LESSON 1
The Oregon Country
Thousands of pioneers moved west, adding their struggles and triumphs to the American
Why did Americans want to control the Oregon Country?
The Oregon Country was a huge area located north of California, between the Pacific
Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It included all of what are now Oregon, Washington, and
Idaho, plus parts of Montana and Wyoming. The region also contained about half of what
is now the Canadian province of British Columbia. In the early 1800s, four nations claimed
the vast, rugged land known as the Oregon Country. The United States based its claim on
Robert Gray's discovery of the Columbia River in 1792 and the Lewis and Clark
expedition. Great Britain had explored the Columbia River. Spain controlled California,
and Russia had settlements south from Alaska into Oregon.
Adams-Onís Treaty
Many Americans wanted control of Oregon in order to gain access to the Pacific Ocean. In
1819 Secretary of State John Quincy Adams got Spain to approve the Adams-Onís Treaty.
The Spanish agreed to set the limits of their territory at what is now California's northern
border and to give up all claims to Oregon. In 1824 Russia also gave up its claim to the land
south of Alaska. Dealing with Great Britain was more complicated. In 1818 Adams worked
out an agreement with Britain for joint occupation. This meant that people from both the
United States and Great Britain could settle there. When Adams became president in 1825,
he proposed that the two nations divide Oregon along the 49° N line of latitude. Britain
refused, and the countries extended the joint occupation.
Mountain Men in Oregon
Oregon and Manifest Destiny
In the 1830s, Americans began traveling to the Oregon Country to settle. Economic troubles in the East and reports of Oregon's fertile land drew many people.
Marcus and Narcissa Whitman
Among the first settlers were Dr. Marcus Whitman and his wife, Narcissa. They were missionaries who went to Oregon in 1836 and built a mission among the Cayuse people near the present site of Walla Walla, Washington. They wanted to provide medical care and convert the Cayuse to Christianity. The new settlers unknowingly brought measles to the mission. Native Americans had never been exposed to this disease. An epidemic killed many of the Cayuse children. The Cayuse blamed the Whitmans. They attacked the mission in November 1847 and killed the Whitmans and 11 others. The Whitman massacre was a shocking event, but it did little to stop the flood of pioneers on their way to Oregon. Drawn by reports of fertile Oregon land, and driven by economic hard times in the East, many Americans took to the trail. These pioneers were called emigrants—people who leave their country—because they left the United States to go to Oregon.
In 1843 about a thousand emigrants made the journey. Tens of thousands more would follow in the years ahead. Before the difficult 2,000-mile (3,219 km) journey, these pioneers packed all their belongings. They stuffed their canvas-covered wagons with supplies. From a distance these wagons looked like schooners, or ships at sea, and people called them prairie schooners. Gathering in Independence or other towns in Missouri, the pioneers followed the Oregon Trail across the Great Plains, along the Platte River, and through the South Pass of the Rocky Mountains. Then they turned north and west along the Snake and Columbia Rivers into the Oregon Country.
Since colonial times, many Americans had believed their nation's mission should be to serve as a model of freedom and democracy. In the 1800s that vision changed. Many believed that the nation's mission was to spread freedom by settling the entire continent. In 1819 John Quincy Adams expressed what many Americans were thinking when he said expansion to the Pacific was as certain as the Mississippi River flowing to the sea. In the 1840s, New York newspaper editor John O'Sullivan expressed in more specific words the idea of a national mission. O'Sullivan declared it was America's "Manifest Destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us." O'Sullivan meant that the United States was clearly destined—set apart for a special purpose—by God to extend its boundaries all the way to the Pacific Ocean.
Oregon. Polk's Whig opponent, Henry Clay, did not take a strong position on the Oregon issue. Polk won the election because Whig support was not united behind Clay. A firm believer in Manifest Destiny, Polk was focused on acquiring Oregon. Britain would not accept a border at 54°40' N latitude. In 1846 the two countries compromised. They set the border at 49° N latitude. It was the same boundary the British had rejected 21 years before.
Statehood for Florida and Texas
Through conflict and negotiations, the United States acquired Florida and Texas.
When Spain transferred Florida to the United States on July 17, 1821, Florida became an American territory. Under the terms of the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, Florida had an appointed territorial governor, a territorial legislature, and a nonvoting delegate to the United States Congress. Tallahassee became the territorial capital in 1824. The capital was located about midway between St. Augustine and Pensacola, Florida's major cities at that time. Not counting Native Americans, fewer than 8,000 people lived in the territory, including enslaved people. Later, as news of the area's fertile land spread,
thousands of new settlers streamed into Florida. Many planters from Virginia, Georgia, and the Carolinas had worn out their soil with years of heavy use. They left their old plantations for new land in Florida. Here, the planters established cotton and tobacco plantations, especially in northern Florida and the narrow strip in the northwest called the Panhandle. In addition, small farms and cattle ranches dotted the region of central Florida. The leading planters of northern Florida played a major role in the government and politics of the area.
In 1837 the census for the territory of Florida reported that 48,000 people lived there. Enslaved people made up about one-half of Florida's population. Officials organized a vote to determine if Floridians wanted to form a state. Only white men over 21 years of age voted in this election. These voters chose to seek statehood. Now Floridians had to draw up a state constitution and submit it to the U.S.
Congress. Florida voters chose 56 people to attend the constitutional convention in St. Joseph, a small port city on the Gulf Coast. The first constitution provided for a governor elected for four years and an elected General Assembly, or legislature. The constitution also allowed slavery and called for a system of public schools. The delegates approved the constitution on January 11, 1839. Florida then sent the document to the U.S. Congress for final approval, or ratification. Florida's desire to enter the Union as a slave state caused some difficulty. Congress had long struggled to maintain an equal balance between slave and free states. As a result, it would take six years for Congress to act on Florida's wish. Congress had to wait until another territory was ready to become a free state.
Iowa finally emerged as a free state candidate. With the question of slavery removed, President John Tyler signed the Florida statehood bill. Florida became the twenty-seventh state in the United States on March 3, 1845. The next year, Iowa became a free state. Thus, the balance between the slave and free states in the nation remained the same in Congress.
In 1821 Mexico won independence from Spain. Mexico controlled the land that is now Texas. At the time, the non-Native American population of Texas was about 3,000. Most of these people were Tejanos (tay • HAH • nohs), or Mexicans who claimed Texas as their home. Wishing to increase settlement, Mexico offered vast tracts of land to people who would agree to bring families to settle there—as citizens of Mexico. Stephen F. Austin brought 300 American families to settle in Texas. Austin's success made him a leader among the American settlers. At first, Mexico encouraged Americans to settle in Texas. Before long, Americans greatly outnumbered Tejanos. Tensions with Mexico developed when Americans refused to follow Mexico's rules. These included learning Spanish and becoming Catholic. Many Americans also had enslaved African Americans, which Mexico threatened to ban. In 1830 Mexico issued a decree, or official order, closing its borders to further immigration. American settlers, led by Austin and Sam Houston, tried to make peace with Mexican leaders. These efforts failed. Texans— including Americans and Tejanos—began planning to break away from Mexico. In 1835 the conflict grew violent. Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna took an army into Texas to punish the rebels. In December of that year, the Texans captured the city of San Antonio from a larger Mexican force. Santa Anna was enraged. His army reached San Antonio in late February 1836. There it found a small Texan force barricaded, or blocked off, inside a mission building called the Alamo. The Texans had only about 180 soldiers to take on Santa Anna's army of several thousand. The Texans did have brave leaders, however, including folk hero Davy Crockett, Commander William B. Travis, and a tough Texan named Jim Bowie. For 13 long days, through several attacks, the defenders of the Alamo kept Santa Anna's army at bay with rifle fire. On March 6, 1836, Mexican cannon fire smashed the Alamo's walls. The Mexican army was too large to hold back. They entered the fortress, killing all the defenders, including Travis, Crockett, Bowie, and a number of Tejanos. Only a few women and children and some servants survived to tell of the battle. The Alamo defenders had been defeated, but they had bought the Texans time to gather troops and supplies. They had also provided the Texans with a rallying cry: "Remember the Alamo
Texas Declares Its Independence
During the siege at the Alamo, Texan leaders met at the town of Washington-on-the-Brazos. Among them were a number of Tejanos, who were also unhappy with Mexican rule. On March 2, 1836—four days before the fall of the Alamo—they declared independence from Mexico. They then established the Republic of Texas. Texan leaders set up a temporary government. This government named Sam Houston commander in chief of the Texan forces. Houston gathered an army of about 900 at San Jacinto (san juh • SIHN • toh), near the site of presentday Houston. Santa Anna camped nearby with an army of more than 1,300. On April 21, the Texans launched a surprise attack, shouting, "Remember the Alamo!" They killed more than 600 soldiers and captured about 700 more—including Santa Anna. On May 14, 1836, Santa Anna signed a treaty that recognized the independence of Texas.
The Lone Star Republic
The addition of another slave state would upset the balance of slave and free states in Congress. For the moment, Texas would remain an independent country.
Texas Becomes a State
Many Texans wanted to join the United States. Southerners favored Texas annexation, but Northerners opposed admitting another slave state to the Union. President Martin Van Buren did not want to inflame the slavery issue or risk war with Mexico. He put off the question of annexing Texas. John Tyler, who became president in 1841, supported Texas annexation. The Senate remained divided over the slavery issue and failed to ratify the annexation treaty.
The situation changed with the 1844 presidential campaign. Manifest Destiny was a popular idea at the time. The South wanted Texas. The North favored gaining all of Oregon. Candidate James K. Polk supported both actions. After Polk won, Congress passed a resolution to annex Texas. In 1845 Texas joined the Union.
The New Mexico Territory
How did the Santa Fe Trail benefit the New Mexico Territory?
In the early 1800s, the land called New Mexico was a vast region between the Texas and California territories. It included all of the land that is now the states of New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and Utah and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. Native Americans had lived in the area for thousands of years. Spanish conquistadors, or soldiers, arrived in the late 1500s. They made the region part of Spain's American colonies. In 1610 the Spanish founded the settlement of Santa Fe. Spanish missionaries soon followed the conquistadors into the area. Mexico—including New Mexico—won its independence from Spain in 1821. Before that time, the Spanish had tried to keep Americans away from Santa Fe. They feared that Americans would want to take over the area. The new Mexican government, however, welcomed American traders. Mexico hoped trade would boost the economy. William Becknell, the first American trader to reach Santa Fe, arrived in 1821. Becknell's route came to be known as the Santa Fe Trail. It was a big improvement over the trails that existed in the dry and rugged area at that time. As Becknell wrote: "I avoided the so much dreaded sand hills, where adventurers have frequently been forced to drink the blood of their mules, to allay [relieve] their thirst." The Santa Fe Trail started near Independence, Missouri, which was then on the western edge of the United States. It crossed the prairies to the Arkansas River. It followed the river west toward the Rocky Mountains before turning south. The trail was mostly flat, and Becknell used wagons to transport his goods. Other Americans soon followed Becknell. The Santa Fe Trail became a busy trade route. As trade with New Mexico increased, Americans began settling in the area. Some began to believe that acquiring New Mexico was part of American Manifest Destiny.
Spanish explorers and missionaries from Mexico settled California in the 1700s. Captain Gaspar de Portolá and Father Junípero Serra (hoo • NIP • uh • roh SEHR • uh) began a chain of missions that eventually extended from San Diego to Sonoma. The missions aimed to convert Native Americans to Christianity and the Spanish way of life. Native Americans learned to farm, and they worked at weaving and other crafts. American mountain man Jedediah Smith described the missions as "large farming and [cattle-ranching] establishments." After Mexico won independence from Spain in 1821, California became a Mexican state. Mexicans bought mission lands and set up huge ranches, or ranchos. Native Americans worked the land in return for food and shelter. Rancheros— ranch owners—treated Native Americans almost like slaves. In the 1840s, more Americans reached California. John C. Frémont, an army officer, wrote of the region's mild climate and vast natural resources. Americans began to talk about adding California to the Union. They argued that the nation would then be safely bordered by the Pacific Ocean rather than by a foreign country. Shippers also hoped to build seaports on the Pacific coast for trade with East Asia.
Conflict Begins
President James K. Polk was determined to get the California and New Mexico territories from Mexico. After Mexico refused to sell the lands, Polk planned to gain them through war. To justify a war, Polk hoped to get Mexico to strike first. Relations between the two countries were not friendly. The two nations disagreed about where the Texas-Mexico border was. The United States said that the Rio Grande formed the border. Mexico claimed that the border lay along the Nueces (nu • AY • sehs) River, 150 miles (241 km) farther north. Polk sent a representative, John Slidell, to Mexico to propose a deal. Slidell could offer $30 million for California and New Mexico as long as Mexico accepted the Rio Grande as the Texas border. The United States would also pay what Mexico owed to American citizens. Mexican leaders refused to discuss the offer. They announced that they intended to reclaim Texas for Mexico. To bring pressure, Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to lead U.S. forces into the disputed area on the Rio Grande. To Mexican leaders, Taylor's action was an invasion of their country. On April 25, 1846, Mexican troops attacked Taylor's forces. President Polk told Congress that Mexico had "invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil." On May 13, Congress passed a declaration of war against Mexico.
A War Plan
Polk planned to defeat Mexico by accomplishing three goals. First, the United States would drive Mexican forces out of Texas. Second, it would seize New Mexico and California. Finally, American forces would advance into Mexico and capture the capital, Mexico City. By 1847, Zachary Taylor had
accomplished the first goal. His army had captured all the important towns in the border area between Mexico and Texas. General Stephen Kearney made progress toward the second goal by marching his troops down the Santa Fe Trail. They captured New Mexico's capital, Santa Fe, in 1846 after the Mexican governor fled. Kearney then turned toward California.
Even before war with Mexico officially began, American settlers in northern California had begun an uprising. They were encouraged by American general John C. Frémont. The settlers had little trouble overcoming the weak official Mexican presence in the territory. On June 14, 1846, the Americans declared California independent. They renamed it the Bear Flag Republic. The name came from the flag the rebels had made for their new nation. The Bear Flag Republic did not exist for long. Within a month, American warships arrived at the ports of San Francisco and San Diego to claim the republic for the United States. Mexico still refused to surrender, even though it had lost New Mexico, California, and Texas. President Polk sent General Winfield Scott and his troops to attack Mexico City. They landed in the port of Veracruz and captured it after three weeks of fighting. They still needed to travel 300 miles (483 km) to Mexico City, fighting Mexican troops along the way. Finally, in September 1847, six months after Scott's forces landed in Veracruz, they captured Mexico's capital. Polk's plan for the war had succeeded.
Peace Terms
Defeated on February 2, 1848, Mexico's leaders signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (GWAH • duh • loop he • DAHL • goh). Mexico gave the United States more than 500,000 square miles (1,295,000 sq. km) of territory—what are now the states of California, Nevada, and Utah, as well as most of Arizona and New Mexico and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. Mexico accepted the Rio Grande as its border with Texas. In return, the United States paid Mexico $15 million and assumed $3.25 million in debts Mexico owed American citizens. With Oregon and the former Mexican territories under the American flag, the dream of Manifest Destiny had been realized. The question of whether the new lands should allow slavery, however, would lead the country toward another bloody conflict.
California and Utah
Through the treaty ending the war with Mexico, the United States controlled Texas, California, and what was then New Mexico territory.
California Gold Rush
When gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill in 1848, people from all over the world traveled to California in search of riches. Those who arrived in 1849 were called forty-niners. As one official reported, "The farmers have thrown aside their plows, the lawyers their briefs, the doctors their pills, the priests their prayer books, and all are now digging gold." Some people arrived by sea. Others traveled on the Oregon Trail or the Santa Fe Trail. Americans made up about 80 percent of the forty-niners. Others came from Mexico, South America, Europe, and Australia. About 300 men arrived from China, the first large group of Asian immigrants to settle in America. Although some eventually returned to China, others remained and established California's Chinese American community.
The Californios
Land Law of 1851, however, established a group of reviewers who examined the Californios' land rights. When a new settler claimed land that was held by a Californio, the two parties would go to court. There, it was the Californio who had to prove his or her ownership of the land. Some Californios were able to prove their claims. Many others lost their cases and their land.
The Life of a Forty-Niner
As people rushed to a new area to look for gold, they built new communities. Towns and small cities appeared almost overnight. One site on the Yuba River had only two houses in September 1849. A year later, a miner arrived to find a bustling town of 1,000 people "with a large number of hotels, stores, groceries, bakeries, and . . . gambling houses." Cities also flourished during the Gold Rush. As ships arrived daily with gold seekers, San Francisco became a boomtown, growing quickly from a tiny village to a city of about 20,000 people. Most forty-niners had no experience in mining. Whenever they heard that gold had been discovered at a particular site, they rushed to it and attacked the hillsides with pickaxes and shovels. They spent hours bent over streambeds, "panning" for gold dust and nuggets. Panning involved gently swirling water and gravel in a pan in order to remove dirt and, perhaps, reveal a small speck of gold. The California Gold Rush more than doubled the world's supply of gold. For all their hard work, however, very few forty-niners achieved lasting wealth. Most found little or no gold. Many of those who did find gold lost their riches through gambling or wild spending. Boomtown merchants, however, made huge profits. They could charge whatever they liked for food and other essential items because there were no other nearby stores that sold these products. For example, an immigrant named Levi Strauss sold the miners sturdy pants made of denim. His "Levi's" made him rich.
Gold Rush Society
Mining camps contained men of all backgrounds but few women. Lonely and suffering hardships, many men spent their free hours drinking, gambling, and fighting. Mining towns had no police or prisons. As a result, citizens known as vigilantes (vih • juh • LAN • teez) formed committees to protect themselves. Vigilantes took the law into their own hands and acted as police, judge, jury, and sometimes
executioner.
Economic and Political Progress
The Gold Rush had lasting effects on California. Agriculture, shipping, and trade grew to meet the demand for food and other goods. Many people who had arrived looking for gold stayed to farm or run a business. Rapid growth brought the need for better government. In 1849, Californians applied for statehood and wrote a constitution. The constitution's ban on slavery, however, caused a crisis in Congress. Southern states opposed California's admission. Congress eventually worked out a compromise by which California became a free state in 1850.
While the Gold Rush was transforming California, change was also taking place in nearby Utah. There, Mormons, or members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, were building a new
