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Introduction to instrumental variables and their application to large-scale assessment data

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Figure

Fig. 1 Examples of a situation where the modeling of causal relationships using observational data will be biased (a) and a situation where it will be valid (b)
Fig. 2 Examples of situations where Z is an invalid instrument (a, b) and a valid instrument (c)
Table 1 Examples of IVs in studies connected with education (sorted by year in categories)
Fig. 3 Venn diagrams representing the OLS and IVs approaches used to estimate causal relationships between two variables (Murnane and Willett 2010, pp
+4

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