Brock Education Vol. 9, No.1, 1999
Editorial
Givcn the nature of the process of education, the human groups for whom education is designed and with whom educating is, to a great degree, an intimate, social interaction, even the most superficial examination of the elements involved reveals a diversity of components which span most, if not all, aspects of human life. Some time ago it was recognized that our own education and the education of our fellow humans extends in length and breadth far outside the formal classrooms of primary, secondary, and postsecondary education. This said, it is not at all difficult to identify components of education such as life-long learning, social responsibilities, citizenship, gender based issues, and helping people develop their potential. What a contr8st these postmodern concepts of education make when compared with traditionally espoused notions of "back to basics" and "the three Rs", which, even as I write, are still perceived by many in the community to be by far the most suitable concepts by which wc may cope with the present and try to facc;; the future.
This edition presents articles on education which are widely varied in nature, but nonetheless have application to the profession as manifest in its many forms. They have relevance, also, to important aspects of the ways in which we socialize and are socialized within the context of education and educating. These articles, then, are presented to encourage the examination of education through somewhat different lenses and to invite questions pertaining to where we are and where we are going.
Donne la nature du processus d'education, les groupes humains pour qui l'education est destinee ct avec qui I'enseignement est eminement une action mutuelle intime et sociale, meme I 'examen Ie plus superficiel revele une diversite des elements compris qui traverse to us les aspects de la vie humaine. 11 y a quelque temps que I'on a reconnu que notre education et celie de tous les autres etres humains s'etendent bien en dehors des salles de classe des ecoles de tous les niveaux. A partir de ceia, il n' est pas difficile d'identifier les aspects d'education, c'est
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dire I'apprentissage de toute la vie, les responsabilites sociaies, Ie civisme, les matieres qui s'agit de genre (sexe), et comment aider aux gens d'atteindre leur maximum. Quel contraste qu'on voit entre ces concepts d'education post-modernes et les idees generales traditionellement embrassees qui s'agit de se retourner aux essentielles et I'apprentissage de langue, de lecture, et de mathematiques. Ceux-ci sont vus par plusieurs membres de la communaute, meme au present, comme les concepts les plus appropries pour se charger du present aussi bien que du futur.Cette edition presente les articles au sujet d'education qui sont varies mais qui au meme temps s'appJiquent
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to utes les formes du professorat. lls ont rapport aussi aux aspects importants des manieres par lesquelles on s'associe et est associe dans Ie contexte d'apprentissage et d'enseignement. Ces articles, alors, sont prescntes ici pour encourager I'examen d'education parmi des lentilles un peu differentes et pour inviter des questions qui dcmandent ou I' on est et ou I' on va.Brock Education Vol. 1, No.1, 1999
Vers une meilleure comprehension des savoirs
disciplinaires et curriculaires des enseignants ou Ie
paradigme retrouve
Stephane Martineau
Universite du Quebec
a
Trois-Rivieres
Clermont Gauthier
Universite Laval
Resume
eet article se veut essentieUement un travail de synthese sous la forme d 'une breve revue de litterature au sujet des savoirs disciplinaires et curriculaires en enseignement. Plus specifiquement, il vise a determiner queUes sont les principales conclusions qui se degagent de la lecture des recherches empiriques sur les savoirs disciplinaires et curriculaires des enseignants des ordres d'enseignement primaire et secondaire. Il propose donc une
classification des differentes dimensions constitutives du rapport entre les savoirs disciplinaires et curriculaires et la pratique enseignante. Les resultats mis au jour permettent d 'une part, d'identifier les facteurs qui entrainent des differences dans les connaissances disciplinaires et curriculaires des enseignants et d'autre part, de mieux saisir comment ces connaissances de l'enseignant peuvent influencer en retour sa pratique.
Mise en contexte
Les annees soixante ont ete marquees par une grande variete de courants d'idees et de recherches en education. Parmi celles-ci trois types de travaux furent determinants. D'abord, certaines etudes de type sociologique (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1964, 1970; Coleman, 1966; Jencks, 1972; Mosteller &
Moynihan, 1972) eurent une importance particuliere en ce qu'elles ont fait valoir l'influence marquante du milieu social sur la performance des el(~ves.
Ensuite, un autre courant de recherches d'orientation psychologique, influence notamment par Ie behaviorisme et les theories de Piaget avait pour
Stephane Martineau, Professeur, Departement des sciences de I'education, Universite du Quebec it Trois-Rivieres, Trois-Rivieres, Quebec
S. Martineau, C. Gauthier
caracteristique principale de mettre I'accent sur l'apprentissage et Ie
d6veioppement de l'eIeve (Travers, 1973). Enfin, durant Ies annees soixante aux Etats-Unis, Ies grands projets nationaux de reforme des programmes scolaires [mathematiques (SMSG), biologie (BSCS), physique (PSSC), chimie (CHEM), etc.] ont donne un essor important 11 la recherche dans Ie champ du curriculum. Or, 11 I'analyse il apparait que dans ces trois champs de recherches, une variable etait constamment negligee, voire meme sous estimee:
l'enseignant. Dans ces trois cas, on laissait entendre que la performance des 61eves s'expJique so it par Ie milieu social, soit par Ie curriculum Oll soit par la connaissance des processus de developpement et d'apprentissage de l'eleve, autrement dit, par tout autre chose que l'enseignant lui-meme, comme si ce demier eta it une variable nulle dans Ie processus enseignement/apprentissage, comme s'iln'etait pas pertinent de faire des recherches qui portent
explicitement sur son action pour expliquer la performance des eleves. En bref, dans ces etudes, tout se passait comme si, tout compte fait, l'enseignant "ne faisait pas de difference" et, qu'en consequence, iln'etait pas necessaire de chercher 11 ameliorer sa performance comme enseignant.
Durant les annees soixante-dix, plusieurs auteurs (Good, Biddle, & Brophy, 1975; Rosenshine, 1971) ont cependant refuse d'enteriner cette these. Pour tenter de savoir si les enseignants font reellement une difference au regard des apprentissages des eleves ils ont initie un important mouvement de
recherches dans les classes et aupres des enseignants. Au milieu des annees quatre-vingts, Ie rapport de groupe Holmes (1986) a donne une nouvelle impulsion it la recherche sur l'enseignant en mettant en scene Ie concept de professionnalisation de l'enseignement. Pour les membres de ce groupe, la professionnalisation de l'enseignement passait, entre autres choses, par la detenmnation d'une base de cOllllaissances specialisees. Or, pour specifier ces savoirs, il fallait stimuler la recherche et ce, dans deux directions
complementaires. D'abord, les recherches avec les enseignants menees dans les ecoles elementaires et secondaires devaient etre menees afin de bien
comprendre la nature et la specificite de I'activite enseignante et ses effets sur les eleves; ensuite, il fallait proceder 11 la synthese des resultats accumul6s. Depuis lors, de multiples approches de recherche sur le telTain se sont donc d6veloppees et il s'avere desormais imperieux de commencer 11 realiser des syntheses de ces recherches. C'est 11 ce travail de synthese auquelnous nous sommes astreints depuis quelques annees (Gauthier, Desbiens, Malo, Martineau, & Simard, 1997).
L'objet de cet article: les savoirs disciplinaires et curricula ires
II est plus facile d'affinner qu'il existe une base de connaissances en
Les disciplinaires et curriculairs en enseignement nous sommes attardes
a
en detenmnera
la fois les contours et Ie contenu. Pour ce faire, nous nous sommes notamment appuyes sur les travaux de Tardif, Lessard, et Lahaye (1991) qui avancent l'hypothese que l'enseignant ne possede pas un savoir unique mais qu'il mobilise plusieurs types de savoirsimultanement dans sa classe. II est ainsi possible de concevoir l'enseignement comme la mise en action differents savoirs composant une sorte de reservoir (Gauthier et al., 1997) dans lequell'enseignant puise pour repondre a certaines demandes precises de sa situation concrete d'enseignement.
Ainsi, nous avons identifie dans des travaux anterieurs plusieurs types de savoirs possedes et mobilises par l'enseignant (Gauthier et aI, 1997; Martineau, 1996; Martineau, Gauthier, Simard, & Tardif, 1995). Compte-tenu de l' espace dont nous disposons, nous ne faisons ici que les enumerer: Ie savoir de culture generale (qui ne porte pas sur I' education mais qui peut etre mobilise dans l'enseignement), Ie savoir de la tradition pedagogique (plus ou moins tacite et base sur une tradition transmise dans les milieux
d'enseignement); Ie savoir d'experience (acquis et developpe par l'enseignant tout au long de sa carriere professionnelle); Ie savoir d'action pedagogique (Ie savoir d'experience des enseignants analyse et formalise par la recherche sur et pour l'enseignement); Ie savoir des sciences de l'education (Ie savoir des disciplines contributrices); Ie savoir disciplinaire et savoir curriculaire. Etant donne que cet article porte sur ces deux demiers types de savoir, nous en offrons ci-apres une description un peu plus complete.
Le savoir disciplinaire rMere aux savoirs produits par les chercheurs et savants dans les diverses disciplines scientifiques,
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leur production de connaissances au sujet du monde. L'enseignant ne produit pas du savoir disciplinaire mais, pour enseigner, il interprete Ie savoir produit par ces chercheurs. En effet, enseigner necessite une connaissance du contenu a transmettre puisqu'on ne peut evidemment enseigner quelque chose si on n'en maitrise pas Ie contenu. Cependant, lorsqu'on l'examine plus en profondeur, l'expression "connaitre sa matiere" peut prendre plus d'une signification. Que veut-on dire par "connaitre sa matiere" pour un enseignant en contexte reel d'enseignement? Est-ce que la connaissance de la matiere de l'enseignant en chimie differe de celle du chimiste? Dans quel sens la connaissance de la matiere exerce-t-elle une influence sur la pratique enseignante et par consequent sur l'apprentissage des eleves?s.
Martineau, C. Gauthierdiverses disciplines. L'enseignant conna!t evidemment son programme lequel constitue un autre savoir de son reservoir de connaissances: Ie savoir curriculaire. C'est, en effet, Ie programme qui lui sert de guide pour planifier, evaluer, etc. Cependant, tout comme pour Ie savoir disciplinaire, existe-t-il une litterature empirique qui examine la nature du savoir curriculaire des enseignants dans leur contexte reel d'enseignement? QueUes transformations au programme l'enseignant opere-t-il? Dans quel sens Ie savoir curriculaire exerce-t-il une influence sur la pratique enseignante et par consequent sur l'apprentissage des eleves? Notre objectif est donc de faire porter notre investigation sur ces deux derniers types de savoirs: Ie savoir disciplinaire et Ie savoir curriculaire.
Meme si
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l'evidence chacun reconnait d'emblee l'importance de la connaissance de la matiere conlll1e competence centrale en enseignement; il n'en demeure pas moins qu'avant les annees 1980 peu de recherches conduites sur ce sujet ont donne des resultats significatifs (Byrne, 1983; Grossman, 1991a, 1991b; Shulman, 1986a, 1986b). En effet, paradoxalement, plusieurs de ces recherches ont plutot conclu que la connaissance de la matiere n'avait pas ou peu d'influence sur la performance des eleves (Grossman, Wilson, & Shulman, 1989). Pourquoi en etait-on arrive a cette conclusion? Plusieurs raisons peuvent expliquer ce pMnomene. La principale consiste surtout dans la non pertinence de la methodologie utilisee pour aborder cette question. II faut en effet savoir que ces recherches ont ete conduites surtout selon des approches methodologiques de type "presage-produit". Or, ce genre de methodologie ne permet pas de discriminer des aspects plus subtiles de la comprehension de la matiere par l'enseignant qui peuvent avoir une influence sur l'apprentissage des eleves. Cela a conduit Shulman (1986a) a declarer qu'il conviendrait de pousser davantage l'etude de ce qu'il appelle Ie missing paradigm (laconnaissance de la matiere et du programme par l'enseignant) etant donne que, selon lui, Ie contenu a enseigner demeure une facette centrale de l'acte
pedagogique.
Les disciplinaires et curriculairs en enseignement recherches se limitent a decrire une n~alite sans poser de jugement de valeur; par contre, d'autres font ressortir davantage une dimension evaluative en mettant l'accent sur tel ou tel aspect qui favoriserait l'apprentissage des eleves. Dans l'un et l'autre cas, nous nous contenterons pour Ie moment d'enoncer les principaux les resultats auxquels en arrivent ces recherches.
Nous avons distingue plus haut savoir disciplinaire et savoir curriculaire. Ils sont distincts au sens ou ils sont produits dans des lieux differents: l'un, le savoir disciplinaire, est Ie resultat des travaux de la communaute scientifique alors que l'autre, Ie savoir curriculaire, est habituellement Ie produit du travail de fonctionnaires du ministere de
l'Education. Cependant, dans l'activite enseignante ces differences sont moins nettes et s'attenuent. En effet, "dans la tete de l'enseignant" ces deux savoirs sont intimement lies et les recherches analysees ne font pas toujours la difference entre la connaissance de la matiere et celIe du curriculum. Nous avons donc pris Ie parti de les analyser conjointement.
Les savoirs disciplinaires et curriculaires transforment la pratique enseignante et cette derniere transforme a son tour la connaissance que
l'enseignant possede de ces savoirs
Une idee generale se degage des recherches que nous allons explorer ci-apres. D'une part, plusieurs travaux montrent que les savoirs disciplinaires et
curriculaires des enseignants transforment leur pratique. En effet, la discipline d'origine, Ie niveau de formation, la representation de la nature de la discipline, la presence ou l'absence d'une formation pedagogique, l'experience
d'enseignement, et la connaissance du programme influencent l'enseignement. D'autre part, la pratique d'enseignement trans forme
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son tour la connaissance que l'enseignant possede de ces savoirs. En effet, avec Ie temps, l'enseignant peut emichir sa comprehension des savoirs disciplinaires et curriculaires auxquels il a recours.A
travers une breve exloration de quelques recherches, nous allons faire ressortir divers aspects de cette dynamique.II y a une difference dans l'enseignement d'une meme matiere en fonction de la discipline de formation
S. Martineau, C. Gauthier
photosynthese. De plus, la connaissance de la matiere va affecter la maniere dont les enseignants utili sent et critiquent Ie manuel de base.
Wilson et Wineburg (1988) comparent quant a eux la pratique de 4 nouveaux enseignants du secondaire diplomes du meme programme en enseignement mais ayant des formations disciplinaires differentes: (a)
archeologie, (b) histoire des Etats-Unis, (c) sciences politiques, et (d) etudes de la societe americaine contemporaine. Ces 4 enseignants doivent enseigner un nouveau cours dans la meme matiere: l'histoire. Cette recherche demontre que la formation disciplinaire influence tant Ie processus que Ie contenu du cours. Par exemple, Ie manque de connaissances en his to ire manifeste par 2 des enseignants a limite leur capacite non seulement a comprendre la matiere au programme mais aussi a apprendre de nouveaux elements de contenu. Par contre, ceux possedant plus de connaissances en histoire ont ete capables d'integrer les elements du cours avec lesquels ils n'etaient pas famiIiers dans leur reservoir de connaissances historiques deja etabli. L'orientation
disciplinaire d'origine des enseignants a aussi une influence sur les buts qu'ils poursuivent. Par exemple, l'enseignant ayant une formation en sciences politiques mettait plus l'emphase sur les aspects politiques et economiques de l'histoire pendant que l'enseignante ayant une formation en anthropologie privilegiait les aspects interculturels. De son cote, l'enseignante ayant une formation en histoire concevait Ie cours non pas comme l'apprentissage d'une succession de faits hist9riques mais comme Ie developpement par les eleves d'nne pensee interpretative, demontrant par Ie fait meme une reflexion epistemoIogique sur la discipline plus avancee que ses trois autres collegues.
De son cote, Grossman (l991a) montre que lorsqu'un enseignant donne un cours en dehors de sa discipline de formation, il a tendance a rapporter Ie contenu d'enseignement a sa discipline d'origine. Ainsi, s'il est forme en anthropologie et qu'il ens eigne l'histoire, il orientera davantage son cours vers les dimensions interculturelles. Ce phenomene peut avoir pour consequence d'entra'iner une derive du cours vers des aspects peripheriques a la discipline a I' etude qui font perdre de vue Ie vecteur central du cours.
II Y a une difference dans I'enseignement d'une meme matiere en fonction
du niveau de connaissances d'une discipline (parfois evaluee selonle
diplOme)
Wilson et Wineburg (1988) mentionnent que les enseignants possedant une formation de plus courte duree en histoire ont tendance a baser l'apprentissage de cette matiere sur la connaissance des dates et des faits. Par contre, les enseignants ayant une formation plus poussee se representent l'apprentissage de l'histoire davantage comme Ie developpement de la capacite a interpreter les phenomenes historiques. Les auteurs precisent cependant que l'accumulation
Les disciplinaires et curriculairs en enseignement de connaissances liees a l'enseignement d'un cours particulier ne signifie pas necessairement une comprehension mieux integree de cette matiere.
Dans leurs etudes respectives, Ball (1988), et Steinberg, Marks, et Haymore (1985) mentionnent que les enseignants ayant un niveau eleve de connaissances en mathematiques encouragent leurs eleves
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trouver differentes fa.;:ons de resoudre un probleme,a
identifier les raisons pour lesquelles certai!1es strategies fonctionnent et d'autres non, et mettent l'emphase sur Ie developpemcnt de la pensee mathematique plutot que sur la seule recherche de la bonne reponse.A
l'inverse, les enseignants possedant une faibleconnaissance en mathematiques se representent cette discipline comrne une serie de procedures arbitraires qui doivent etre sui vies a la lettre. Par
consequent, pour ces enseignants, apprendre les mathematiques se resume tres souvent a une simple quete de la reponse exacte.
n y
a une difference dans l'cnseignement d'une meme matiere en fonctionde la representation de ce qu'est la discipline
a
enseignerBaxter (1987) rapporte Ie cas de 2 enseignants en informatique au secondaire qui presentent des caracteristiques similaires quant a leur connaissance de la matiere (meme formation) et a leur experience d'enseignement (19 annees). Sa recherche montre que, nonobstant ces similitudes, ces deux enseignants con90ivent la discipline de maniere differente. L'enseignant A met l'accent sur des aspects plus formels (la syntaxe) du langage BASIC; en contraste, la vision de l'enseignant Best davantage centree sur les aspects pratiques de la
prograrnmation. Cette approche differente de la discipline a enseigner se reflete dans leur enseignement. Alors que dans ses explications aux eleves l'enseignant A n'utilise jamais d'exemples empruntes a l'exterieur de son champ, l'enseignant B n'hesite pas a parsemer ses cours de renvois et de concepts tires d'autres champs disciplinaires. De meme, si l'enseignant A met l'accent sur les definitions operationnelles des termes et favorise un usage "orthodoxe" de la syntaxe, l'enseignant B, de son cote, considere que les concepts abstraits doivent etre utilises pour resoudre des problemes pratiques.
s. Martineau, C. Gauthier
II Y a une difference dans I'enseignement d'une me me matiere en fonction de la presence ou de I'absence d'une formation pedagogique
Grossman (1989) a conduit une etude aupres de 6 enseignants debutants du secondaire en litterature anglaise, dont 1a moitie seulement possedait une fomlation pedagogique. Ses resultats indiquent que la presence ou l'absence de formation pedagogique fait une difference dans l'enseignement. Par exemple, elle constate que les enseignants ayant une formation pedagogique semblent plus conscients des besoins des eleves et ont des attentes plus realistes
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leur endroit. De plus, ces enseignants vont centrer leur planification specifiquement de maniere a prendre en compte les eleves non motives. De meme, ils ont une representation plus explicite de l'enseignement de leur discipline; cette representation a un effet puissant sur la nature de 1a planification de leur cours et sur 1a maniere d'envisager leur role d'enseignant de litterature anglaise. Enfin, elle influence ce que l'enseignant retirera de ses experiences subsequentes.II Y a une difference dans I'enseignement d'une meme matiere en fonction de I'experience d'enseignement
La recherche de Hashweh (1985) laisse entrevoir que les enseignants experimentes deve10ppent un repertoire de strategies particulieres pour enseigner un theme (topic). Ce repertoire inc1ut differents niveaux de
traitement du theme. Il comprend egalement l'identification des connaissances prealables necessaires
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sa comprehension. En outre, il englobe un inventaire des preconceptions des etudiants au regard de son apprentissage et des difficultes de comprehension que ces demiers eprouvent. II est egalement constitue d'un ensemble de strategies permettant d'aider les eleves a surmonter ces difficultes. Finalement, Ie repertoire contient des le<;ons-types pour enseigner Ie theme de meme qu'un argumentaire pour en faire valoir I'utilite. De leur cote, Carpenter, Fennema, Peterson, et Carey (1988) illustrent dans leur recherche en enseignement des mathematiques a l'elementaire l'importance de la connaissance par les enseignants experimentes des preconceptions et des strategies habitue lIes des eIeves pour resoudre differents types de problemes.Les disciplinaires et curriculairs en enseignement oubher que cette capacite d'apprendre de nouveaux contenus est en lien etroit avec leurs connaissances anterieures.
En somme, l'acquisition de l'experience en enseignement permet de raffiner et de rendre plus explicites les modeles de l'enseignement de la matiere. Ceci a un impact quand il s'agit de prendre des decisions au sujet du curriculum et de l'enseignement en classe. Par exemple, l'enseignant debutant sera davantage porte a suivre pas a pas Ie curriculum et sera plus dependant des manuels que l'enseignant chevronne (Grossman & Gudmundsdottir, 1987).
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a une difference dans l'enseignement d'une meme matiere en fonction de la connaissance du programmeCarlsen (1988) a montre que, lorsque les enseignants sont familiers avec Ie contenu au programme, ils sont plus enclins a utiliser une approche
d'enseignement simultanee et permettront plus facilement aux eIeves de prendre la parole.
A
l'inverse, les enseignants moins familiers avec Ie contenu au programme semblent privilegier une approche centree sur Ie travail individuel et tendent a dominer la discussion et a monopoliser la parole en classe. De plus, quand les enseignants connaissent peu Ie contenu au programme, ils ont tendance a suivre la regIe non ecrite en plaidoirie qui recommande de ne jamais poser une question dont on ne connait pas deja la reponse. Cette maniere de pro ceder limite les possibilites qu'ont les eleves de faire surgir leurs propres questions au sujet du contenu.Dans leur recherche comparant l'enseignement de 4 enseignants ayant des formations disciplinaires differentes, Wilson et Wineburg (1988) ont trouve que l'enseignante dont la formation d'origine etait 1a plus eloignee du contenu du cours qu'elle avait a ens eigner, etait egalement cene qui suivait Ie plus servilement le manuel. Reynolds, Haymore, Ringstaff, et Grossman (1988) rapportent des resultats similaires: les enseignants qui sont les plus confiants dans leur connaissance de 1a matiere sont egalement Ies plus susceptibles de s'eloigner de l'organisation du contenu telle qu'etablie dans les manuels.
Les enseignants en langue mate melle possedent une connaissance horizontale et vertic ale de leur matiere. Non seulement ils ont une
connaissance des themes qui sont au programme d'un degre donne et des liens qui les unissent, mais aussi iis savent ce que les elevent ont appris dans les annees anterieures et ce qu'ils apprendront ulterieurement aux niveaux suivants (Grossman, 1990).
Conclusion
S. Martineau, C. Gauthier
permettent d'identifier d'abord, de maniere plus precise des facteurs qui entrainent des differences de connaissances disciplinaires et curriculaires des enseignants. Par exemple, celles-ci peuvent varier selon la discipline d'origine, selon Ie niveau de formation, selon la presence ou l'absence d'une formation pedagogique, selon l'experience d'enseignement, etc. Les resultats ont pemus ensuite de n1ieux saisir comment la connaissance disciplinaire et curricula ire de l'enseignant peut influencer sa pratique; elle semble en effet exercer une impact sur des aspects tels que la planification, Ie choix des buts, Ie choix des contenus et des activites d'apprentissage, la liberte par rapport au manuel de base, la nature des exemples utilises, les liens faits avec des problemes de la vie courante, avec d'autres disciplines, d'autres programmes, d'autres niveaux, la maniere de concevoir l'evaluation, etc. Cependant, si les recherches sur les savoirs disciplinaires et curriculaires des enseignants sont encore jeunes, et les resultats evidemment parcellaires, il est d'ores et deja possible de poser un certain nombre de questions interpellant la formation initiale et continue des enseignants. Entre autres, que I est l'impact du concept d'integration des matieres sur la connaissance de la matiere qu'ont les enseignants et leur pratique dans la classe? Quelles sont les consequences de la bidisciplinarite dans la formation des enseignants du secondaire comme cela est Ie cas au Quebec? Peut-on encore continuer a ignorer la formation pedagogique dans l'enseignement post-secondaire? De telles questions, et bien d'autres encore qui pourraient surgir, rendent plus pertinente I'idee de poursuivre les recherches sur cet espace trop longtemps neglige. Ainsi, desormais retrouve, Ie paradigme de recherche sur les savoirs disciplinaire et curriculaire des enseignants, permettra de n1ieux comprendre, voire meme d'ameIiorer la pratique et la formation des enseignants.
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Good, T., Biddle, B.l, & Brophy, lE. (1975). Teachers make a difference. New York: Holt Rinehart & Winston.
Grossman, P. L. (1989, septembre-octobre). A study in contrast: Sources of pedagogical content knowledge for secondary English. Journal of Teacher Education, 24-31.
Grossman, P.L. (1990). The making of a teacher. Teacher knowledge and teacher education. New York: Teachers College.
Grossman, P. L. (1991a). Mapping the terrain: Knowledge growth in teaching. In H.C. Waxman, & H.l Walberg (dir.), Effective teaching: Current research (pp. 203-215). Berkeley: McCutchan.
Grossman, P. L. (1991b). What are we talking about anyway? In J. Brophy (dir.), Advances in research on teaching (pp. 245-264, vol. 2). London, England: Jai Press.
Grossman, P.L., & Gudmundsdottir, S. (1987). Teachers and texts: An expert/ novice study in English (Knowledge Growth in a Profession Publication Series). Stanford, CA: Stanford University, School of Education. Grossman, P.L., Wilson, S.L., & Shulman, L.S. (1989). Teachers of substance:
Subject matter knowledge for teaching. In M.C. Reynolds (dir.), Knowledge base for the beginning teacher (pp. 23-36). Toronto: Pergamon Press.
Hashweh, M. Z. (1985). An exploratory study of teacher knowledge and teaching: The effects of science teachers' knowledge of subject matter and their conceptions of learning on their teaching. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
Hashweh, M. Z. (1987).Effects of subject-matter knowledge in the teaching of the biology and physics. Teaching and Teacher Education, 3 (2),
109-120.
S, Martineau, C, Gauthier
East Lansing, MI: Holmes Group,
Jencks, e.s. (1972). Inequality: An assessment of the effect offamily and schooling in America. New York: Basic Books.
Martineau, S. (1996). De la base de connaissances en enseignement au savoir d'action pedagogique: Construction d'un objet theorique. These de doctorat, Faculte des sciences de l'education, Universite Laval, Sainte-Foy.
Martineau, S., Gauthier, e., Simard, D., & Tardif, M. (1995). La recherche d'une base de connaissances en enseignement: un nouveau defi pour la formation des maitres, In e. Garant, F. Lacourse, & M. Scholer (diL) Nouveaux defts pour laformation des maftres (pp. 209-226). Actes du 4e colloque de l'AQUFOM. Sherbrooke: Editions du CRP.
Mosteller, F., & Moynihan, P.D. (1972). On equality of educational opportunity. New York: Random House.
Reynolds, J.A., Haymore, J., Ringstaff, e., & Grossman, p, (1988). Teachers and curriculum materials: Who is driving whom'? Curriculum Perspectives, 8 (1), 22-30.
Rosenshine, B. (1971). Teaching behaviors and student achievement.
London: National Foundation for Educational Research in England and Wales.
Shulman, L. S. (1986a). Paradigms and research programs in the study of teaching. In M.e. Wittrock (diL), Handbook of research on teaching (pp, 3-36, 3me ed), New York: Macmillan.
Shulman, L. (1986b). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational researcher, 15 (2), 4-14.
Steinberg, R., Marks, R., & Haymore, J, (1985). Teachers' knowledge and structuring of content in Mathemathics. (Knowledge Growth in a Profession Technical Report), Stanford, CA: School of Education, Stanford University,
Tardif, M., Lessard, e., & Lahaye, L. (1991). Les enseignants des odres d'enseignement primaire et secondaire face aux savoirs. Esquisse d'une problematique du savoir enseignant. Sociologie et societes, 23 (1),55-69.
Travers, R.M.W. (diL), (1973). Second handbook of research on teaching. A project of the American Educational Research Association. Chicago: Rand McNally College Publishing.
Brock Education Vol. 9, No.1, 1999
Second Language Development Through
the Use of Dance
IIdiko Pinter
Brock UniversityAbstract
Professionals Feqllently discuss implicit language learning and teaching techniques, but few language teachers actually use explicit techniques to teach second language. This article discusses the use of dance as a teaching strategy for second language learning. Through dance, students can develop various relationships. Creating relationships between the mind and body, and between the self and the community is velJ! meaningfiil especially for second language learners. The foclls of these relationships is holistic. It is important to begin to use explicit strategies to bring together various domains of knowledge. I propose a variety of tools ill which dance can be implemented into the second language curriculum.
In an age of mass-communication tools, oral language still remains the preferred form of interaction between individuals. Although oral language is preferred, there are other forms of communication we use and rely on, sometimes even more so than we are aware. Often we read a person's body language and it can tell us more than actual words. The relationship between mind and body is very important and it is one which each student should be given the opportunity to experience. One of the ways this relationship can be explored is through the use of dance. Through dance, individuals develop "muscle sense" or kinesthetic perception of bodily movement. They gain a sense of rhythm, as movement is not isolated but is part of a whole. While dancing, students develop a sense of fluency as their bodies become more centred. As students gain this kinesthetic perception, they learn to express their own feelings and they also increase their movement vocabulary. Dance, then, becomes a vehicle for expressing the inner life of the individual. To date, the functions of dance have been examined from several perspectives. Dance has been seen as emotional experience, nonverbal communication, as a means of establishing social unity, as an expression of the collective unconscious of a society, and as a form of movement. In addition to all of these valuable elements, there are further purposes dance can serve. Using the technique of
I. Pinter
movement as a means of communication or just as a strategy can enhance the language learning process, especially for second language learners. Different factors such as self-esteem and anxiety can be affected which, in turn, can affect the language learning process. This article explores a holistic approach to language acquisition utilizing dance to help connect the two. Dance, then, is a powerful tool as a means of communication, which needs to be explored and considered as a potential strategy for second language acquisition.
Conditions for Second Language Learning
The different ways in which students tackle learning, can affect their success. What happens in the class is not equally productive for all the students because everyone's mind works in different ways. Students also base what they do on previous experience oflearning and of using language. Understanding how apparently similar students react differently to the same teaching technique can help second language instructors realize the need for various methods to target the needs of each individual.
Second language (L2) teaching methods incorporate a view oflearning either implicitly or explicitly. In the former, grammar-translation teaching emphasizes explanations of grammatical points because it fits in with the view that L2 learning is the acquisition of conscious knowledge (Cook, 1996). In the latter, communicative teaching methods make students talk to each other because L2 learning is seen as a growing out of the give and take of communication. L2 learning research has shown that the best way to learn a foreign language is explicitly. For instance, being immersed into an
environment, where only that specific language is spoken, is by far the quickest and most efficient way to learn a language. Even though this is a well-known fact, there is still more focus on implicit methods when teaching a L2.
Obviously, an immersion setting is not always possible, but there are alternative ways in which classroom settings can be focused on, thereby creating more of a realistic environment. One example is to mimic situations in which individuals would encounter themselves in everyday situations. A need for more
interaction and communication amongst peers in a L2 setting is a definite must. Learners are individuals and factors such as motivation, anxiety, age,
personality, and level of first language, can also contribute to the learning process. Thus, it is important to be aware of the various conditions for L2 learning, as well as to give equal importance and opportunity for explicit learning strategies.
Second Language Development through Dance
Holistic Education
The value of holistic educational processes is derived directly from their humanistic nature. Humans are not divided into separate components; rather, cognitive learning, emotions, values, and day-to-day behaviour are deeply intertwined in each learner. These factors influence and mutually affect one another. Unifying the portions of these spheres of humanness is likely to render the ed~lcational process more effective (Miller, 1996). To recognize the multi-dimensional nature of human experience by honouring the emotional! psychological, physical and spiritual, and the cognitive needs of the leamer, as well as the ilmate potential of every student, is the basis for holistic education which derives from a humanistic perspective. Using a holistic approach to learning implies the notion of connectedness. It involves exploring and making relationships in a variety of ways. One of these connections is the relationship between mind and body. A holistic curriculum explores the relationship between mind and body so that the student senses the connection between the two.
Dance Education
The more exposure one has to language teaching and dance, the more aware one becomes of the many parallels that exist between the two domains.
Although some teachers feel that they are able to offer students the opportunity to encounter language in purposeful and challenging contexts, the idea of incorporating movement into their language teaching has not occurred to them because it is a relatively new concept. Since there has been no information given in this field, there is the obstacle of how to go about incorporating something like dance into language learning. The following sections will help in getting started.
There are many concepts associated with the teaching of foreign languages that are also essential to dance. What are some parallels between language teaching and dance? Most fundamentally, dancers and language learners share common goals, the most important being effective
"performance," that is, communicating the intended, appropriate message. In order to communicate, dancers, like language learners, have to be able to do three things (Smith, 1984):
1. They have to be able to decide what they want to communicate, (i.e., what is appropriate for the given situation?)
2. They must then decide how to communicate that message.
I. Pinter
other words, they must be able to perfonn with competence. This is perhaps the most difficult task of all.
Dancers and language learners also share common obstacles in learning to convey meaning. They must learn to deal with new language and new roles, to understand their own inhibitions and confusing habits, and to develop the ability to control their own instruments; that is, their bodies, their voices, and their minds. Dancers and language learners can make use of the same strategies in overcoming the obstacles that stand in the way of effective communication.
In order to become skilled at interacting spontaneously in the second language, L2 learners need the opportunity to practise language without inhibition and without interruption from the teacher. However, learners also need to receive correction and explanation from the teacher. A set of
movement activities as a pedagogical insllument provides both the freedom and the motivation for learners to develop skills in spontaneous communication. This allows for individual learner differences and allows students to be exposed to language that is realistic.
Dance Techniques for the Second Language Classroom
The use of dance techniques and methods in language teaching are innovative and offer a good deal of variety. This next section focuses on specific features that dance brings to the classroom and investigate how these influence individual participants and the class as a group. Many programs cannot, practically, accommodate a class devoted entirely to dance tec1miques. Thus, it is impOliant to keep in mind that the following recommendations and exercises are meant to serve as examples and to suggest ways for readers to create applications of their own for a variety of teaching contexts.
Incorporating Dialogue within the Dance
It is important to note that when using dance as a teaching strategy for language learning, dialogue can be and in fact should be incorporated for most part of the movement activity. This can occur simultaneously and/or subsequently to the movement activity. Some of the areas oflanguage that are being learned through such processes are grammar, language functions, culture,
pronunciation and intonation, language "coping" strategies like paraphrasing, role playing, appreciation of underlying meaning (i.e. analyzing individuals and situations using available linguistic data), appreciation of nonverbal
communication, interpretation of subtext (i.e., reading between the lines), using the script as literature and analyzing it as a chunk of discourse, observation
Second Language Development through Dance skills, communication (i.e., self-expression), empathy, exploitation of the memory
(i.e., kinesthetic memory, tonal memory, and sense memory), sensitivity to speech dynamics like tempo and rhythm, self-confidence in using the "second" language, and lexical, physical, and emotional vocabulary (Holden, 1981; Kao & O'Neill, 1998; Lang, 1993; Smith, 1984; Spolsky, 1989).
The instructor or the students can bring in music. Or, students can create their own and then play it along with the dance activity. The music should include lyrics so that the students can analyze the words and meaning of the song. This adds variety as well as incorporates listening skills into the second language learning environment.
Cultural Education
The teaching of culture is divided into two categories: coping strategies and knowledge. Knowledge about a specific culture can be learned through various dance activities. Skills that can be useful in cross-cultural interactions can also be developed. The best thing that can be done for language learners is to help them learn about culture on their own. Perhaps the most difficult task a person faces when living in a foreign culture is the interpretation of experiences. The more skilled the language learners become, the more adept they will be at acquiring cultural knowledge.
Hence, it is important to incorporate activities that involve cultural knowledge for the second language learner. They become more aware of their environment and they develop coping strategies that make them more adaptable to their living conditions. One way this can be done is to split the class into pairs or small groups to create short, realistic interactions. These scenarios can be created by the students or by the instructor. An example of how cultural knowledge can be used in an activity is by acting out a Christmas dinner typical in a North American Christmas celebration. Incorporating information on the types of foods eaten, the language used at the dinner table, customs, traditional songs and dances. Such experiences contribute to the language learners verbal as well as cultural vocabulary.
Observation Tasks
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students to use observation to study one or more of the following items:
1. walks
2. arm and hand gestures, facial expressions 3. sitting positions/standing positions 4. breathing movements and sounds 5. space
6. eye contact 7. physical contact
8. people observing their environment
Class Discussions and Exercises
1. Class members report on observations they have made of the culture they are living in. Assign observations in advance, directing students to observe particular people, places, types of interactions, or characteristics. 2. Have learners incorporate actual observations made into fictional
character sketch (written, verbal, or performed) of the people involved. 3. Use a picture to stimulate discussion. Find as many visual cues as
possible to an interpretation of the characters in the picture. Examine clothing, posture, setting, action, etc.
4. After role playing, scene performances, simulations, and other types of presentations, discuss observations made during the presentations. Have the class apply what they are learning about observation to everyday events. Don't regard the end of a presentation as being the end of the activity.
5. Devote time to each of the five senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching) in isolation. In class, discuss sensations and experiences involving each sense. Also, remind students to try to always incorporate the senses into their movement activities as well as into their discussions.
Therefore, observation prepares students to use their imagination to recognize and appreciate the messages encoded in the vast and complex systems of human behaviour. Language learners can observe in order to discover about the behaviour of a particular individual, or the behaviour of a group of people within a culture, subculture, or situation. They can also observe to broaden their experience and stimulate their imaginations to better understand how humans communicate.
Garnes, Role-playing, Improvisation, and Simulation
A variety of techniques can be used to diversify the language leaming process:
Second Language Development through Dance Games. Games are frequently used to tighten the group. Through games, the group members become acquainted. The group begins to operate as a unit and its members begin to trust and cooperate. Classmates become teammates, working together to achieve a common goal. Trivia contests, charades, and guessing games are a few games that are ideal for group building.
Role-playing. Role-playing is also a game in the sense that participants play within the confines of previously determined "rules" and scenarios. Two goals of role-playing are to expand the actor's vocabularies of behaviour and to increase their comprehension of a wider range of behaviour in others. Role-playing can be designed to suit a group's language learning needs. The more a person role-plays, the easier it becomes and eventually it can move into improvisation. It is important that the students explore their characters with respect to the incident in a discussion form. This can take place in partners, small groups, or as a class. This adds another dimension to the activity.
Simulation. A simulation is a means of activating the knowledge and language associated with topics the instructor and students are studying. A simulation gives participants the opportunity to practise taking on specific roles and improvising within specific situations. The assumption is that, with practise, the participants will play their roles more effectively when situations involving similar language functions occur in "real life." Simulations are used to train people to communicate and interact in a variety of specific situations. They are effective devices for facilitating communication practise in the language classroom. Language learning takes place in the context of a culture, and "specific" situations. A simulation activity provides a specific situation within which students can practise executing language functions.
Self-esteem
Self-esteem is on the line in the foreign language classroom much as it is in the emotion-charged atmosphere of a dance rehearsal or performance. Language is a very personal matter - an expression of self. When our ability to express ourselves is reduced, as it is when we use a second language, we risk our psychological well-being every time we try to speak. The language teacher is in a position where he/she can make a difference by helping to preserve one's self-esteem.
Dance gives students a great opportunity for self-expression. At first, students might feel anxious and uncomfortable with activities of
self-expression. In addition, they might find these exercises difficult and requiring a lot of work. Gradually, students become less apprehensive about
I. Pinter
themselves. It is very important to build this sense of confidence and self-esteem especially for second language learners so that they can learn to feel good about expressing themselves. Second language learners are already at a disadvantage because of the language barrier and there is usually a decrease in confidence and self-esteem. Language teachers can help to build self-esteem for students, and will see that it can alleviate a lot of the pressures that come along with learning a second language. The less anxious individual are, the better they can express themselves which then makes the actual language learning process easier. Thus, dance is an important way to accomplish the goal of establishing and building a good sense of confidence and self-esteem for the second language student.
In conclusion, dance provides a number of relationships among various domains of knowledge in terms of second language learning. As demonstrated, the previous techniques mentioned all involve some type of combination of verbal communication along with the movement activities. It is important to practise the speaking component of the language, but it is crucial to incorporate specific tasks to work on the other areas of language which are listening, reading, and writing. These techniques can help everyone become a proficient verbal communicator. Many second language learners rely a great deal on nonverbal actions to communicate ideas. Using various dance teclmiques to work on the different components of language can help put language learning into more realistic environments. This helps students to relate better to the culture they are living in.
References
Cook, V. (1996). Second language learning and language teaching. New York, NY: St Martin's Press.
Holden, S. (1981). Drama in language teaching. Harlow, Essex: Longman Group Limited.
Kao, S., & O'Neill, C. (1998). Words into worlds. Learning a second language through process drama. Stamford, CT: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Lang, P. (1993). Towards drama as a method in theforeign language classroom. Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Peter Lang.
Miller, J. (1996). The holistic curriculum. Toronto, ON: OISE Press. Smith, S. (1984). The theatre arts and the teaching of second languages.
Reading, MT: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Spolsky, B. (1989). Conditiollsforsecond language learning. Walton Street, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Brock Education Vol. 9, No.1, 1999
Teaching Portfolios for Preservice Self-assessment:
Rural Interns' Perceptions
Douglas James Smith
University of Saskatchewan
Abstract
This paper shares nine Saskatchewan rural school division directors' and 11 rural preservice teachers' perceptions about teaching portfolios during, and ajier a I6-week internship. Data were gathered ji-om surveys and a focus group interview. Although olle director found portfolios too time consllming, the remaining eight supported portfolio construction and stated that they positively influenced directors' hiring decisions. The interns felt prepared to create portfolios, and offered suggestions for program improvements, but were less certain about budgeting time and using the documents for personal reflection. Positive prospects, reflection issues, and jilfllre improvements are shared.
Preservice teacher self-analysis and reflection is frequently mentioned in teacher education descriptions. It occurs in the University of Saskatchewan's Bachelor of Education, 16-week practicum. These intern teachers document their self-analysis. Yet these products are little valued by the interns themselves. Because the literature suggests that "teaching portfolios" can improve self-analysis and prepare interns for employment interviews, I initiated research into the use of portfolios. The internship was selected because it provides an opportunity for interns to deliberately collect, select, and then reflect on extended school experience. My purpose was to determine if teacher employers valued portfolios, and then to pilot and assess the use of portfolios with a set of interns.
In the first section, I describe what portfolios are, why they should be used, and what are the research goals. Next, in the Method section, I describe the framework, timelines, participants, and data collection. Then I present findings and discuss issues.
D. J. Smith
Background
What Are Portfolios?
Portfolios may be thought of as a product, a process, or as an evaluation tool. When designated as a product, they compare to the collected works of artists. They have been described as a teacher's document collection that shows the scope and quality of their work, as a textured picture of teaching and learning unfolding over time
CW olf, Whinery, & Hagerty, 1995), and as living
documents because new materials constantly replace the old.The notion of process also suggests teachers using portfolios as records of lifelong learning to reflect, describe, and document their teaching and learning. Finally, portfolios can be considered as an empowering evaluation tool used by teachers to display their accomplishments.
Why Should Portfolios Be Used?
The literature suggests that portfolios may contribute to the career advancement, accountability, and enhancement of interns and teachers (Zubizarreta, 1994). They contribute to career advancement as a useful marketing tool. Canadian and American administrators report finding portfolios useful and when used in interviews, they enhanced the chances of candidates being hired (Winsor & Ellefson, 1995; Newman, Smolen, & Newman, 1993).
They may contain attesting documentation from cooperating teachers, college supervisors, administrators, parents, and students or make unrecognized dimensions of teaching visible (e.g. learning, collegiality, Riggs & Sandlin, 1999). They provide accountability to teachers who select and edit the form and contents of the portfolio (Synder, Elliot, Bhavnagri, & Boyer, 1994). They enhance teaching and reflection because teachers can research their own methods, choices, priorities, and philosophy (Seldin, 1993); or invest in their own learning through reading, trying new methods, and consulting with peers (Sparapani, Abel, Edwards, Herbster, k Eafton, 1997).
Portfolios honour the teacher's professional autonomy, providing a directed approach to professional development, goal-setting, and self-analysis. Unlike generic inservice plans which are not tailored to meet specific teacher wants, portfolio-based professional development can meet each teacher's career-stage needs.
Rural school divisions might favour portfolios as professional development tools. They are less costly than centralized staff development; they are not limited to inservice days; and they can address issues rising from the teaching context.
Yet, according to Sparapani et al. (1997) portfolios are fraught with
Teaching Portfolios
reliability and validity problems (e.g., achieving objectivity), and they are time-consuming to create and monitor (Cole, 1992). Also the extensive portfolio literature is mostly speculative commentary on the promise and attraction of portfolios. The literature on reflection, a key purpose of portfolio
development, reveals that teachers do not associate reflection with teaching work (McNamara, 1990). Zeichner (1990) also found that student teachers found it a profitless detour on their road to mastering technical skills. Portfolios need testing. Do they really do what educators believe and claim they do? Are they useful in rural settings? How do school directors and interns respond to portfolio development?
Fitting Portfolios into the Saskatchewan Program
University of Saskatchewan preservice teachers complete two years of Arts and Sciences courses before er.rolling in our college. The following two years are completed in the College of Education, with the internship scheduled for the fall term of the last year. Portfolios were introduced in the extended practicum to enhance intern self-analysis in a real teaching setting (Romine, 1994). Our internship process created opportunities for interns to gain feedback and enhance their employment prospects as they developed portfolios.
Because cooperating teachers at the placements sites had little information or experience in the development of portfolios, and intern pair placements were not always possible, most portfolios were developed by individuals rather than collaboratively. These factors created limitations because portfolios created in isolation are reported to be of inferior quality (Zubizarreta, 1994) to those where teacher talk occurred.
The interest in exploring the use of portfolios came from faculty coordinating the internship. I initiated, studied, and evaluated the development of portfolios during the internship, knowing that it was a work-in-progress requiring refinement. As other education faculty members gain understanding of portfolios, pre-and post-internship components will be incorporated as well.
Method
Development of the Pilot
D. J. Smith
to illustrate teaching skills. They discovered how she would mentor their portfolio development and they completed a survey assessing the workshop.
Data Collection
For the three phases of the project we decided we would:
1. Use an electronic mail (Email) survey to elicit rural education directors' perceptions of the value and format of intern teaching portfolios.
2. Survey the intern pilot cohort during the internship to gather their ratings of the content and delivery of the portfolio workshop.
3. Conduct an intern focus group interview after the internship, about the intern experience, its value, possible changes to our framework, and plans to extend the project to all interns.
Timeline
Data were gathered from August 1998 to January 1999. In the first week of August, I contacted the research director of the Saskatchewan School Trustees Association who used his Emaillistserve connections to survey rural education directors (superintendents) who were also prospective employers.
The "School Trustees" research director asked: a) whether it was of value for interns to construct employment portfolios, b) how the portfolio should be organized, and c) what items should be included? The rural directors, like other participants (Sproul, 1986; Thach, 1995), promptly responded by Email within two weeks of the request.
By early September, the rural interns volunteered. The 8 females and 3 males, in their early 20s had completed a three-week student teaching block, had little practice in self-analysis, and only knew about portfolios as a means of pupil assessment. After the 11 interns completed the October portfolio
workshop, Anne surveyed these volunteers. The questions asked if the rural interns thought that the instruction and mentoring in the use of portfolios was clear and supportive. The interns completed a Likert-type survey which asked each intern to rate his or her responses from 1
=
strongly agree, to 4=
strongly disagree. The survey was completed after the workshop to determine if interns needed further instruction or practice about portfolios before dispersing to their rural schools.The pilot cohorts were self-selected volunteers who committed themselves to a half-day Saturday workshop. Many of these long distance travelers were highly motivated individuals who clearly felt they had something to gain by participating.
Teaching Portfolios changes, and proposed features of future portfolio use for all interns. The 11 rural interns divided into four groups, three pods of three, and one pod of two interns. Following Morgan's (1998) suggestion to use guided group discussion, each pod of the focus group, in rotation, discussed and recorded their answers to questions related to one of the four themes: (a) their experience, (b) what was of value to them, (c) possible changes to the pilot procedures, and (d) means of extending portfolio use to all interns. At the end of the four, 20-minute-discussions, the compiled answers were read aloud and the total group had an opportunity to add further comments to any of the themes.
Findings
School Division Directors' Pre-Internship E-mail Survey Responses (n=9)
Although one director found that reviewing extensive portfolios during employment interviews was too time consuming, the remaining eight encouraged intern portfolio development. Three directors reported encouraging all staff members to develop portfolios and others assisted teachers in portfolio artifact selection. They agreed that candidates carrying portfolios created a favourable impression on hiring committees. Directors noted that portfolio construction prompted intern reflection and helped hiring committees create questions and discussion about educational issues.
Most suggested that portfolios should be brief, individualized rather than generic, reflect candidates' perceptions of the teacher's role, and portray the candidates' beliefs and values. Directors suggested that portfolios contain a statement of philosophy, a table of contents, final internship evaluation, samples of teacher work (lesson/unit plans), samples of student work (evaluation, assignments), supporting documents (letters, certificates), professional development experiences, and personal information (volunteer work, employment record, criminal records check).
Interns' Early-Internship Portfolio Survey Responses (n=l1)
The survey responses are shown in Table 1. All 11 intern volunteers "strongly agreed" or "agreed" that they understood and felt prepared to construct teaching portfolios. Eight or more of the interns "strongly agreed" that they understood the research purpose, the oral instructions, the overheads, how portfolios could aid employment interviews, and that they felt prepared to construct their own portfolios.
D. J. Smith
Also, while nine interns had a clear understanding of how portfolios assist their employment prospects, only four of the interns strongly agreed that portfolios helped their reflection. Finally, one intern added that suggestions and responses from directors of education would be helpful.
Table 1
Pilot Interns' Survey Responses to Portfolio Workshop Experience
Please respond to the statements by circling the number most closely matching your response (I = strongly agree, 4= strongly disagree).
RATINGS
2 3 4
I. The oral instructions about portfolios were
understandable. 10
2. The overheads were clear. II 3. The written instructions prepared me
to begin developing a portfolio. 9 2 4. The portfolio model aided comprehension. 6 5 5. TIle portfolio activities provided useful
practice to guide me as I begin to construct
my own portfolio. 5 6
6. I understood the conditions of the
Research Participant Consent form. 8 3 7. The portfolio presentation and preparation of
my portfolio will help me to use reflection
during my internship. 4 6
8. The portfolio activities will assist me in beginning to use my portfolio when
seeking a teaching position. 9
Other ideas to help improve the presentation, written contents, and portfolio activities include: - suggestions and responses lrom directors 01 education would help as well
-this is a good idea
Interns' Post-Internship Focus Group Interview Responses
Questions prepared for the focus-group interview prompted discussion directed to four themes: (a) What was your experience?, (b) What was of value? (c) What changes should be made? and (d) How could portfolios be extended to all interns?
Question one responses indicated that the interns learned that portfolio construction required considerable thought, work, and time. They appreciated being able to show what they wanted people to see. Their portfolios were a source of pride that showed their work and achievements. Artifacts included resumes, grade transcripts, internship evaluations, director's assessments, certificates, letters of reference, lesson and unit plans, samples of student work,
Teaching Portfolios pictures, newspaper articles, examples of community involvement, and
reflections.
Question two responses included the interns valuing the college supervisor's resources, internet portfolio examples, encouragement,
accessibility, and willingness to answer questions. They also appreciated peer critique, and the use of portfolios as authentic evaluation tools. In constructing portfolios they wrote captions explaining why they had included an item. They displayed and analyzed positive and negative experiences as signposts along their internship growth journey. They explained that portfolio construction aided their reflection.
Question three improvements listed a table of contents, specific section topic headings, a time-line indicating what should be completed at each stage of the internship, portfolio template handouts, portfolio models, and a web site. As well, they suggested that the College specify artifact selection, appropriate length of portfolios, and time requirements. They also requested portfolio instruction for cooperating teachers to facilitate mentoring interns' portfolio work.
Question four responses favoured keeping portfolio construction as a voluntary option for all interns because they assumed that most prospective employers would accept traditional documentation. They anticipated adding post internship course work items to their portfolios. They expected that their portfolio items would create interest, show dedication, and display their professional improvement in employment interviews. They also foresaw using their portfolios to guide other interns.
Discussion
Themes rising from the data clustered around positive perceptions, reflection problems and explanations, and improvements. Positive aspects of portfolio development are discussed first and suggestions for use conclude each of the theme sections.
Positive Perceptions
D. J. Smith
The surveyed interns strongly agreed that their portfolio preparations were understandable. In focus group interviews they expressed pride in their portfolios and enjoyed their control of the process. They appreciated
showcasing their achievements, selecting what they wanted others to see about them, using portfolios as evaluation tools, and sharing their new expertise with future interns. They recommended that portfolio development be offered as an option for all future interns.
This section supports development of portfolio methods and materials. It shows that directors favour intern portfolio in theory. Follow-up studies with directors, school trustees, and other hiring committee members will determine if favourable perceptions persist following examination of actual portfolios. Copies of former interns' portfolios will be used as models for current interns. Research could determine if and how these 11 interns retain interest in portfolios following employment.
Reflection Problems and Explanations
Although data demonstrated a clear understanding of how portfolios aided teacher employment interviews, reflection was more problematic. In the post-internship survey only 4 of the 11 interns strongly agreed that portfolio development assisted reflection. Since the survey listed the question early in the internship, the interns may have not developed their self-assessment skills nor recognized how portfolios promoted reflection. The teacher reflection literature articulates several problems. McNamara (1990) suggests that teaching is often perceived as being about solving immediate problems and reflection is viewed as an academic enterprise not associated with working as a teacher (Hatton & Smith, 1999). Zeiclmer (1990) adds that many student teachers see efforts to reflect diverting them from their immediate technical needs to master teaching skills and classroom management. When Hatton and Smith (1999) examined 16 studies investigating the effectiveness of
approaches employed to develop the capacity for reflection in student teachers, they found little evidence of critical reflection on the part of students. These practical views may be deep-seated preconceptions still present in interns' thoughts about teaching.
The lower ratings may also indicate that interns need help in asking self-analyzing questions about their experience or that supervisors need to use the cognitive coaching "so what, now what" questions to model analysis of teaching. Winsor (1997) suggests that interns should prepare for supervisory conferences by goal setting, selecting artifacts that show evidence of progress, and discussing to demonstrate reflection on teaching.
Teaching Portfolios portfolios encouraged reflective discussion of educational issues. They anticipated that portfolios would prompt the interns to share their perceptions of the teacher's role, express their beliefs and values, and articulate their philosophy of education.
Perhaps the interns' low rating of reflection was linked to time constraints. Like other authors (Cole, 1992; Sparapani et. aI., 1997), the one director who did not support development of portfolios felt that their perusal was time consuming. The other time conscious directors requested brief portfolios as well. Interns also noted that portfolio development required thought, work, and time. And Fuller and Bown's (1975) developmental stages' study indicated that time blocks are needed for student teachers to move from survival skills to mastery of teaching skills before they can reflect on their impact on pupils.
Intern focus group data collected post internship expressed ways of attending to reflection. In contrast to the lack of teaching practise in their early internship, interns now had 16 weeks of experience. Interns, complementing pre
