ENERGY EFFICIENT COURTYARD HOUSE DESIGN
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Authors AL-HALIS, IYAD
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ENERGY EFFICIENT COURTYARD HOUSE DESIGN
By
lyad Al-Halis
Copyright © lyad Al-Halis 2001
A Report Submitted to the Faculty of the
COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTURE
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR
This Report has been submitted in partial fulfillment for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the library.
Brief quotations from this report are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder.
APPROVAL BY REPORT DIRECTOR
3
ACKNOLOGMENTS
I would like to extend my thanks and gratitude to my experienced and dedicated committee members. Prof, Nader Chalfoun, Fred Matter and Martin Yoklic, for all the support, professional advice and encouragement, with a special recognition of Prof. Nader Chalfoun, my chairman, for the fruitful and precious times we spent together, during and after school hours; which have made my Masters education such a challenging and wonderful experience.
Also, I cannot but be grateful to my brother, Dr. Waleed Al-Halis for his encouragement and financial support, which made my full commitment to student life possible.
DEDICATION
5
STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR_____________________ 2
ACKNOLOGMENTS... 3 DEDICATION... 4 LIST OF FIGURES...---- --- ---...--- --- ....:.? LIST OF TABLES... ...9 ABSTRACT... 10 1 INTRODUCTION______________ *_________________________________ 11 1.1 OVERVIEW AND SCOPE OF WORK... ,... 11
1.2 THE PROBLEM AND THE METHOD... 13
1.2.1 Background:... 13 1.2.2 The Problem:... 15 1.2.3 Approach:... 16 1.2.4 Hypothesis:... 17 1.2.5 Objective:... 18 1.2.6 Proposed Methodology:... 18 2 COURTYARDS IN HOUSES--- ---...--- 21
2.1 ON THE COURTYARD FORM AESTHETICS... ...21
2.2 THE RATIONALE... 23
2.3 COURTYARDS THROUGH TIME... ... .26
2.3.1 A Historical form.... ... 26
2.3.2 Contemporary Courtyard Houses... 27
2.3.2.1 Patio House... ... 27
2.3.2.2 Atrium.House... 32
2.3.2.3 Mass Housing... ... :... 36
3 TRADITIONAL VS. CONTEMPORARY COURTYARDS--- 44
3.1 PHASE I: INTRODUCTION... 44
3.2 PHYSICAL FEATURES... 46
3.2.1 The building’s Setting:... ...46
3.2.2 Building’s Approach:... 50
3.3 FUNCTIONAL DETERMINANTS... 52
3.3.1 Entrance in relation with the courtyard:... 52
3.3.2 Interior Circulation and Accessibility to Courtyard... 56
3.3.3 Function of the Courtyard... 59
3.4.1 Level of Thermal Control... ... ... 64
3.4.2 Indoor vs. Outdoor Thermal Comfort... ... 66
3.5 RECOMMENDATIONS... 67
3.5.1 Function.... ... 67
3.5.2 Attached vs. detached houses:... ...67
3.5.3 Courtyard Micro-climate:... 68
3.5.3.1 Short-wave radiation... ... ... 68
3.5.3.2 Long wave radiation... 71
3.5.3.3 Air movement... 71
3.5.3.4 Design elements that enhance the microclimate... 72
4 OPTIMIZING THE THERMAL PERFORMANCE____________________ 73 4.1 THE DESIGN OF THE COURTYARD CONSIDERING THE OUTDOOR THERMAL CONDITIONS... 73
4.2 SIMULATION OF THE OUTDOOR THERMAL C O N D ITIO N ... 77
4.2.1 The Program OUTDOOR... 77
4.2.2 Estimating View Factors Utilizing Fish Eye Lens Photography... 78
4.2.3 Fish Eye Lens in a Computer Model... 81
4.2.4 The View Factors:... 93
4.2.5 Results:... 97
4.3 SIMULATION OF THE INDOOR THERMAL CONDITION... ... 101
4.3.1 The Program CALPAS 3.0... 101
4.3.2 Courtyard House with three Party Walls Base case Building Data:...103
4.3.3 Strategies Applied:... 110
4.3.4 Results:... ...116
4.4 INTEGRATING THE DESIGNED COURTYARD WITH THE INDOOR THERMAL MODEL... ... 120
4.4.1 Effect of the Modified Courtyard on the Indoor Thermal Condition... 120
4.4.2 Effective Temperature (ET*) Vs. Design Dry-Bulb Temperature... 121
5 CONCLUSION... 127
5.1 Why courtyards?... 127
5.2 Courtyards as spaces for living:... 129
5.3 Designing with courtyards as an energy saving strategy:...130
6 APPENDICES... 132
6.1 APPENDIX A: DIRECT SOLAR RADIATION STUDY...133
6.2 APPENDIX B: COMPUTER GENERATED FISH-EYE LENS IMAGES ...143
6.3 APPENDIX C: COMPUTER INPUT DATA FOR THE PROGRAM OUTDOOR... 149
6.4 APPENDIX D: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY...152
7
Figure 1.2:1: The Proposed Methodology outline... 20
Figure 2.1:1 :Tadao Ando’s Row House,... 23
Figure 2.3:1: Robert House at Coronado in California;... 28
Figure 2.3:2: Robert House... 28
Figure 2.3:3: Contraspatial House... 29
Figure 2.3:4: Bungallow Court... ... :...30
Figure 2.3:5: A binuclear patio house... 31
Figure 2.3:6: A binuclear patio house plan... 32
Figure 2.3:7: Proposed bungalow at Frinton-on-Sea... 33
Figure 2.3:8: House am Horn in Weimar... 34
Figure 2.3:9: House am Horn in Weimar... 34
Figure 2.3:10: Gebhard’s Atrium House, 1931... 35
Figure 2.3:11: Alvar Alto’s own Summer House... 35
Figure 2.3:12: Eva and Nils Koppel’s Atrium House... 36
Figure 2.3:13: Hugo Haring’s L-House... 37
Figure 2.3:14: Hugo Haring’s L-House... 38
Figure 2.3:15: Friedrich’s small mass produced houses... 39
Figure 2.3:16: Hilberseimer’s L-House-basic plan... ... 39
Figure 2.3:17: Hilberseimer’s L-House... ... ...40
Figure 2.3:18: Hilberseimer’s L-House... ... 40
Figure 2.3:19: Housing for a horizontal city... ... 41
Figure 2.3:20: Mies van Der Rohe’s Row House... 41
Figure 2.3:21: Hannes Mayer at Dessaau Torten... 42
Figure 2.3:22: Courtyard housing at Alberstlund, Denmark... 43
Figure 3.2:1: A traditional neighborhood in Tunis... 47
Figure 3.2:2: Courtyard housing at Alberstlund, Denmark; Ole Norgaad... 48
Figure 3.2:3: A contemporary courtyard Housing project, Agadir, Morocco... 49
Figure 3.2:4: A traditional pedestrian-oriented street in the Atlantic coastal city of Essaouira, Morocco... ... i... 50
Figure 3.2:5: Hassan fathi, A modem Courtyard Villa in Saudia Arabia... ... 51
Figure 3.3:1: Similarity of entering the courtyard houses across history. Source: Craig Hinrichs, 1989... 52
Figure 3.3:2: A plan of the traditional Al-Fustaat House, Cairo... 54
Figure 3.3:3: Contemporary Courtyard, the ‘Base Case’ ... 55
Figure 3.3:4: circulation patterns in traditional vs. contemporary courtyard houses... 56
Figure 3.3:5: plan of a traditional Moorish Dar, Mideval Spain... 57
Figure 3.3:6: Proposed bungalow at Frinton-on-Sea;... 58
Figure 3.3:7: House AM Horn in Weimar by George Muche, 1923... 58
Figure 3.3:8: Mies van Der Rohe’s Row House, 1931... ... 59
Figure 3.3:9: Tadao Ando’s Row House, the Azuma Residence. Source: Kennith Frampton, 1984... 61
Figure 3.3:10: Luis Barragan, Casa Antonio Galvez, Mexico City 1955... 63
Figure 3.5:1: Short wave and long wave radiation... 69
Figure 4.1:2: The designed courtyard... ... ... ... ... 75
Figure 4.1:3: Section through the designed courtyard looking east... 76
Figure 4.2:1: diagram showing fish eye lens projection... 79
Figure 4.2:2: Fish eye lens polar grid overlay... ... 80
Figure 4.2:3: Fish eye photograph looking down the courtyard during December 21st at time 15:00... 82
Figure 4.2:4: Fish eye photograph looking up; during December 21st at time 15:00... 82
Figure 4.2:5: The constructed ACAD model in plan... ... .... ...84
Figure 4.2:6: The constructed AutoCAD model in Isometric view... ... 85
Figure 4.2:7: The constructed model enclosed in the ‘box’ ... ... 85
Figure 4.2:8: The ACAD drawing rotated 90 degrees about the X-axis before being exported to PovRay... 86
Figure 4.2:9: The Difference between ACAD and PovRay in Axes orientation... 88
Figure 4.2:10: An Example of a computer generated fish-eye lens image overlaid with the scanned polar grid... ... ... ... 92
Figure 0:1: PMV level at Location 1 during June and December 21st... 98
Figure 0:2: PMV level with and without shading Location 1 during June 21st... ...99
Figure 0:3: PMV level at Location 1 Vs. Location 2 during december 21st...100
Figure 4.3:1: Floor Plan of the base case courtyard house... 107
Figure 4.3:2: Main South Facing Wall of the base case courtyard house... ... 107
Figure 4.3:3: Courtyard South Facing W all... 108
Figure 4.3:4: Courtyard West Facing Wall... 108
Figure 4.3:5: Courtyard North Facing W all... 108
Figure 4.3:6: Courtyard East Facing Wall... 109
Figure 4.3:7: Plan of the 'Country House'... 109
Figure 4.3:8: Annual cooling and heating for the three houses... 119
Figure 4.4:1: A Chart showing that the Effective Temperature (ET*) equals the ambient air temperature at 50% RH environment... ... 122
Figure 4.4:2: T-dry Vs Corrected Effective Temperature at Location 1 in the Courtyard - June 21st... 123
9
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4:1: Ratios of distance for constructing the polar grid overlay... ... ... 80
Table 4:2: suggested (x,y,z) coordinates to simulate the position of the sun at different hours of June and Dec 21st in reference to the origin point (0,0,0) ...91
Table 4:3: The Estimated view factors of the optimized case at Location 1 during June 21st... 94
Table 4:4: The Estimated view factors o f the optimized case at Location 1 during December 21st... 94
Table 4:5: The Estimated view factors of the base case at Location 1 during June 21st ..95
Table 4:6: The Estimated view factors of the base case at Location 1 during December 21st... 95
Table 4:7: The Estimated view factors of the optimized case at Location 2 during December 21st... 96
Table 4:8: Indoor thermal strategies applied...110
Table 4:9: CALP AS results for the base case courtyard house...116
Table 4:10: CALPAS results for the courtyard house with no party w alls...117
Table 4:11: CALPAS results for the 'country house'... ... .118
Table 4:12: Preliminary savings with the designed courtyard in the attached courtyard house during June 21st... ... ... ;... 120
Table 4:13: Basic savings with the designed courtyard in the attached courtyard house during December 21st... ... ... :... 120
ABSTRACT
Courtyards, as architectural forms, have been applied in traditional and contemporary
houses. Courtyards are often favorable outdoor living spaces given they are thermally
comfortable, they are also potentially positive microclimate modifiers, which in turn
enhances the indoor thermal condition. This study focuses on thermal efficiency as a
rational approach towards applying courtyards in contemporary houses of the hot dry
climate.
Based on comparing traditional with contemporary applications of the courtyard
form, a hypothetical contemporary courtyard house is designed and tested for various
thermal optimization strategies. The method proposes three scenarios of optimization:
1) Modification of the courtyard as an outdoor space,
2) Modification of the indoor thermal condition,
3) Introduction of the optimized courtyard as a starting point for optimizing the
indoor thermal efficiency of the house.
Computer thermal simulation of the outdoor open courtyard, and indoor closed spaces
is utilized as a comparative scale to evaluate the various proposed strategies.
Contributions of the study include combining two thermal models that are based on
different comparative scales, and proposing computer generated fish-eye lens images for
11
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW AND SCOPE OF WORK
This report summarizes a study of thermal efficiency in courtyard houses carried out
by the author at the University of Arizona’s School of Architecture. It outlines the
research problem, the research method, and the findings of the study. It also describes the
tools experienced, and which were to assess, and therefore, enhance the indoor and
outdoor thermal comfort of ‘a contemporary courtyard house’. As an introductory
background to the subject, the application of courtyards in houses through history was
addressed and is narrated in short. Naturally, more recent applications of the courtyard
house form were investigated in relatively more depth. Although this study is an
emphasis on one rational approach to courtyard houses design; namely, designing for
thermal comfort with energy efficiency, an essay is presented about courtyards in houses;
in terms o f aesthetics and rationale.
‘Courtyard house’ is a general term; courtyard houses can be traditional or modem,
urban or suburban, attached or detached, different climates also produce different
prototypical courtyard houses, and so forth. Furthermore, the term ‘courtyard’ is general
as well; courtyards can have different forms and can have relationships with the house,
and the function of the courtyard is specific to the different houses’ programs. It then
becomes necessary to be specific about the kind of courtyard house under investigation.
A single-unit urban dwelling that interacts with the outdoor climate through the
courtyard; which in turn, is a relatively roofless space directly related to and formed (in
13
1.2 THE PROBLEM AND THE METHOD
1.2.1 Background:
Traditional courtyard houses have successfully fulfilled the needs o f the communities
that dwelled on them. The wide spread use of the courtyard form is a solid proof that this
form, through an elaborate process of trial and error, has been able to compromise
various cultural, climatic and socio economical demands; into a sophisticated form that
became an architectural icon of the Middle East and other hot dry climatic regions.
Courtyard houses are therefore a product of a thorough process of refinement.
As an architectural form, the courtyard is still attractive and often appreciated in
contemporary architecture. Compact houses forms in general, and consequently the
courtyard form, are considered the most suitable climate responsive forms for hot dry
climates. This in essence is a climatic design approach towards sustainable architecture.
In another trend in contemporary architecture, the courtyard house is reproduced in
with the intention of establishing a regional identity. Probably following a feeling of a
possession of and a relation with the traditional form; a feeling of nostalgia and seeking
of refuge in the old form. This has become typical of Regionalism as an architectural
movement where meanings are attached to the physical form and eventually the form
becomes a cultural icon. In this case, the courtyard form is eventually reduced to an
During World War II in Europe, a new architectural concern emerged out of the
economics of the time; there was a growing need for housing a large number of people
utilizing the least possible land, infra structure, cost and within the shortest of time.
Courtyard houses seemed as a good solution in order to overcome the dense layouts and
the related issue of privacy (Macintosh, 1973).
This study is targeted at thermal performance optimization in courtyard houses as a
15
1.2.2 The Problem:
The old traditional courtyard was an integral space o f the house; simply as an outdoor
space for living. Courtyards were outdoor spaces that are intensively used even in the bad
weather conditions; simply because circulating the house was possible mainly through
the courtyard. Either across the courtyard or through a semi sheltered space around it,
accessing the house, going across from one room to the other, or going to a different level
of the house, mostly required walking through the courtyard. On the other hand, the
function of the courtyard in the contemporary house has changed. Contemporary
courtyard houses are often maintained thermally comfortable through mechanical heating
and cooling systems but courtyards are less integrated with interior spaces; most probably
because mechanical systems require airtight closed spaces and therefore circulating the
house has to be within the enclosed space. Mechanically achieving thermal comfort has
resulted in marginalizing the role of the courtyard as a living outdoor space. Regardless
of the motive for reviving the courtyard form, contemporary architecture demands are
different than of the older times. Interior spaces ought to be airtight and different
solutions for the problem of circulation resulted in a wide range of responses. At all
cases, courtyards are used differently and less time is spent in them. Available guidelines
for designing courtyards such as geometric and aspect ratios are oversimplified;
considering the sophistication of the courtyard as an architectural form, and the
1.2.3 Approach:
Basically, the more thermally comfortable the courtyard can be the more occupied it
will be. Therefore, the more integrated with indoor spaces it will get, and the more
positively it affects the indoor thermal condition because courtyards are potentially good
micro-climate generators and modifiers.
Thermal comfort is driven by various physical and psychological determinants, which
are complex in their relation and can be very specific to the case under investigation.
Previous research (regarding thermal comfort and courtyard forms) tended to study each
o f these determinants in isolation. The usual approach was to collect data from an actual
building and then conclude with limitations to the kind of data collected, or simulating
one or few thermal performance determinants using physical and computer modeling.
The limited scope of the studies of specific cases makes such studies hard to apply
elsewhere. A comprehensive approach will predict a more realistic thermal performance.
Fortunately, there are available computer software tools for simulating the indoor
conditions, as well as methods for simulating the outdoor conditions, which are of great
I.2.d Problem Statement:
Courtyards are traditional forms being applied in houses designed for a contemporary
living, resulting in a less integrated outdoor space, and less efficiency in the thermal
performance of the courtyard house. There is a need for a design approach that enhances
the role of the courtyard as both: A positive microclimate modifier, and an outdoor living
space
In a contemporary courtyard house, extending the time during which the courtyard is
thermally comfortable as an outdoor space results in:
- Better utilization of the courtyard as a living space.
- Better thermal conditions in the adjacent indoor spaces.
- Less Demand on interior closed spaces.
- Better chances for integrating the outdoor and indoor spaces.
Ultimately, each of these previous benefits leads to a rational (justified) use of the
courtyard form in residential houses
1.2.4 Hypothesis:
Courtyards in houses are sophisticated architectural forms considering the social,
economical and climatic needs they compromised or fulfilled in traditional and
contemporary architecture. The common belief that courtyards create positive
microclimates and that they are most properly adopted in a hot dry climate region is both
general and simplistic, and over looks this form’s complexity and the changes in the way
Being aware of this change, and the various needs that are specific to the courtyard
house being designed, is when we begin to approach the application of courtyards with
the sense of a rational and authentic process: optimizing the energy efficiency and the
thermal performance.
1.2.5 Objective:
To outline an approach towards a rational application of a traditional architectural
element - the courtyard — in contemporary houses, so as to enhance their role as
thermally comfortable outdoor living spaces and positive microclimate modifiers.
1.2.6 Proposed Methodology:
Due to the climate of interest, and the availability of thermal assessment tools, the
thermal performance of a hypothetical residential house in Tucson-Arizona will be
investigated. Validated findings should be applicable as guidelines in other regions of
similar climates.
Three phases are proposed for implementing this study:
Phase I: A Comparison Between the Traditional and the Contemporary
The traditional courtyard house will be compared with a generic (hypothetical)
contemporary courtyard house. Criteria for choosing both cases is based on their ability
to represent an extreme duality: Traditional courtyards are most utilized as living spaces
contemporary courtyards are least optimized as living spaces but contemporary
courtyard houses are well equipped for maximizing the interior thermal comfort.
This comparison will outline the change in the thermal and spatial qualities; as a
consequence o f the transition from ‘traditional’ to ‘contemporary’.
Phase II: Thermal Optimization
Conclusion from (Phase I) will be the basis for establishing the contemporary
courtyard house base case. Three scenarios are investigated:
Optimization of the thermal performance of the courtyard as an outdoor space in
terms of its effect on the level of thermal comfort during Summer and Winter design days
o f the 21st of June and December.
The base Case courtyard house will be studied under two types: an attached courtyard
house with three party walls, and as a detached house (free standing) with no party walls.
The two types will be tested for several indoor thermal performance optimization
strategies; in terms of their annual cooling and heating costs. Their thermal performance
will be compared with the performance of a typical ‘country house’1 of the same area,
volume, materials, window areas and orientation, and occupancy pattern.
Integrating the optimized courtyard with the base case house, and the optimized
house, and evaluating its contribution to the indoor thermal performance. (Figure 1.2:1)
Phase III: Conclusion
Valid findings will be interpreted into guidelines for designing courtyard houses in
hot dry climates, and then documented and presented.
19
T R A D IT IO N A L / ---\ C O N T E M P O R A R Y EST A B L ISH B A S E C A S E C O U R T Y A R D C O U R T Y A R D H O U SE w C O U R T Y A R D H O U SE ...► PABASE I PHASE 11
□
...□
s O •8 c • H <D iH td u co &s
•H O •H H & M <D ti WEnhancem ent due to optim izing the
outdoor thermal condiion o f the 2 courtyard
S i
1.1
Interpret Results of Phase I & II
and Establish Valid Guidelines
PHASE III
21
2 COURTYARDS IN HOUSES
Courtyard houses are continuously referred to as one of the most attractive features of
domestic architecture primarily in North Africa and the Middle East. The courtyard has
become a cultural icon in other parts of the world where they are built. On one side, as a
physical form, the courtyard is very static, pure and simple, yet it is also as sophisticated
as a form can be; once we become aware of the driving forces that generated it, and the
local environment it generates back. Simply stating it, this form is the dutcome of a very
old dynamic interrelation between culture, climate and architecture.
2.1 ON THE COURTYARD FORM AESTHETICS
Courtyard houses are one proof that architecture, in one way, is a representation of
the society that dwelled on it. Courtyard houses are inward looking in societies where
privacy is a major concern. Privacy might have been a demand of tradition or belief, this
demand might as well have been a result of the fact that the harsh hot dry environment
taught people by trial and error that the more crowded buildings can be, the more
protected they will be, this closeness was over come by opening the house from the inside
and living back to back with the neighboring houses. Nature seemed to be less harsh
when faced by the collective.
Once buildings respond to the environment, a sense of protection is created; an
intimate kind of relationship is developed between the building and its inhabitants. And
once the buildings are clustered together, other intimate relationships are established
the collective, and still, eveiybody has their own space as individuals; this is only
possible through building around courtyards.
Unlike pavilions, where a building overlooks nature and the surroundings are visually
accessed (and mostly controlled), courtyards are looking to the most important interior
space (Macintosh, 1973). This suggests that Detached houses (especially country houses)
or pavilions tend to regard nature as a an object of change, an object to access and
modify, while courtyard houses tend to “capture nature in a much smaller scale”,
preserve it and embrace one’s own share o f trees, sky, rain and fresh air.
The courtyard is the hub of the house; a central domain that separates adjacent spaces
yet this central space is what ties them together. Everybody in the house would enjoy
their own space without a sense of isolation.
Naturally, courtyards are utilized in different ways in the different regions they were
built within; for the Middle Eastern, the courtyard is a sacred place of living, a place for
everyday domestic rituals. In northern Spain, courtyards housed business meetings and
crafts that sustained the family’s living. In Muslim Southern Spain, courtyards reminded
o f the promised paradise; the shade, the creeping vines and flowers, along with the sound
of water had a psychological cooling effect, a true earthly paradise for the ones who live
the long arid season. In the Americas, immigrants were keen to carry courtyards with
them to the new world. Everywhere built, courtyards facilitated the outdoor living,
collected the rain water and were a place to sleep under the clear sky and stars; a
manifestation of one of the most ancient arts of living: The art of life and place-making.
Wright insisted that both climate and the local environment are the first stop towards
a regional architecture, an architecture that attains its uniqueness by responding to a
socio-economical context as well, the courtyard house (in the traditional neighborhood)
grew up with the family, and spaces were added all the way around the courtyard, and
then, start to grow upwards creating a second level. Once the lot became too tight and
there was no more space to add, it was time to plant another courtyard house elsewhere
close, this organic harmonization with nature is what Heideger might as well has referred
to as dwelling, the act of building becomes a form of dwelling once we accept our limits,
sustain the environment and embrace nature.
23
Figure 2.1:l:Tadao Ando’s Row House,
The Azuma Residence; sectional perspective design study showing the courtyard, the part o f the house that connects with nature; source: Kennith Frampton, 1984.
2.2 THE RATIONALE
Clustered conditions of urbanism in early cities, along with their limited land area and
a need for protection and privacy, made a logical form out of the courtyard. The
courtyard house is a cellular urban type of dwelling: it is introspective therefore it can be
then no surprise that Courtyard houses are often presented as an alternative to the
questionable form of urban development, since they allow for a relatively high-density
building. The courtyard also provided natural light, privacy, protection against winds, and
a place for the cooling shade in the summer. When surroundings of the building were too
close, therefore, must have limited the overall orientation of the building, this second
envelope tended to provide more chances for receiving or blocking the sun. This was all
achieved by adding another‘inner’ skin to the building.
Architectural design, in a way, is a response to a set of limitations. These limitations
might be economical, environmental, functional, etc. Innovative design ideas are bom
once these limitations are regarded as challenges, not as causes (or limitations) that would
affect designs. Environmental control with energy efficiency is the major concern of this
study; therefore, it is important to consider design criteria, which have an impact on the
thermal performance. In fact, almost any consideration during the design process will
alter the building’s thermal performance on different levels:
• Climate and microclimate
• The building layout
• Building materials
• The building form
• Amount of solar radiation that reaches interior spaces
• The amount of fresh and recycled air and the way it is introduced to the
building
• The way different functions are arranged in plan and section
• Activities held in the building
25 • Daily and seasonal patterns of occupancy
• Maintenance schedules
• Budgets and costs
.. .and the list goes on for there are other aspects specific to every project
It is then the designer’s task to identify the key issues and set priorities of responses
during the early design stages and all the way through the final product. It is important to
study traditional buildings as well as more recent examples because a thermally
2.3 COURTYARDS THROUGH TIME
2.3.1 A Historical form
The history of housing is rich with examples of courtyard houses. Found mainly in
North Africa, the Middle East, and periphery regions; courtyard houses have become the
predominant form in hot-dry, moderate and/or warm-humid climates. Archeological
exploration of Mesopotamia (30th century B.C.) showed an evidence o f the earliest
known example of a courtyard house (Bednar, 1986).
The ancient Egyptians built courtyard houses in a pyramid city near Queen
Khentkawes’s tomb in Giza dating from 26th century B.C. (Badawy, 1966). The Greeks
in the city of Priene in Asia Minor dating from the 4th century B.C., and the Romans in
the city of Pompeii dating from the 4th century B.C (Fletcher, 1975). The Chinese
courtyard house dates back to the Han dynasty (Blaser, 1980).
Muslims built the famous garden Courtyards as a space that reminded o f Paradise all
over the Muslim Empire. Many of the houses in Medieval North Spain had a central
courtyard, from which the courtyard form traveled across the Atlantic to the earliest city
in the ‘New World’ (Santo Domingo, founded in 1502) along with the migrating
Northern Spanish military families (Castillo, 1997). Andalusians were also part of
expeditions to the new world, which in turn, also helped in establishing a new type of
houses that featured a central patio; which survived and was then introduced to North
America by the Spanish (about 1895), and then became an architectural icon of the
27
2.3.2 Contemporary Courtyard Houses
The courtyard house o f this century is quite different than that o f the ancient
vernacular. They were developed within a different context of climate, time or need; built
for a smaller family and for a much more comfortable way of living than before.
Macintosh defines three lines of their development, namely, the American patio house,
the atrium house in Northern Europe, and the mass housing with courtyards:
2.3.2.1 Patio House
First, the patio house in the southwest region of the United States; which '’‘’began
as an imitation to the Spanish patio house during the Spanish Colonial Revival in
southern California, but pioneering architects such as Charles and Henry Greene, Irving
Gill and Rudolf Schindler soon used the courtyard form in an original way” (Macintosh,
1973).
The patio house was first introduced to North America by the Spanish who revived
the Spanish Colonial style of architecture (around 1900). In the southwest United States,
the Spanish (and then the Mexicans) built houses of brick and adobe; the larger ones were
of the traditional patio form while the smaller ones were grouped around a square or a
placita. Elsewhere in the country, the Craftsman and Prarie movements looked back at
the few remaining Spanish Colonial buildings as genuinely belonging to the United
States, therefore can hint at a true Indigenous American Architecture. An example of the
Spanish Colonial Revival architecture would be the Robert House in the Santa Fe style
Figure 2.3:2: Robert House
Architects migrating from the East began to design in the Adobe, Mission, or Spanish
style as it was variously called. This style, more than any other, related much more to
California since it originated in the similar climate of the Mediterranean. “The thick
adobe walls and small windows keep the interior cool, he extended layout allows cross
ventilation, and shady verandahs and patios facilitate living” (Oskar Lewis, 1957).
The first example of a terraced patio house that was not meant to be built individually
and free standing is the multi-patio house of Donald Olsen (Figure 2.3:3).
29
Dining room
Maviei bednxim
Children's
bedroom
Figure 2.3:3: Contraspatlal House
Figure 2.3:4: Bungallow Court
In Southern California, 1921. Source: Macintosh, 1973.
It was not until after the Depression when the patio house was found outside the
Southwest. California’s unusual climate and historical heritage made patio houses
somewhat exotic and thought of as hard to fit out of that region. However, a variation of
the patio house would be found in bungalow courts; which were clusters of rented houses
grouped in a cul-de-sac or a court, like William Purcell’s Bungalow Court in Southern
California (Figure 2.3:4).
Pre-war immigrants from Europe to the States brought the atrium house idea, which
was the basis of the functional binuclear patio house; the binuclear patio house came
about by dividing the house into two parts with a patio in between, then several architects
took the idea further by splitting the house into more than two parts, and sometimes
covering the open space in between. The idea of the binuclear patio house was then
applied to the linear terraced house and the result was nice long views through the plan
and chances for various day lighting effects, but also a long extended plan with extended
circulation as well (Figures 2.3:5 & 2.3:6). From Europe also came the Miesian style of
little Influence on the American patio house, which remained to be something less likely
to be found outside California in particular, and the Southwest in general.
31
i l
: Lull
Figure 2.3:5: A binuclear patio house
Dining
:vtXrt
Ma.xtcr bCxiroom
Bedroom
Figure 2.3:6: A binuclear patio house plan
(Variation 5) by Serge Chermayef and Harvard students, 1957. Source: Macintosh, 1973.
2.3.2.2 Atrium House
Second, the modem atrium house in northern Europe; This type approximately
recalled Roman atrium house. The historical courtyard house typically related to the hot
climate where exposure to the sun was avoided, courtyards were kept small and over
shaded by high walls and foliage, walls were shared with the neighbors, plants reduced
glare and fountains evaporatively cooled the open space. On the contrary, in the colder
climate of northern Europe, courtyards allowed sunlight, there was less concern for
losses were not assets, rather problems that needed to be solved. An example of the
European atrium house would be Voysey’s bungalow at Frinton-on-Sea (Figure 2.3:7).
As the cold climate dictated that circulation within the open courtyard was
impossible, houses easily became a maze of corridors, therefore, rooms were less
connected to the courtyard. Some designers roofed the courtyard to over come this
problem by providing a circulation path along the atrium which in became the living
space as in George Muche’s House am Horn in Weimar (Figures 2.3:8 & 2.3:9); the
atrium was lit through clerestory windows.
. 33
W ife’' h o t u v r r
Figure 2.3:8: House am Horn in Weimar By George Muche, 1923. Source: Macintosh, 1973.
X 8
Figure 2.3:9: House am Horn in Weimar
by George Muche, 1923. Source: Macintosh, 1973.
Another solution for the circulation problem was surrounding the atrium with a
glassed corridor (Figure 2.3:10). Other solutions to follow suggested covering the atrium
with glass, which would be opened during pleasant weather. Alvar Alto, designing his
Summer House, maintained the integrity of the atrium’s form without distorting the
35
Figure 2.3:10: Gebhard’s Atrium House, 1931. Source: Macintosh, 1973.
Figure 2.3:11: Alvar A lto’s own Summer House At Muratsalo, 1952. Source: Macintosh, 1973.
Another relatively successful example for an atrium house (given enough floor area)
was Eva and Nils Koppel’s house at Lake Lyngby in Denmark (Figure 2.3:12).
Several architects of the Arts and Crafts movement designed houses with courtyards
evident in the works of many other architects, of which, a few have tried to share the
atrium with more than one house, resulting in less struggle with stretching one relatively
small house all around the atrium. But, such an arrangement also resulted in poor visual
and acoustic privacy and therefore less utilization of the atrium space, and at least one
house with poor orientation; when orienting the living space away from the south.
Figure 2.3:12: Eva and Nils Koppel’s Atrium House in Sweden, 1960. Source: Macintosh, 1973.
2.3.2.3 Mass Housing
Third, the mass courtyard housings in Europe were built with no reference to the
older Mediterranean house types. Unlike patio or atrium houses which were intended to
recreate a historical style and were costumed for the rich. Mass housing was completely
modem and targeted a dense low-income population. It was developed out of the Garden
City movement and was meant to make the most out of the north climate. Privacy was an
issue as well as mass production. World War I dictated that architects turn to focus on
close to nature for the working class by improving the existing types of housings and
scaling down the middle class houses, but then the basis of planning and housing has
completely changed through a “strengthened feeling of social responsibility” (Ludwig
Herberseimer, 1929). Low rise mass housing received a considerable attention from the
beginning but the trend was still in favor of the high-rise slab block of apartments.
After World War II, the low rise housing like Le Courbusier’s and Gropius’s was
terraced and of one or two levels. Working out of this norm, Hugo Haring developed a
house that has windows from only one side; his ‘Windowless House’, In which only the
living room had a view and light and ventilation were provided from above in a single
storey house, the three other walls worked as party walls, but, his compact arrangement
resulted in little privacy. Haring regarded that was a defect and proposed his L-house to
provide for more privacy by simply detaching the terraces and placing the houses
perpendicular to the road; each house faced the windowless back of the next house. This
was basis for the L-shaped modern courtyard house (Figures 2.3:13 & 2.3:14).
37
|.
Figure 2.3:14: Hugo Haring’s L-House 1928. Source: Macintosh, 1973.
Single story courtyard houses became more and more familiar due to the search for an
economic type of housing during the Depression. Small mass-produced houses became
much more simpler and clearer in plan comparing with Haring’s, Peter Friedrich
proposed a very simple form for a small flexible houses (Figure 2.3:15). Architectural
competitions addressed the ‘growing house’; some advocated providing a ‘minimum’
shelter with basic services for the un-employed given that they grow subsistence crops,
and the house might be expanded around a courtyard in the future (Figures 2.3:16, 2.3:17
Figure 2.3:15: Friedrich's small mass produced houses Source: Macintosh, 1973.
Figure 2.3:17: Hilberseimer’s L-House expanded p la n , 1931. Source: Macintosh, 1973.
Figure 2.3:18: Hilberseimer's L-House Source: Macintosh, 1973.
Diotavelli, Marescotti and Pagano, proposed five different house sizes that had the
same core of kitchen, bathroom and entrance lobby (Figure 2.3:19).
Mies van der Rohe’s work on courtyard became so well publicized although he was
not the one who first developed concepts for a modem courtyard house, however, his
contributions included opening the house to the courtyard creating a more floating space,
more completely than other designers; “the Row House was Mies’s first true courtyard house” (Figure 2.3:20). 41 II___ —i — i— ™ —i—-... J
Figure 2.3:19: Housing for a horizontal city 1940. Source: Macintosh, 1973.
As the courtyard house concepts were exchanged all over Europe and the States,
some designs to follow were inferior to the earlier ones, in Britain for example, it was
common to find courtyard houses given a north orientation. But many interesting forms
developed as well by placing courtyards in multi-level complexes, and innovative layouts
for housings that make the most out of the plot area and interesting connections between
houses, streets and parking (Figure 2.3:21 & 2.3:22).
1
4
!—
A
T y p - n i vr< B
Figure 2.3:21: Hannes Mayer at Dessaau Torten
43
u—
"111
J t r ..
%
—
D
3 TRADITIONAL VS. CONTEMPORARY COURTYARDS 3.1 PHASE I: INTRODUCTION
The role of courtyards in houses has changed over time; mainly because the various
needs courtyards fulfilled have changed as well. The courtyard as an architectural form is
still attractive, being used and will still be used. The mere fact that the courtyard is a
traditional form that belongs to a certain region in many cases has been a reason for
applying this form again in contemporary architecture. In result, contemporary courtyards
are less integrated with the indoor spaces. It is important to consider these changes in
order to be able to design with more relevance when utilizing courtyards in houses.
O f the many ways in which these changes took place, this study will address changes
that either had a significant impact on the role of courtyards as microclimate generators
and modifiers, or an impact on the role of courtyards as outdoor living spaces.
What is being compared?
The traditional courtyard house, represented by several traditional cases of courtyard
houses, is compared with a contemporary courtyard house, which in turn, is represented
by a hypothetical contemporary courtyard house2. The contemporary courtyard house
will be the base case to be modified and thermally tested based on the conclusions of this
comparison. However, other contemporary cases will be considered when discussing a
certain aspect in order to avoid limitations of a single case.
45 In what ways?
Due to the wide range o f categories under which courtyard houses might be sorted, it
becomes important to look for ways of comparison that are most representative of a
‘typical’ case. For example, the number of floor levels and size of a house varies with the
economical status, but other variables such as the urban setting and approach to the house
are also common among most cases.
The comparison will consider the following aspects of courtyard houses:
• Physical features:
o The building’s setting (urban scale)
o Approach, and the way a building represents itself from the exterior
(street scale)
• Functional determinants (within the building):
o Entrance in relation to the courtyard (building scale)
o Interior circulation and accessibility to courtyard
• Function of the courtyard
o Social Activities.
o Courtyards as a ‘parcel of nature’ •
3.2 PHYSICAL FEATURES
3.2.1 The building’s Setting:
Traditional settlements are usually low rise and high density in physical character
(Figure 3.2:1). Party walls are a dominant feature in traditional settlements. A traditional
courtyard house shares walls with neighboring buildings. In modem layouts, it would be
hard to achieve such compactness and provide for vehicular access at the same time.
Narrow alleyways in the Middle East for instance, can be only as wide as two side-by-
side packed donkeys to provide for a two-way traftic with minimum alleyway width.
Such a lay out brought the doorstep of houses right to the edge of the public domain.
Courtyards were the only private out door spaces available. In the author’s opinion, such
47 N
t
Figure 3.2:1: A traditional neighborhood in Tunis
A low rise high density layout; was not considering vehicular access, services efficiency was also not a consideration apparently. Source: Fat hi, 1986.
In contemporary courtyard houses, high-density layouts are not the main reason for
building with courtyards except in the case of courtyard housings during World War I in
Europe. That is when building with courtyard houses developed out of proposals for row
housing alternatives. Layouts of houses followed a strict order of geometry. Bringing the
vehicle efficiently close to the residence meant an organized pattern of roads and parking
lots (Figure 3.2:2 & 3.2:3). Naturally, vehicular roads are more open and wider than the
with the traditional layouts. By the regulation of setbacks and providing for everyday and
emergency services, a traditional layout would be extremely inefficient.
Patio houses of the Southwest States in America and the earlier houses that were built
by the Spanish when they sailed to the new world, as well as the Atrium Houses of
Northern Europe, were built free standing. The houses looked outward as well as inward.
Naturally, for a house to look outward as well as inward results in less importance of the
courtyard as a main space that provides connection with the outdoors.
49
Figure 3.2:3: A contemporary courtyard Housing project, Agadir, Morocco
3.2.2 Building’s Approach:
Traditional courtyard houses are totally looking inward; different houses would share
a common alleyway-facing wall, with doors leading to different houses punched through
it. In many cases, the alley way was covered by roofs extruding above pedestrian level, or
by the upper level spaces extended to connect with a room across the alleyway. This
makes the exterior Ih^ade hard to perceive as belonging to a single dwelling.
Figure 3.2:4: A traditional pedestrian-oriented street in the Atlantic coastal city o f Essaouira, Morocco
Different houses share one common exterior facade. Approaching a dwelling indicates little about its size or the wealth o f the family. Source: James Miller (published on the world wide web.)
Just looking at the entry doors is not enough to get a feeling about the wealth of the
family inside, or how big the house is (Figure 3.2:4). This quality is mainly associated
with traditional settlements. Strong cultural values of the time discouraged being open;
privacy are reasons that made houses less expressive from the outside. In result, 51
courtyards become veiy special and well-maintained spaces.
Especially if built detached, contemporary houses are more expressive about the
house and family. Even when built attached, the geometry and composition of units
makes them more readable to an outsider. This is not to indicate that privacy has become
less of a concern, however, individuality and self-expression have become a sure sign of
our time. Contemporary architects, like Hassan Fathi, have marginalized the role of the
courtyard as a main outdoor living space by putting too much emphasis on the building’s
‘exterior’ expression. Although Hassan Fathi is amongst the first who called for a rational
understanding of traditional elements, it is to the author’s belief that he has taken away
from the intimacy of the courtyard space by applying it in detached buildings that over
emphasizes with traditional architectural vocabulary from the outside (Figure 3.2:5).
Figure 3.2:5: Hassan fathi, A modern Courtyard Villa in Saudia Arabia
The detached building along with the elaborate architectural treatment o f the exterior facades o f this house makes the building look outwards as well as inwards, looking inward is a quality typical o f traditional courtyard houses: Agha Khan Digital library, 2001.
M
- n3.3 FUNCTIONAL DETERMINANTS
3.3.1 Entrance in relation with the courtyard:
In genera^ traditional courtyard houses are entered right off the public street, right
into the courtyard which then leads to the different rooms and levels according to the
specific house and how the spaces are arranged (Figure 3.3:2). Of importance here is the
function of the courtyard as a buffer zone between the public domain and the private
spaces. There is an immediate connection between the public street and the courtyard
through a path that veils the courtyard to someone in the street.
Babylon Baghdad
zE22z^c223 M onhenjo- Daro
Figure 3.3:1: Similarity o f entering the courtyard houses across history. Source: Craig Hinrichs, 1989.
Craig Hinrichs points out the similarity of entering the courtyard houses across
visual accessibility to the courtyard. He likens it with the Chinese ‘Spirit Wall’. However,
Entrance to Roman Courtyard Houses was axial and goes through the center of the outer
courtyard or the ‘Domus’.
I
54
Figure 3.3:2: A plan o f the traditional Al-Fustaat House, Cairo
A strong relationship between the Entrance from the street and the courtyard. Source: Fathi, 1986.
In contemporary courtyard house design this connection between the public street and
the courtyard is not as strong. The entrance connects the public street with an interior
55 Bedroom Q Bedroom Mech Laum Bedroom
COURTYARD
1Figure 3.3:3: Contemporary Courtyard, the 'Base Case’
3.3.2 Interior Circulation and Accessibility to Courtyard
In general, the traditional pattern o f circulation limits traffic to within the courtyard,
going from one interior space to the other exposes one to the outdoor condition; either
directly or indirectly depending on available covered spaces that open to the courtyard
such as an arcade for example (Figure 3.3:5). The following diagram (Figure 3.3:4)
shows the typical circulation patterns in traditional vs. contemporary courtyard houses:
Traditional In d o o r
L iv in g S o a c e s
Contemporary
STREET STREET
7/ yy/)//////?7/A V&21
m o tb ech
Figure 3.3:5: plan o f a traditional Moorish Dar, Mideval Spain
circulation is through and around the courtyard. Craig Hinrichs, 1989.
Contemporary courtyard houses were challenged by the problem o f circulation. It is
noted that the introduction of mechanical systems has resulted in airtight indoor spaces.
Circulation from one room to another had to be provided within the interior space. This
has led to different levels of compromising the convenience of circulation, on the one
hand, and maintaining a visual and physical connection with the courtyard on the other
By Charles Voysey, 1908, circulation in the house and mostly around the courtyard. Macintosh, 1973.
All A.. I
t.ivir .; fv.vr.l
Figure 3.3:7: House AM Horn in Weimar by George Muche,
ypz?
59
Figure 3.3:8: Mies van Der Rohe’s Row House, 1931 Circulation through the open floating plan. Macintosh, 1973.
3.3.3 Function of the Courtyard
Courtyards provide an outdoor space that is extremely private, a space that is isolated
visually, and to a certain extent protected from the street noises. In the crowded
conditions of traditional houses the courtyard was the main source of daylight. The
specific social activities that were held in the courtyard vary with the different everyday
rituals of different regions. For example, courtyards in houses of Northern Spain were
places in which the family’s living was sustained; by producing crafts and conducting
business meetings. In the Middle East, Extended Families centered their daily lives on the
courtyard. In the Far East, “Chinese architecture was always based on the two
fundamental principals yin and yang”3, in other words, it was always in search for a
symbolism of dualities in objects, the duality of being in the outdoor yet still in the house
is a characteristic of courtyards.
The ways in which different regions applied the courtyard to their daily life is a
research topic by itself, and a topic that is beyond the scope of this study. O f importance
here, is that in hot dry climates, courtyards become the first available comfortable spaces
due to their exposure to the night sky. This explams the importance of courtyards as
family meeting spaces. It is assumed that the change in the family structure, daily life
pattern of the modem family, and the availability of a thermally comfortable indoor that
is mechanically controlled, are all reasons that led to less time spent in the courtyard, as
compared with traditional conditions.
Courtyards as a ‘parcel of nature’
Courtyards bring nature inside the house; therefore, they provide a chance to interact
with the outdoor without having to leave the house. When comparing traditional and
contemporary houses, the level and way of interaction has changed for the same
previously mentioned reasons. In result, physical interaction with the outdoor conditions
occurs more in traditional houses, while contemporary houses maintain visual
connectivity with the courtyard. To a large extent, in contemporary houses it is a matter
of choice (available alternatives) and intention (willingness to be in contact with outdoor
condition on a regular basis).
Connecting with the outdoors is an essential architectural design consideration. Some
architects designed for maximum connection with nature; Tadao Ando regards courtyards
as very important spaces because they are both: Pieces of nature and also ‘connecting
spaces’. He regards ‘connectivity with nature’ as being the most important ritualistic part
and exposure to nature. He insists that “you cannot feel nature unless you go outside and
expose yourself to it”, he further explains that the more we feel the air, sky and rain, the
stronger our awareness becomes that we have been given life (Figure 3.3:9).
61
Figure 3.3:9: Tadao A ndo’s Row House, the Azuma Residence. Source: Kennith Frampton, 1984.
Luis Barragan also was very innovative in his quest for spaces that are very intimate
and serene. He designed spaces in houses that are beyond being ‘convenient’; he called
for an emotional architecture’ as opposing to an ‘architecture of convenience’4. To him,
similar to Ando’s vision, architecture should commit to its spiritual mission; he regarded
the house as a true refuge, and designed spaces that resemble courtyards in many ways;
the private enclosure within walls, provision of natural elements such as water, and
attaching those ‘peaceful’ spaces for a specific room within the house (visually accessed).
It is negotiable to regard these spaces as courtyards in the traditional sense since they are
peripheral spaces that project outwards as apposing to being central open spaces.
However, in contemporary architecture, it is so often that courtyards are being used as
places for nature and meditation.
63
Figure 3.3:10: Luis Barragan, Casa Antonio Galvez, Mexico City 1955.
A private ‘courtyard-like’ outdoor space attached to the living room. Source: Costrada, 1988.
Barragan believed that walls are the building elements that provide shelter, this seems
to hold true even when built free standing in the outdoors, in the same manner in which a
courtyard suggests a sense of privacy and protection by an enclosure within walls. He
thought that it is such “an error to replace the shelter of walls with enormous glass
windows”. This hints at his approach to framing exterior views, by pushing the wall
outside and then connecting the resulting space with glazing; which creates an intimate
3.4 THE THERMAL CONDITION
Thermal comfort is subjective to the individual, but mainly determined by the body’s
heat transfer with the immediate surrounding. It is important to point out that Courtyard
houses consist essentially o f two thermal conditions: The thermal condition in the interior
spaces (indoor condition), and the thermal condition in the courtyard (outdoor condition).
These two conditions determine different levels of thermal comfort since different
thermal determinants are associated with each condition.
3.4.1 Level of Thermal Control
From a thermal view, mechanical thermal control is the most apparent difference
between a traditional and a contemporary house. Mechanical systems provide the
ultimate indoor thermal control.
Because traditional houses are not configured for installing mechanical systems (air
tightness and a single zone are the basic requirements for a mechanical system), passive
means for cooling are regarded as the main enhancers of thermal comfort.
The availability of mechanical systems in contemporary houses makes indoor spaces
available all time, unlike traditional houses where less choice is available. During the
summer daytime in a typical traditional house, certain rooms depending on their
the provision of high thermal mass materials, right orientation and other means of passive
cooling. The different spaces are programmed for certain functions at certain time, while
in contemporary houses, different spaces are programmed for fixed functions regardless
of the time of the day, season or year. Extremely stating it, the level o f thermal control
dictates a certain living pattern; the more control over the thermal condition the less
physically we interact with the outdoors, this might explain the change in the role of
courtyards from micro-climate modifiers to an outdoor space that contains a piece of
nature, mostly visually accessed and framed by a closed window.
3.4.2 Indoor vs. Outdoor Thermal Comfort
Normally, the experience o f being in an indoor space is related to a relatively
maintained thermal condition, as opposing to an outdoor space, where for example, the
unpredictable wind instantly alters the thermal sensation. To an extent, a changeable
thermal condition is a desired part of the ‘outdoor experience’. Therefore, being in the
courtyard indicates an expectation of and a psychological readiness for an outdoor
condition. This leads to the belief that the availability of the courtyard as a comfortable
outdoor space is not only a function of the various bio-climatic issues, but also of
willingness to be in the outdoor, which again, is related to the life style and the available
choices.
In general, courtyards are the most exposed to the night sky; this is one main reason
that in hot arid regions, courtyards are the first available cool spaces after a long hot
summer day, they continue to cool down until sunshine of the next day hits again.
Nighttime in such regions is welcomed, in the Middle East for example, nighttime has
inspired the cultural landscape with expressions, songs, stories and even a calendar that is
67
3.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
3.5.1 Function
Comparing the traditional vs. contemporary lead to the belief that the function of
courtyards as outdoor living spaces and microclimate modifiers has changed, due to the
change in the way of living. Houses are now designed for a different kind of family,
within a different setting, approached differently, accessed differently and programmed
differently as well. In order to appreciate the success of courtyards as traditional
architectural elements, one has to keep in mind that courtyards were an integral part of a
whole system of living. Interestingly enough, some spaces in traditional architecture have
names that hint at their thermal role or condition more than at a specific activity held in
that space; as in the Arabic word ‘takhtaboush’ which refers to a covered but open space
between two courtyards for example, or ‘iwan’ which refers to a recessed space that faces
the center of the courtyard or a main hall mostly. Modem means of environmental
control have resulted in less interaction with the outdoors; this had a dual effect on
courtyards in particular since courtyards were both: microclimate enhancers (source of
daylight, fresh air and shade) and outdoor accessed spaces (as ‘front yards’, interior
circulation and living spaces when the time was right). It is essential to have a clear
intention about the function of a proposed courtyard, because. Unless carefully situated
and configured, courtyards might work in favor or against energy efficiency in the house.
3.5.2 Attached vs. detached houses:
If houses were built detached (free standing), applying a courtyard will increase the