asks ³what is´ and implies aDescriptive²typically asks ³what is´ and implies a survey research design
survey research design
e.g., What is current dropout rate in Louisiana?e.g., What is current dropout rate in Louisiana?
Relationship²implies a correlational designRelationship²implies a correlational design
e.g., What is relationship between me.g., What is relationship between math attitude andath attitude and math achievement?
math achievement?
Difference²implies a comparisonDifference²implies a comparison
e.g., Is there a difference in effe.g., Is there a difference in effectiveness of gradedectiveness of graded and non-graded homework?
Research Hypotheses in
Research Hypotheses in
Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research
Statements
Statements
e.g., purpose of this research is to ....e.g., purpose of this research is to ....
Questions
Questions
Research Hypotheses in
Research Hypotheses in
Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research
Tentative statement of expectedTentative statement of expected relationships between two or more
relationships between two or more
variables
variables
e.g., there is a significant, positivee.g., there is a significant, positive
relationship between self-concept and math relationship between self-concept and math achievement
achievement
States direction of States direction of relationshrelationshipip
Should be testable, verifiableShould be testable, verifiable
Should offer a tentative explanationShould offer a tentative explanation based on theory or previous research
based on theory or previous research
Problem Formulation in
Problem Formulation in
Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research
Is phrased as statements or questions,Is phrased as statements or questions, never as hypotheses
never as hypotheses
Broad statements: how, what and whyBroad statements: how, what and why
Begins with selecting general topic andBegins with selecting general topic and mode of inquiry
mode of inquiry
Qualitative Field Records,
Qualitative Field Records,
Descriptions, and Abstractions
Descriptions, and Abstractions
Employs inductive reasoningEmploys inductive reasoning
Selects a particular case (rather than variablesSelects a particular case (rather than variables
as in quantitative) for in-depth study as in quantitative) for in-depth study
Case is a particular sociCase is a particular social situation chosen byal situation chosen by researcher in which some phenomenon will be researcher in which some phenomenon will be described by participants¶ perceptions
described by participants¶ perceptions
Aim is to gain understanding of a broader Aim is to gain understanding of a broader phenomenon
phenomenon
Qualitative field recordsQualitative field records
Participant observation field notesParticipant observation field notes
Interview tapesInterview tapes
Narrative Descriptions
Narrative Descriptions
Detailed narrations of people, incidents, andDetailed narrations of people, incidents, and
processes processes
Completed after data collection because of Completed after data collection because of
discover-orient
discover-orientation ation of researchof research
Called ³rich´ or ³thick´Called ³rich´ or ³thick´
Contains information onContains information on
PeoplePeople
IncidentsIncidents
Participants¶ languageParticipants¶ language
Participants¶ ³meanings´Participants¶ ³meanings´
Problem Reformulation
Problem Reformulation
Initial statement of a broad, generalInitial statement of a broad, general question
question
i.e., foreshadowed problem, phrased asi.e., foreshadowed problem, phrased as
³what,´ how,´ and ³why´ of situation ³what,´ how,´ and ³why´ of situation
Condensed problem statementCondensed problem statement identifying a specific focus
identifying a specific focus
Reformulation of problem duringReformulation of problem during research²emergen
Statements of Qualitative Research
Statements of Qualitative Research
Purposes and Questions
Purposes and Questions
QualitativQualitative e problem statementsproblem statements
Qualitative traditions of ethnography,Qualitative traditions of ethnography,
phenomenology, case study, grounded phenomenology, case study, grounded theory, and critical study
theory, and critical study
Focus on current phenomena throughFocus on current phenomena through
interactive data collection interactive data collection
Historical problem statements andHistorical problem statements and questions
Mixed Method Problem
Mixed Method Problem
Formulation
Formulation
Equal priority to all questionsEqual priority to all questions
both quantitative and qualitative data
both quantitative and qualitative data
collected abou
collected about st same timeame time
Research questions and foreshadowedResearch questions and foreshadowed
problems problems
Problems usually presented together Problems usually presented together
Findings from both kinds of data would beFindings from both kinds of data would be
analyzed and interpreted together analyzed and interpreted together (triangulation)
Mixed Method Problem
Mixed Method Problem
Formulation
Formulation
Measured results explained byMeasured results explained by qualitative data
qualitative data
Data collected sequentiallyData collected sequentially
Quantitative phase provides generalQuantitative phase provides general
results explained with qualitative data results explained with qualitative data
Mixed Method Problem
Mixed Method Problem
Formulation
Formulation
Qualitative questions, then quantitativeQualitative questions, then quantitative questions
questions
Used when there is little prior research on aUsed when there is little prior research on a
topic or practice that is new topic or practice that is new
Qualitative methods used first Qualitative methods used first to investigateto investigate
scope of
scope of phenomephenomenonnon
Quantitative methods investigate findings inQuantitative methods investigate findings in
a more structured way a more structured way
Significance of Problem Selection
Significance of Problem Selection
Rationale for a studyRationale for a study
Justifies why an evidence-based inquiry isJustifies why an evidence-based inquiry is
important important
Indicates researcher¶s interest/choiceIndicates researcher¶s interest/choice
Knowledge of an enduring practiceKnowledge of an enduring practice
Theory testingTheory testing
Significance of Problem Selection
Significance of Problem Selection
Extensions of understandingExtensions of understanding
Methodological advancementMethodological advancement
Current issuesCurrent issues
EvaluatioEvaluation of n of a specific practice or a specific practice or policypolicy at a given site
at a given site
Standards of Adequacy for
Standards of Adequacy for
Problem Statements
Problem Statements
General research problemGeneral research problem
Does statement of general researchDoes statement of general research
problem imply possibility of empirical problem imply possibility of empirical investigation?
investigation?
Does problem statement restrict scope of Does problem statement restrict scope of
study? study?
Significance of Problem
Significance of Problem
Does problem contribute to one or more of Does problem contribute to one or more of
following? following?
Develops knowledge of an enduring practiceDevelops knowledge of an enduring practice
Contributes Contributes to to theory theory developmentdevelopment
Expands current knowledgeExpands current knowledge
Provides an extension of our Provides an extension of our understandingunderstanding
Advances methodology Advances methodology
Related to a current social or political issueRelated to a current social or political issue
Evaluates specific practice or policy at given siteEvaluates specific practice or policy at given site
Specific Research Question or
Specific Research Question or
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Quantitative
Quantitative
Does specific research purpose, question,Does specific research purpose, question,
or hypothesis state concisely what is to be or hypothesis state concisely what is to be determined?
determined?
Does level of specificity indicate questionDoes level of specificity indicate question
or hypothesis researchable? Do variables or hypothesis researchable? Do variables seem amenable to operational definitions? seem amenable to operational definitions?
Qualitative
Qualitative
Do research questions, foreshadowedDo research questions, foreshadowed problems, or condensed problem
problems, or condensed problem
statements indicat
statements indicate particular e particular case of case of
phenomena to be examined?
phenomena to be examined?
Is qualitative methodology appropriateIs qualitative methodology appropriate for description of present of past events?
for description of present of past events?
Is logic reasonably explicit?Is logic reasonably explicit?
Does research purpose indicateDoes research purpose indicate framework for reporting findings?
Mixed Methods
Mixed Methods
Is relative emphasis of each methodIs relative emphasis of each method made explicit?
made explicit?
Is order in which quantitative andIs order in which quantitative and qualitative data collected clear?
Other Criteria
Other Criteria
Is problem one in which researcher hasIs problem one in which researcher has a vital interest and a topic in which
a vital interest and a topic in which
researcher has both knowledge and
researcher has both knowledge and
experience?
experience?
Are problem and design feasible in terms Are problem and design feasible in terms of measurement, access to case,
of measurement, access to case,
sample, or populatio
sample, or population, n, permission to usepermission to use
documents, time frame for
documents, time frame for completion,completion,
financial resources, and like?
Other Criteria
Other Criteria
Does researcher have skills to Does researcher have skills to conductconduct proposed research and to analyze and
proposed research and to analyze and
interpret results?
interpret results?
Does proposed research ensureDoes proposed research ensure protection of human subjects from
protection of human subjects from
phy
physical or sical or mental discomfort or harm?mental discomfort or harm?
Is right of informed consent of Is right of informed consent of subjectssubjects
provided?
