EOH3101
EOH3101
EOH3101
EOH3101
Prinsip Kesihatan Persekitaran
p
Principles of Environmental Health
S t II 2013/2014 Semester II 2013/2014
Coordinator / Lecturer
Coordinator / Lecturer
Dr Shaharuddin Mohd Sham
Dr. Shaharuddin Mohd Sham
Department of Environmental and Occupational Health
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Room no. : P1C11, blok Pensyarah
Email:
shaha@upm.edu.my
Maksud
Maksud Kesihatan
Kesihatan Persekitaran
Persekitaran ::
Satu
Satu aspek
aspek kesihatan
kesihatan awam
awam yang
yang berkaitan
berkaitan
dd
b t k
b t k b t k
b t k k hid
k hid
b h
b h
dengan
dengan bentuk
bentuk--bentuk
bentuk kehidupan
kehidupan, , bahan
bahan--bahan
bahan, , kuasa
kuasa dan
dan keadaan
keadaan di
di dalam
dalam
persekitaran
persekitaran manusia
manusia yang
yang boleh
boleh
mempengaruhi
mempengaruhi kesihatan
p g
p g
kesihatan dan
dan kesejahteraan
kesejahteraan
jj
manusia
Definition of Environmental Health
Aspect of public health that is concerned with
Aspect of public health that is concerned with
those forms of life, substances and forces and
conditions in the surroundings of man that may
conditions in the surroundings of man that may
exert an influence on man’s health and
well-b i (P d
1971)
Definasi Pertubuhan Kesihatan Sedunia
(WHO) berkenaan Kesihatan
(WHO) berkenaan Kesihatan
Persekitaran
W ld H lth O
i ti ’ (WHO)
World Health Organisation’s (WHO)
definition of environmental health
Environmental health is the control of all
Environmental health is the control of all
those factors in man’s physical environment
hi h i
i
which exercise, or may exercise, a
deleterious effect on his physical
Antara
Antara aspek
aspek--aspek
aspek di
di bawah
bawah bidang
bidang
kesihatan
kesihatan persekitaran
persekitaran
1.
1. Vektor
Vektor penyakit
penyakit
11.
11. Penyakit
Penyakit kronik
kronik
2.
2. Makanan
Makanan
dan
dan berjangkit
berjangkit
3.
3. Air
Air dan
dan air
air buangan
buangan
12.
12. Pengelakan
Pengelakan
44 Ud
Ud
k
k
l
l
4.
4. Udara
Udara
kemalangan
kemalangan
5.
5. Bahan
Bahan buangan
buangan pepejal
pepejal
66 Radiasi
Radiasi ion
ion
6.
6. Radiasi
Radiasi ion
ion
7.
7. Kawalan
Kawalan persekitaran
persekitaran
88 Persekitaran
Persekitaran perumahan
perumahan
8.
8. Persekitaran
Persekitaran perumahan
perumahan
9.
9. Pelan
Pelan dan
dan pengurusan
pengurusan
persekitaran
persekitaran
pp
10.
A
EMERGING AND RE EMERGING DISEASES
EMERGING AND RE-EMERGING DISEASES
Emerging – diseases that have not occurred in humans before
or that occurred only in small numbers in isolated areas.
Re-emerging – diseases that once were major health problems Re emerging diseases that once were major health problems
globally or in a particular area, and then declined dramatically, but are again becoming health problems for a significant
EMERGING DISEASES
MERS – Middle East Respiratory Syndrome
In the same family of coronaviruses as SARS, which killed at least 775 people after it emerged in China in late 2002. MERS which first appeared in Saudi Arabia in September MERS, which first appeared in Saudi Arabia in September, has been kicking around the Middle East for nearly a year, infecting at least 79 people. It causes fever, cough and
h t f b th d f it h b kill b t
shortness of breath, and so far it has been a killer — about half the confirmed cases so far have resulted in death. On July 9 the World Health Organization (WHO)y g ( ) convened an emergency meeting to determine whether the new
coronavirus that causes MERS constitutes a public-health emergency of international concern
The good news is that a recent report
published in
the Lancet
indicates that the virus has a relatively low
the Lancet
indicates that the virus has a relatively low
level of infectiousness — less so than the measles and
strong cases of the flu — which may limit its potential to
ignite a global pandemic. A similar lack of infectiousness
also kept SARS from becoming a lasting global menace,
though the disease did cause nearly $50 billion in
though the disease did cause nearly $50 billion in
damages. But there’s no guarantee that MERS won’t
mutate or worsen over time And even if it doesn’t there
mutate or worsen over time. And even if it doesn t, there
will always be new infectious diseases waiting to
RE-EMERGING DISEASES
Tuberculosis (TB)
TUBERCULOSIS CASE DETECTION RATE (ALL FORMS) IN MALAYSIA
Other types of re-emerging diseases
Other types of re emerging diseases
1 M l i
1. Malaria
2. Schistosomiasis
What can you do to save the human race from
problems that you just saw?
problems that you just saw?
What will happen if the problems are not
What will happen if the problems are not
Rujukan / References:
1. Purdom, P.W., 1971. Environmental Health. Academic Press, Inc., New York, USA. 584 pp.
2. Odum, E.P., 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology. W.B. Saunders Company, USA. 574 pp.p y, pp
3. Noor Hassim, I., 1996. Kesihatan Persekitaran. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Kuala Lumpur 162 pp
Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. 162 pp.
4. Zailina, H. dan Jamal H. Hashim, 1997. Kesihatan Persekitaran :
Prinsip dan Cabaran di Malaysia. Fakulti Perubatan dan Sains
Kesihatan, Universiti Putra Malaysia. 156 pp.
Geographical distribution of people in rural
areas, towns and cities significantly influences
the social, environmental and economic aspects
of population growth.
Example: In 1600s, the majority of the North
American population consisted of farmers in
rural areas. Today, approximately 25% of
Urbanization
– process of which
people increasingly move from rural
areas to densely populated cities
What qualifies as an urban area?
Denmark – 250 people
Greece – 10,000 people
Urban
Important distinction between
rural and urban areas
Rural areas – have occupations that
involve harvesting natural
resources such as fishing, logging
and farming
Urban areas – most have jobs that
Urban areas are more heterogeneous with
respect to race, ethnicity, religion and
socioeconomic status compared to populations
in rural areas
People in urban areas tend to be younger than
in the surrounding countryside. This is caused
by influx of many young adults from rural
Urban and rural areas often have different
proportions of males and females
Cities in developing countries tend to have more
males
Example: In African cities, males migrate to the cities in search of employment, while females remain in the country and tend the farms and their children
Cities in highly developed countries often have a
higher ratio of females to males
The ecosystem approach is used to better
understand how cities function and how they
change overtime.
4 variables in urban trends and patterns –
POET
Population
Refers to the number of people (birth,
death, immigration and emigration)
and the composition of the city by age,
sex and ethnicity
Organization
Environment
Refers to both the natural environment
such as location of the city by the river
or in the desert, and also the city’s
physical infrastructure, including
roads, bridges and buildings.
It also includes changes to the natural
environment that are caused by
Technology
Refers to human inventions that directly
affect the urban environment.
Example: aqueducts used to carry water
long distances to cities in arid
environments, and air-conditioning,
which allows people to live in comfort in
hot, humid cities.
Growing urban areas affect land-use pattern
and destroy or fragment wildlife habitat by
urban sprawl that encroaches into former
forest, wetlands, deserts or agricultural land in
rural areas
Commuting from suburban areas to
city centres is a necessity for workers
living in large urban areas, and since
development is so spread out,
automobiles has become a important
tool to accomplish everyday chores.
This heavy dependence on motor
vehicles increases air pollution and
causes other environmental
Water flow in cities are affected by covering
of rainfall-absorbing soil with buildings and
paved roads. It is polluted with organic
wastes, motor oil, lawn fertilizers and heavy
metals.
This water (called urban runoff) is cleaned up
in sewage treatment plants before being
discharged into nearby waterways.
However, high levels of precipitation can
overwhelm the treatment plants and result
in the release of untreated urban runoff.
High density of automobiles, factories and
commercial enterprises in urban areas causes a
build-up of air-borne emissions, such as
particulate matter (dust), sulfur oxides, carbon
oxides, nitrogen oxides and volatile organic
compounds (VOC).
Urban areas in developing nations have the
worst air pollution in the world.
Example: In Mexico City, the air is so polluted
that schoolchildren are not allowed to play
Urban Heat Island
Caused by the heat released by
human activities which is retained
by paved streets and buildings and
slowly released into the
atmosphere.
Cities are also warmer than the
A well-planned city actually benefits the
environment by reducing pollution and preserving
rural areas.
Compact development
Cities are designed so that tall, multiple unit residential
areas are close to shopping and jobs, all of which are connected by public transport.
Fewer parking lots and highways are needed, so there are
more room for parks, open space, housing and businesses.
Compact development makes a city more livable, and
47% of the world’s population currently lives
in urban areas. Before 2010, it will increase to
more than 50%.
Percentage of people living in cities compared
to rural settings currently is greater in highly
developed countries (75%) than is developing
countries (40%).
Most urban growth in the world is occurring in
developing countries whereas highly
Although proportionately more people
still live in rural areas in developing
countries, urbanization has been
increasing rapidly.
UN Data: 400 cities worldwide has a
population of more than 1 million; 284 are
in developing countries.
1950: only 3 of the 10 largest cities in the
world were in developing countries; In
2000: 7 of the largest cities were in
The faster pace of urban growth in developing countries has outstripped the limited capacity of many cities to provide basic services. It has also overwhelmed their economic growth.
The challenges faced are:
Substandard housing (slums and squatter areas) Poverty
Exceptionally high unemployment Heavy pollution
Homelessness – shared by cities in both
developed and developing countries.
This problem is more pronounced in the
cities of developing countries.
In the USA, there are 300,000 to 500,000
homeless people on any given night.
In Calcutta, India, perhaps 250,000
Poverty
Crime
Example: Understanding crime in urban and rural
areas (handout)
Potential epidemics in densely populated cities
Example: risk of urban yellow fever outbreaks in1.
What is urbanization?
2.
What is the urbanization trend today in largely
rural nations?
3.
What are some of the problems brought on by
rapid urban growth in developing countries?
Factors adversely affecting health of
people are concentrated more on
influences such as poor diet and need for
influences, such as poor diet and need for
exercise.
Rarely considered are less traditional
factors, such as:
i i i
› Housing characteristics
› Land-use pattern
› Transportation choices
› Transportation choices
For example: a 2-hour commute to work
p
on America’s freeways is not a pleasant
experience, and also an unhealthy
experience.
Americans exercise less often and suffer
A
l li f th
f
iti
th
As people live farther away from cities, they
inevitably will travel longer distance to work,
shop and play.
p
p y
For example: The Sierra Club says that an
average American driver spend 443 hours
each year driving equivalent to 55
nine-each year driving, equivalent to 55 nine
hour days.
There is an increase in delay spent in an
t
bil f
1992 t 1996 L A
l
automobile from 1992 to 1996: Los Angeles
9 %; Atlanta 44 %; Orlando 62 % and Kansas
City 81 % (percentage in annual
person-h
)
The increase in time= increase in air pollution
= increase in incidence of
= increase in incidence of
respiratory diseases
C
d
t
k
till j
f
i
Cars and trucks are still a major source of air
pollution because the number of cars and
trucks and the number of miles people drive
iincreases.
Congressional Research Service report– on-
Co g ess o a esea c Se ce epo
o
road vehicles account for:
› 58% of Carbon Monoxides (CO)
› 58% of Carbon Monoxides (CO)
› 30% of Nitrogen Oxides (NO)
› 27% of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
› 9% of particulate matter (PM)
The Third Ministerial Conference on
Environment and Health (London, 1999)
indicated the following:
›
Motor vehicle traffic in the main source of
ground-level urban concentrations of air
ll t
t ith
i d
h
d
pollutants with recognized hazardous
properties
›
Approximately 36 000 to 129 000 adult
›
Approximately 36,000 to 129,000 adult
deaths a year can be attributed to long
S b t ti l h lth b fit f l h ti i t i l Substantial health benefits for people who participate in regular
physical activity
Lower mortality rates for both older and younger adultsy y g Lower risk of heart disease and stroke
Prevention or delay of the onset of high blood pressure and
actual lowering of blood pressure among people with hypertension
hypertension
Decreased risk for colon cancer
Lowered risk for noninsulin-dependent diabetes
Weight loss and redistribution of body fat; increase in muscle
mass
Relief of the symptoms of depression and anxiety and
improvement of mood
Enhancing psychological well-being and improving physical g p y g g p g p y
One of the more important determinants of
physical activity – a person’s immediate
environment (his neighborhood)
Environmental variables
Presence/absence of sidewalks Heavy traffic
Hills Hills
Street lights
Unattended dogsUnattended dogs Enjoyable scenery
Positive environmental determinant of physical activity –
enjoyable scenery enjoyable scenery
Greatest perceived barrier – lack of safe place to
exercise exercise
Other reasons for not exercising (research by CDC and others)– lack of structure or facilities, and fears about
others) lack of structure or facilities, and fears about safety.
There is an association between higher levels of There is an association between higher levels of
perceived neighborhood safety and higher levels of physical activity.
Thus – people are more likely to use parks / paths /
Why people tend to get less exercise?
1.
Changes in lifestyles
Usage of cars to run almost every errand compared Usage of cars to run almost every errand compared
to using the bicycle or walking.
2. Urban design encourage sedentary living
habits
Parking lots built as close as possible to final Parking lots built as close as possible to final destinations
Contribute to poor health because significant factor in the incidence of overweight and obesity
in the incidence of overweight and obesity
Association between lack of physical activity and concomitant rises in obesity rates with major health care costs.
R id
t ith
di
h d
Residents with surrounding greenspace had a
stronger sense of community, better
relationships, use less violent ways to solve
fli t ith t
conflicts with partners
Urban health islands – increases demand for
cooling energy, increases heat-related illnesses
d d
th
d
l
t th f
ti
f
and deaths, and accelerate the formation of
smog
Risk of flooding
g
Residential development next to farmland –
Integrating physical activity into daily
lives
Cleaning up and protecting the
g p
p
g
environment
Recognizing the contributions of mental
g
g
health to overall health and well-being
1.
Supporting research to determine the
impact that changes in the built
environment can have on public health
environment can have on public health.
2.
Changing existing building codes to
encourage building and site design that
encourage building and site design that
is accessible to people who has various
degrees of mobility
3.
Encouraging greenspace development
that promotes community, reduces
i l
d i
t l h
lth
1.
Urban design and pedestrian and
bicyclist safety
2.
Environmental barriers for the Elderly
and People with a Disability
3.
The Impact of Uncontrolled Growth on
EOH 3101
EOH 3101
O 3 0
O 3 0
PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
WATER QUALITY AND POLLUTION
WATER QUALITY AND POLLUTION
Q
Q
By By
DR. SHAHARUDDIN BIN MOHD SHAM DR. SHAHARUDDIN BIN MOHD SHAM DR. SHAHARUDDIN BIN MOHD SHAM DR. SHAHARUDDIN BIN MOHD SHAM
Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Department of Environmental and Occupational Health FMHS, UPM
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
y
Water on Earth
◦
About 3% is available
only as fresh water
◦
Surface water –
streams, rivers, ponds,
l k d l d
lakes and wetlands
◦
Groundwater –
aquifers underground
aquifers, underground
caverns and porous
layers of rock
layers of rock
y
Special properties of water
◦
High heat capacity
◦
High dissolving capacity
y
What is the Water Cycle?
y
y
Why is water important?
y
p
◦
The
most valuable natural resource
.
◦
The
human body consists of 70%
y
or more of
water.
◦
Presence of water have a
great impact on an
area’s economy and health
.
◦
Water is used for
agricultural, industrial and
overall community growth
.
◦
Potable water helps
prevent economic strains
l
f
l
d ll
ff
resulting from water-related illnesses affecting
individual and community health.
History of Water Quality
History of Water Quality
History of Water Quality
History of Water Quality
y
Ancient Egyptians – used sedimentation
gyp
apparatus and wick siphons. Some may
have used alum to remove suspended
p
solids in water.
y
Hippocrates Sleeve (a cloth bag) –
invented in the 5
thcentury BC to
y Aqueducts – water supply system created by Roman engineers to supply water to cities
engineers to supply water to cities
Early Quality Control
y To control odor and taste y To control odor and taste
problems, the Greeks and Romans used a variety of methods For
example, Diophanes (1st century B C ) d i d i d*
B.C.) advised putting macerated* laurel leaves into rainwater. Later, in the first century A.D., Paxamus
proposed that bruised coral or p p
pounded barley, in a bag, be
immersed in bad tasting water. In the 8th century A.D. the Arabian alchemist Gerber described alchemist, Gerber, described various stills for purifying water
that used wick siphons—a method that required a fibrous cord that
ld i h f would siphon water from one vessel to another.
Gerber / Jabir ibnu Hayyan Gerber / Jabir ibnu Hayyan
Desalination Experiment Begins
y Desalination – removing salt from sea
water. water.
y Sir Francis Bacon (right) – compiled “A
Natural History of Ten Centuries” in 1627.
y This work recorded 10 experiments that p
dealt with water purification. Bacon believed that sea water could be purified if it were percolated through sand
because he had read that an
experimenter had been successful at p purifying sea water by passing it through 20 vessels. e surmised that by digging a hole near the sea shore, water passing through the sand would be naturally purified. Pointing out that the water
p g
passed downward through the 20 vessels in the experiment he had read about, Bacon said his seaside experiment would cause it to pass upward. Presumably, salt particles were heavier than water, making it more difficult for them to move in the upward direction, and they would
consequently be filtered out by the sand. If only he had been right.
Filtration is Illustrated
• The 17th century A.D. also saw the first y
known illustrations of sand filters. The Italian physician Lucas Antonius Portius wrote the “Soldier’s Vade Mecum” in 1685, which details a multiple sand filtration method In this
a multiple sand filtration method. In this illustration, Portius described three pairs of sand filters—each pair consisting of a
downward-flow filter and an upward-flow filter Water entered the system’s settling filter. Water entered the system s settling
compartment through a perforated plate that strained the water.
• Once the water had settled, it flowed from the
top of the compartment through two funnels and down through the first filter. It then
moved out through oblong openings in the moved out through oblong openings in the bottom of the second filter and up through the second filter. The water continued in this same general pattern through the other two sets of filters
H l d
ib d h
bbl h d b
y
He also described how pebbles had been
placed near “the funnels of each partition,”
d th t
ll bbl d l
d
and that smaller pebbles and larger sand
grains produced the best water.
y
Portius further described his filtration plan
as being an imitation of nature’s method of
passing water through the “bowels of the
earth.”
Early Filtered Water Methods for the Commons
Fil i b i h
y Filtration was becoming the water treatment
method of choice for many communities. And town officials began to become concerned with supplying clean water to everyone, wrote Baker and Taras “inQuest for Pure Water”.
y Around 1703, the Parisian scientist Phillipe de La Hire (right) presented a plan to the French Academy of Sciences, proposing that every household should have a sand filter and rainwater cistern.
y His plan included an elevated, covered cistern, which would prevent freezing and keep out light, thus preventing the surface from growing a
“greenish kind of moss.” The rainwater should then be passed through river sand and stored
be passed through river sand and stored underground.
Top: Rain water filter Top: Rain water filter
Bottom: Combination of cistern and filter
y Approximately 100 years after La Hire proposed
his rainwater filtration method, the first municipal water treatment plant was installed in Paisley, S l d Thi 1804 l i d f Scotland. This 1804 treatment plant consisted of concentric sand and gravel filters, and its
distribution system consisted of a horse and cart. Three years later, Glasgow, Scotland, was one of the first cities to pipe filtered water to consumers. p p By 1827, slow sand filters designed by Robert Thom were put into use at Greenock, Scotland. Similar systems designed by James Simpson (right)
were completed in London in 1829. Thom’s filters were cleaned by backwash while Simpson’s
were cleaned by backwash, while Simpson s required scraping. The Simpson design eventually became the English model throughout the world.
y Throughout 19th century in London, slow sand
filtration was the water treatment method of Paisley filtration was the water treatment method of
choice. However, the large area of land required to support their use caused some concern. The sand beds, which were two- to three-feet thick, covered acres of ground. Cleaning the beds was usually
y The large area of land required also
interfered with land needs for city growth, y g , wrote F.E. Bruce in the “History of
Technology”. For example, the combined water treatment plants of 1849 London treated 44.4 million gallons of water a day. At a flow rate of three gallons per hour per At a flow rate of three gallons per hour per square foot, 12 acres of land would be
required to produce the needed water. By 1901, London required 215 million gallons per day of clean water. Obviously, slow sand per day of clean water. Obviously, slow sand filters could not keep up with this
expanding city.
y Because the need for clean water was growing quickly, rapid sand filtration was developed in the U S in the 1880s wrote Baker and
filtration was developed in the U.S. in the 1880s, wrote Baker and Taras. The two main design elements of Thom’s filter were
incorporated into this new design—the false bottom and reverse-flow wash—becoming standard features of these filters.
wash becoming standard features of these filters.
y Rapid sand filters used water jets or backwashes to clean the filter
media and mechanical agitators to loosen debris. Treatment capacity was greatly increased using these new filters and land area
was greatly increased using these new filters and land area
requirements were greatly reduced, noted Baker and Taras. However, rapid sand filtration required pretreatments, such as coagulation and settling, to reduce the sediment load to the filter. Treatment to g
Links to Health Found
y It was also around this time that the first correlation
between water quality and health were made according between water quality and health were made, according to the AWWA’s “Water Quality Treatment Handbook”. In mid-19th century London, town officials noticed a decrease in cholera deaths during the 1849 and 1853 epidemics where slow sand filters had been installed.
y But even more convincing evidence emerged when John
S ( i h ) bl l i l h l d h Snow (right) was able to trace multiple cholera deaths to a single pump in Soho, England, which had become
contaminated by a nearby leaking sewer, wrote N.M. Blake in “Water for the Cities”. An interesting note to this story is that the users of this Broad Street well pump came from other parts of the town because they preferred the taste of the water This is some of the first preferred the taste of the water. This is some of the first evidence that taste and clarity do not always indicate safe water supplies.
y Blake wrote that shortly after town officials realized
contaminated water had been the culprit in these disease outbreaks, London enacted the Metropolitan Water Act of 1852, which required the filtration of all water supplied to the London area. This legislation is one of the first instances of governmental regulation of a water supply.
y The Metropolitan Water Act mandated that water
companies move their intakes upriver where the water companies move their intakes upriver where the water is fresher, than using water from the river Thames which was actually part of their own excrement, and moreover, have to pay for the privilege.
In the 1870’s Dr Robert Koch (above) In the 1870 s, Dr Robert Koch (above)
and Dr Joseph Lister (right)
demonstrated that microorganisms existing in water supplies can cause disease. Since then, several
The year 1906 saw the use of ozone as a disinfectant in Nice, France. Because of the equipment’s complexity and costs, ozonation was less prevalent in the United States.
Significant improvements to water treatment in the to water treatment in the latter part of the 19th
century included the development of rapid d filt i d sand filters, improved slow sand filters and the first application of chlorine and ozone for disinfection. At the turn of the century, chlorination became the most popular method in most popular method in civilised countries and the number of dysentery and cholera cases
22
Water Pollution
Water Pollution
Water Pollution
Water Pollution
y
Consists of
any physical or
y p y
chemical change
in water that
adversely affects the health of
humans and other organisms.
y
Wastewater treatment
is an
important part of
sustainable
water use
.
Case Study: Citarum River, West Java
1 U
d f
i
lt
l
t
l
i d
t i l
1. Used for agricultural, water supply, industrial,
sewerage purposes
2 The river flows from central West Java to the
2. The river flows from central West Java to the
Java Sea
3. The river is very heavily polluted, since its
y
y p
,
basin supports about 5 million people
4. In 2008, the Asian Development Bank (ADB)
ll d i “Th Di i
Ri
i
h W ld”
d
called it “The Dirtiest River in the World”, and
approved a loan of USD500 million to clean it
up
http://www.jeef.or.jp/yelp/2012/02/citarum-river-%E2%80%9Cworld%E2%80%99s-most-polluted-river%E2%80%9D-ironic-between-history-and-environmental-tragedy/
28
Sewage
Sewage
Sewage
Sewage
y
Wastewater carried off by drains or sewers,
ib
i h
(f
ili
i f
)
contributes to enrichment (fertilization of water)
and produces an oxygen demand as it is
decomposed.
decomposed.
y
Microorganisms use the process of cellular
respiration to break down sewage into CO
2, water
and similar materials.
y
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount
of oxygen needed by microorganisms to
of oxygen needed by microorganisms to
decompose sewage and other organic wastes.
Other types of water pollution
Other types of water pollution
Other types of water pollution
Other types of water pollution
y
Sediment pollution
Sediment pollution
y
Inorganic plant and algal nutrients
y
Inorganic chemicals
y
Radioactive substances
y
Radioactive substances
y
Thermal pollution
Algal blooms caused by excessive nutrients
Eutrophication
Eutrophication
Eutrophication
Eutrophication
y
Is the
nutrient enrichment
of oligotrophic
lakes, estuarines or slow-moving streams,
results in high-photosynthetic activity, which
t
l ti f l
supports an overpopulation of algae.
y
Artificial eutrophication
is enrichment of an
ti t
th t
t
aquatic ecosystem that occurs at an
accelerated rate
because of human activities
Eutrophic lake
Sources of water pollutants
Sources of water pollutants
Sources of water pollutants
Sources of water pollutants
y
Point source pollution
– pollution that enters the
water at specific sites such as pipes from industrial
water at specific sites, such as pipes from industrial
or sewage treatment plants.
y
Nonpoint source pollution
– also called polluted
runoff, comes from the land rather than from a single
point of entry.
y
Three major sources of human-induced water
Three major sources of human induced water
pollution:
◦
Agriculture
◦
Municipalities (sewage and urban runoff)
◦
Industries
Sources of groundwater contamination
Groundwater contamination from
Groundwater contamination from
At the Ayer Hitam Landfill in Puchong Selangor leachate At the Ayer Hitam Landfill in Puchong, Selangor, leachate (polluting wastewater from decaying waste) is treated before it is discharged into a stream. The hillock on the left is where waste has been dumped, compacted and layered with soil since the landfill opened in 1995 (The Star 28 / 12 / 2004)
42
Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater Treatment
May include:
y
◦
Primary treatment
(the physical settling of solid
matter)
◦
Secondary treatment
(the biological degradation
of organic wastes)
◦
Tertiary treatment
(the removal of special
contaminants such as organic chemicals, nitrogen
d h
h
)
44
Disease
Disease--causing Agents
causing Agents
Disease
Disease causing Agents
causing Agents
y
Bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic
p
p
worms, are transmitted in sewage.
y
E.coli
.co
, the common intestinal bacterium, is
, t e co
o test a bacte u , s
used as an indication of the amount of
sewage present in water and as an indirect
g p
measure of disease-causing organisms.
y
The fecal coliform test determines the
y
The fecal coliform test determines the
presence of
E.coli
in water.
E.coli culture
Colony of V.cholerae Colony of V.cholerae
Vibrio cholerae
Schistosomiasis
Schistosomiasis
Schistosomiasis
Schistosomiasis
y Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia, bilharziosis or snail fever) is a
parasitic disease caused by several species of fluke from the genus
p y p g
Schistosoma.
y Although it has a low mortality rate, schistosomiasis often is a chronic
illness that can damage internal organs and in children impair growth
illness that can damage internal organs and, in children, impair growth and cognitive development. The urinary form of schistosomiasis is associated with increased risks for bladder cancer in adults. Schistosomiasis is the second most socio-economically devastating parasitic disease after malaria
parasitic disease after malaria.
y This disease is most commonly found in Asia, Africa, and South America,
especially in areas where the water contains numerous freshwater
especially in areas where the water contains numerous freshwater snails, which may carry the parasite.
y The disease affects many people in developing countries, particularly
hild h i h di b i i l i i
Schistosoma spp.
Colony of V.cholerae Colony of V.cholerae
Life cycle of Schistosoma spp. Life cycle of Schistosoma spp.
Water
Water--borne diseases inflicted on humans and
borne diseases inflicted on humans and
their agents
their agents
their agents
their agents
1
1 Cholera
Cholera
–
–
Vibrio
Vibrio cholerae
cholerae
1.
1. Cholera
Cholera
Vibrio
Vibrio cholerae
cholerae
2.
2. Dysentery
Dysentery
–
–
Shigella
Shigella dysenteriae
dysenteriae
3.
3. Enteritis
Enteritis
–
–
Clostridium
Clostridium perfringes
perfringes
p
p
g
g
,
, other
,,
other
bacteria
bacteria
4.
4. Typhoid
Typhoid
–
–
Salmonella
Salmonella typhi
typhi
5.
5. Infectious hepatitis
Infectious hepatitis
–
– Hepatitis Virus A
Hepatitis Virus A
6.
6. Poliomyelitis
Poliomyelitis
-- Poliovirus
Poliovirus
7
7 C
C
t
t
idi
idi
i
i
C
C
t
t
idi
idi
7.
7. Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidiosis
–
–
Cryptosporidium
Cryptosporidium
sp.
sp.
8.
8. Amoebic dysentery
Amoebic dysentery
–
–
Entamoeba
Entamoeba histolytica
histolytica
9
9 Ancylostomiasis
Ancylostomiasis
–
–
Ancylostoma
Ancylostoma
sp
sp
9.
A i f t d d d b Salmonella typhi An infected wound caused by
Clostridium perfringens
52
Types of synthetic materials found in
Types of synthetic materials found in
polluted water
polluted water
1
1 AldiAldi bb ti id (dti id (d thth tt ))
1.
1. AldicarbAldicarb –– pesticide (damages the nervous system)pesticide (damages the nervous system)
2.
2. BenzeneBenzene –– solvent (blood problems, solvent (blood problems, leukimialeukimia))
3.
3. Carbon Carbon tetrachloride tetrachloride –– solvent (may induce cancer, liver solvent (may induce cancer, liver damage)
damage)
4.
4. ChloroformChloroform –– solvent (may induce cancer)solvent (may induce cancer)
5.
5. DioxinDioxin –– chemical pollutant (may induce cancer; may chemical pollutant (may induce cancer; may
damage the immune and nervous systems and reproductive damage the immune and nervous systems and reproductive organs)
organs)
6.
6. Ethylene Ethylene dibromidedibromide (EDB)(EDB)-- (fumigant, (fumigant, pengasappengasap) and ) and polychlorinated biphenyls (industrial chemical)
polychlorinated biphenyls (industrial chemical) -- (may induce (may induce cancer; may attack the liver and kidneys)
cancer; may attack the liver and kidneys)
7.
7. TrichloroethyleneTrichloroethyleneyy (TCE) (TCE) –(( )) – solvent (may induce cancer; may solvent (may induce cancer; may (( yy yy induce liver cancer in rats)
induce liver cancer in rats)
8.
The distribution of water
The distribution of water
resources in relation to
human populations
exacerbates global water
bl
problems
People in poor and less-developed countries lack access to safe drinking water and wastewater disposal.
A slum area in Mumbai, India. Do you think the people living here , y p p g have access to clean drinking water?
Population growth is outstripping water supplies in
56
p g pp g pp
International tensions over water rights water rights
could result in armed conflicts. Of particular concern are the Mekong River (left), Indus River, Ganges River,
Tigris-Euphrates River, Jordan River and Jordan River and Nile River.
Long Term Goal of Water Management
Long Term Goal of Water Management
Long Term Goal of Water Management
Long Term Goal of Water Management
y To provide a sustainable supply of high-quality water.
y Sustainable water use – humans can use water resources into the future without harming the functioning of the hydrologic cycle or ecosystems.
hydrologic cycle or ecosystems.
y Dams ensure a year-round supply of water in areas that have seasonal precipitation or snowmelt.
y River diversion is sometimes used to increase the supply of water to a particular area.
y Desalinization is the removal of salt from seawater or salty y Desalinization is the removal of salt from seawater or salty
groundwater.
The Pahang-Selangor Water Transfer Project
River diversion: Will it come t thi ?
Desalinization of Seawater: Singapore’s Proud Moment
Tuas Seawater Desalinization Plant
Desalinization process Singapore is less than 700km2 in area, of
which only around 10km2 is water. Limited
natural fresh water resources – and the hi h l ti d it k i
S f S high population density – make sourcing alternative supplies of potable water of great national importance. the Tuas seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) plant
Water Supply for Singapore 1. Rain water – about 50% 2. From Malaysia – about 40% 3. RO water – about 10%
62
Special Topics
Special Topics
Special Topics
Special Topics
y
Methemoglobinaemia / Blue Baby Syndrome
(caused by nitrate contamination of drinking
water)
D t l Fl
i
y
Dental Fluorosis
yMinamata Disease
Fl
id t
i ti
i d t
y
Fluoride contamination in groundwater
y
Heavy metal contamination (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn)
of drinking water and river water
of drinking water and river water
y
Aluminium residue in processed drinking
Thank you
Thank you
fffor
for
your attention !!
your attention !!
your attention !!
your attention !!
ENV 3101
Prinsip Kesihatan Persekitaran
Faktor-Faktor Yang Mempengaruhi
Kesihatan :
Komposisi Udara
• 78 % nitrogen, 21 % oksigen, gas-gas lain 1 %
(argon 0.93 %, CO
20.032 %, neon, helium, ozon,
xenon, hidrogen, metana, kripton dan wap air).
Pencemaran Udara
Kewujudan bahan-bahan di dalam atmosfera
luaran, yang secara langsung atau tidak,
berpunca dari kegiatan manusia, yang boleh
menjejaskan kesihatan, keselamatan atau
kebajikan manusia, atau mengganggu
5 perkara penting di dalam pencemaran udara :
1. Penghasilan pencemar
2. Pertukaran
3. Akibat / kesan
4. Persekitaran
Bentuk-bentuk Pencemar
1. Debu
6.Jerebu
2. Fume
7. Smog
3. Asap
8. Aerosol
4. Kabus
9. Wap
Klasifikasi Pencemaran Udara dan Kontaminasinya
1. Semulajadi
2. Buatan manusia
a. Rumah
b. Industri
c. Pertanian
d. Kenderaan
e. Penghasilan dan penggunaan tenaga
f. Pembakaran sampah
Kumpulan Pencemar
1. Pencemar Primer
– terhasil secara langsung dari punca
2. Pencemar Sekunder
Pencemar Udara Yang Utama
1. Karbon dioksida
6. Partikel terampai
2. Karbon monoksida 7. Pengoksidaan fotokimia
3. Oksida nitrogen
4. Sulfur dioksida
Masalah Kesihatan
Karbon monoksida
– mengganggu kebolehan darah
membawa oksigen ke otak
Sulfur dioksida
– saluran udara mengecut, individu
dengan penyakit asma perlu bernafas dengan lebih kuat
Partikel terampai
– partikel besar ditahan di hidung dan
bahagian atas paru-paru, partikel kecil memasuki
Oksida nitrogen
– bertindak seperti ozon dan
sulfur dioksida
Bronkitis kronik adalah inflamasi lapisan saluran bronkus. Akibatnya, pergerakan udara dari dan ke paru-paru menjadi susah, dan banyak mukos akan terbentuk dan dikeluarkan akibat batuk. Penyakit ini boleh disebabkan oleh bakteria, pencemaran udara, merokok dan juga faktor cuaca.
Emphysema adalah pembesaran tidak normal
paru-paru yang menyusahkan pernafasan.Ini disebabkan oleh kerosakan tisu paru-paru dan pundi udara
menjadi lebih besar untuk menggantikan fungsi pundi yang telah rosak. Mereka yang menghidap penyakit pulmonary emphysema akan menjadi lebih teruk jika didedahkan kepada pencemaran udara. Kebanyakan pesakit adalah perokok. Jika kerosakan sel paru-paru berterusan, pertukaran udara semakin kurang efisien,
Asthma adalah reaksi akibat infeksi dalaman atau reaksi alergik kepada bahan seperti debunga, habuk, makanan atau rangsangan emosi. Seseorang akan berasa sesak nafas dan tercekik bila episod asthma berlaku. Ia merupakan penghalangan bronkiol yang membawa udara dari trakea kepada paru-paru, tetapi jarang berlakunya kematian.
Kanser paru-paru didiagnosakan daripada
kehadiran sel malignan pada lapisan luar sistem pernafasan. Pertambahan kes kanser ini berlaku sejak 50 tahun yang lalu. Antara faktor penyebab
adalah seperti pertambahan umur, merokok, genetik, kaum, penyakit virus, pendedahan pekerjaan dan
EOH3101
PRINSIP KESIHATAN
PERSEKITARAN
Pengenalan
1. Kawalan makanan dan minuman dari agen penyebab
penyakit adalah langkah penting dalam mengatasi
masalah pencemaran makanan.
3. Keracunan makanan ialah penyakit yang diperolehi
akibat daripada termakan atau terminum bahan yang
tercemar oleh bahan patogenik.
4. Untuk menangani masalah keracunan makanan,
pihak kerajaan telah menggubal
Akta Makanan 1983
Pencemaran makanan oleh agen biologi
Agen biologi terdiri daripada
1. Bakteria 2. Parasit 3. Virus 4. Kulat
1. Bakteria
Antara bakteria yang menyebabkan pencemaran
makanan atau minuman :
1. Salmonella typhimurium
– penyakit salmonellosis
2. S. typhi
– penyakit demam tifoid
3. S. paratyphi
– penyakit paratifoid
4. Vibrio cholera
– penyakit kolera
Antara bakteria yang mengeluarkan toksin yang boleh mengganggu proses fisiologi tubuh :
1. Staphylococcus aureus
2. Vibrio parahaemolyticus
3. Bacillus cereus
2. Parasit
Antara parasit yang boleh menyebabkan
pencemaran makanan :
1. Trichynella spirallis
– penyakit trikinosis
2. Taenia solium
– penyakit teniasis
3. Patogen lain
1. Coxiella burnetti
– demam Q
2. Virus Hepatitis A – infeksi Hepatitis A
Pencemaran makanan oleh agen kimia
1. Antimoni – pencemaran makanan terjadi apabila
menggunakan bekas makanan yang menggunakan cat enamel.
2. Fluorida – keracunan berlaku apabila terkana semburan lipas yang mengandungi bahan kimia ini.
3. Metil klorida – pencemaran akibat peti sejuk bocor yang mengandungi metil klorida.
5. Pestisid – Tanaman yang disembur pestisid
hendak dituai/dipetik selepas 7 hingga 14 hari
(bergantung kepada jenis racun). Jika dipetik
3. Pencemaran makanan oleh agen fizikal
Pencemaran boleh terjadi jika makanan atau
minuman tercampur bahan seperti paku, kaca
dan lain-lain.
Gejala dan Petanda Penyakit Keracunan Makanan
1. Gejala penyakit terjadi dalam masa yang pendek
selepas memakan makanan yang tercemar.
2. Keracunan terjadi di kalangan mereka yang
meminum atau memakan bahan tersebut. Oleh
itu, kes keracunan boleh berlaku kepada orang
ramai, seperti murid sekolah, orang yang
Pencegahan dan Kawalan Penyakit
1. Mengurangkan pencemaran makanan
2. Memusnahkan bahan pencemar
3. Menghalang perebakan bahan pencemar
4. Mengadakan pendidikan kesihatan khusus tentang kaedah yang betul dalam memasak dan menyimpan makan dan juga berkaitan dengam kebersihan diri dari semasa ke
semasa, terutama untuk para pekerja yang terlibat dengan makanan
Penilaian Permis Makanan
Kementerian Kesihatan ada mengeluarkan Kod Amali Kebersihan Makanan (1980) yang bertujuan untuk
mengawal mutu makanan.
Kod ini amat berguna kepada Pegawai Kesihatan dan Inspoektor Kesihatan yang bertugas menilai premis makanan.
Semasa menilai premis, sebanyak 25 perkara diperhatikan, di mana markah diberikan setelah selesai pemeriksaan.
Antara makanan yang dinilai :
1. Makanan
- Pembekalan makan termasuk bahan mentah (punca
makanan, kesegaran makanan, kandungan atau campuran makanan dan pelabelan makanan)
- Langkah kawalan makakan daripada roden, serangga,
binatang peliharaan kerana boleh mencemari makanan dengan agen penyebab penyakit.
- Amalan penyimpanan makanan yang betul, dinilai dari
segi kebersihan tempat menyimpan makanan, tiada
2. Pekerja di premis
- Kebersihan diri penting seperti memakai pakaian yang bersih, menggunakan sarung tangan dan penutup kepala.
- Kuku pendek, membasuh tangan dengan sempurna selepas memegang makanan
- Pekerja yang sakit diberi cuti.
3. Alat perkakas makanan - dari segi kesempurnaannya - bersih dan tidak tercemar
4. Kelengkapan sanitasi
- bekalan air bersih dan mencukupi - Kemudahan bilik air disediakan - Kemudahan tempat basuh tangan
- Tempat pembuangan sampah hendaklah sentiasa tertutup dan sampah selalu dibuang
- Lantai bersih dan mudah dicuci - Dinding dan siling yang bersih
5. Pencahayaan
6. Pengalihan udara (ventilasi) -mencukupi seperti kipas dll.
7. Ruang di premis
- mencukupi untuk pelanggan, pekerja dan mereka yang terlibat dengan kerja memproses makanan
- barangan mestilah diatur dengan teratur
8. Papan tanda
- Pastikan lesen tergantung
- Papan tanda yang sepatutnya mesti dipamerkan
EOH 3101 PRINCIPLES OF
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
LAWS AND RULES
REGARDING
There are over 34 pieces of legislation that are directly or indirectly related to environmental quality control and management.
For example, the lists of legislation below are the related legislation that applies to the management of the Putrajaya Lake catchment area are:
1. Waters Act, 1920
2. Environmental Quality Act, 1974 3. Geological Survey Act, 1974 4. Land Conservation Act, 1960 5. Irrigation Areas Act, 1953
6. Town and Country Planning Act, 1976 7. Street, Drainage and Building Act, 1974 8. Local Government Act, 1976
9. The Forest Act, 1984
10. Selangor Waters Management Authority Enactment, 1999 11. The National Land Code, 1965
12. Mining Enactment, 1929
