INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED YIELD AND QUALITY IN ANNUAL CHRYSANTHEMUM (Chrysanthemum coronarium L.)

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INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND

GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED

YIELD AND QUALITY IN ANNUAL

CHRYSANTHEMUM (Chrysanthemum

coronarium L.)

Thesis submitted to the

University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Degree of

Master of Science (Agriculture)

in

SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

By

SAINATH

DEPARTMENT OF SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DHARWAD

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

DHARWAD – 580 005

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ADVISORY COMMITTEE

DHARWAD

November 2009

(D. S. UPPAR)

CHAIRMAN

Approved by :

Chairman :

Members : 1.

2.

3. (V. K. DESHPANDE)

(RAVI HUNJE)

(V. S. PATIL)

(D. S. UPPAR)

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LIST OF TABLES

Table

No. Title

1. _{Physical and chemical properties of soil of the experimental site}

2. Monthly meteorological data during crop growth period (2008-09) and the average of 58 years (1950-2008) at Main Agricultural Research Station, UAS, Dharwad

3. Prices of inputs

4. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height (cm) at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum

5. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on number of branches at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum

6. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on number of leaves at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum

7. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on leaf area (cm2)/plant at different stages of annual chrysanthemum

8. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on days to 50% flowering and number of flowers/plant in annual chrysanthemum

9. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on diameter (cm) of flower and number of seeds/flower in annual chrysanthemum

10. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on flower dry weight (g), seed yield (g/plant) and seed yield (kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum

11. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on 1000 seed weight (g), germination (%), seedling length (cm) in annual chrysanthemum

12. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on seedling dry weight (mg), seedling vigour index and electrical conductivity of seed leachate (dSm-1) in annual chrysanthemum

13. Economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by different spacing , fertilizer levels and their interactions (SxF)

14. Effect of growth regulators on plant height (cm) and number of branches at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum

15. Effect of growth regulators on number of leaves /plant and leaf area (cm2) at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum

16. Effect of growth regulators on days to 50% flowering, number of flower/plant, diameter of flower (cm) and number of seeds/flower in annual chrysanthemum 17. Effect of growth regulators on flower dry weight (g), seed yield (g/plant) and

seed yield (kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum

18. Effect of growth regulators on 1000 seed weight (g), germination (%) and seedling length (cm) in annual chrysanthemum

19. Effect of growth regulators on seedling dry weight (mg), seedling vigour index, and electrical conductivity of seed leachate (dSm-1) in annual chrysanthemum 20. Economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

No. Title

1. Plan and layout of the experimental site 2. Plan and layout of the experimental site

3. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum

4. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on number of branches at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum 5. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on number of

flowers in annual chrysanthemum

6. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield/ha in annual chrysanthemum

7. Influence of growth regulators on plant height at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum

8. Influence of growth regulators on number of branches/plant at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum

9. Influence of growth regulators on number of flowers/plant in annual chrysanthemum

10. Influence of growth regulators on Seed yield (kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum

LIST OF PLATES

Plate

No. Title

1. General view of the experimental plots

2. Influence of spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height in annual chrysanthemum

3. Influence of growth regulators on plant height in annual chrysanthemum

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1. INTRODUCTION

Chrysanthemum is a member of family Asteraceae. There are about 160 species of chrysanthemum among which the modern autumn flowering perennial (Chrysanthemum morifolium) is most common, usually propagated through suckers (mums) followed by annual chrysanthemums which are propagated through seeds. Annual chrysanthemum comprise of three species viz., Chrysanthemum segtum (corn marigold), Chrysanthemum carinatum (tri-coloured chrysanthemum) and Chrysanthemum coronarium (crown daisy or garland chrysanthemum). The crown daisy or Garland chrysanthemum (C. coronarium) is a native to Southern Europe, is a branching annual with finely cut foliage reaching a height up to a metre, size of flowers varies from 2.5 to 4 cm and colour is usually in shades of yellow and white with cream zone at the center (Vishnu Swarup, 1967).

It is a fast growing winter blooming annual. In North India, it is one of the cheapest sources of floral material for worship and garland particularly in early summer months when flowers are inadequate in supply. Apart from this, it is used in potted plants, vases, flower decoration, preparation of bouquets and as border in the garden. Its leaves are steamed or boiled and used as greens, especially in chinese cuisine, yellow and white chrysanthemum flowers are boiled to make a sweet drink in some parts of Asia known as ‘chrysanthemum tea’ has many medicinal uses, bioactive terpenes such as dihydro chrysanoride and cumambrin, contents of essential oil proven to have medicinal effect on cancer and blood pressure reduction. It is an economically important as a natural source of insecticide, the flowers are pulverized and an active component called pyrethrin is extracted and used in insecticidal preparation and it is a good companion plant, protecting neighbouring plants from caterpillars. In recent years, it has been introduced as a valuable source of feed for animals. Chrysanthemum plants have also been shown to reduce indoor air pollution by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) clean air study.

Therefore, the growing popularity of annual chrysanthemum has lead to its cultivation as a commercial crop. In Karnataka, the area under chrysanthemums during 2003-04 was 2964 hectares with an annual production of 36,294 tonnes and productivity of 10 tonnes per hectare generating a value of 3,931 lakh rupees (Anonymous, 2004). The area under annual chrysanthemum is increasing year after year and farmers are not getting quality seeds in adequate quantities as very few farmers are taking up seed production. Hence, there is a need to produce adequate quantity of quality seeds of annual chrysanthemum.

In the absence of scientific information with regard to appropriate nutrient schedule involving nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium for a particular zone, it is difficult to reckon and realize the objective of higher flower and seed yield in annual chrysanthemum. Further, there is no comprehensive agronomic package for seed production to obtain higher seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum. This objective can be achieved through balanced and judicious application of plant nutrients and adopting proper spacing for plant growth (Shivakumar, 2000). As there is no recommendation of spacing and fertilizer doses for seed production, there is a need to standardize the optimum spacing and dose of fertilizers.

The pre flowering application of growth regulators not only improve the quality and number of flowers produced but also increase the seed yield mainly by increasing the number of seeds in china aster (Doddagoudar, 2000).

In the recent years the growth regulators play a major role in overcoming the factors limiting the yield and quality for obtaining maximum benefit from seed production. It is realized that the exogenous application of growth regulators stimulate flowering, pollination, fertilization and seed setting to yield better quality seeds (Sunitha, 2006). Yet, the information on the effect of growth regulators in realizing higher yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum is very meagre.

Considering the importance of commercial flower production, the present investigation was initiated with an objective to develop suitable agro-techniques for seed production in annual chrysanthemum with the following objectives.

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i. To study the effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on growth, yield and seed quality attributes in annual chrysanthemum.

ii. To study the effect of different growth regulators on growth, yield and seed quality attributes in annual chrysanthemum.

iii. To workout the economics and feasibility of seed production in annual chrysanthemum with relation to different spacing, fertilizer levels and growth regulators.

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2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Cultivation of annual chrysanthemum has received more attention only in recent years and information available on the effect of spacing, fertilizer levels and growth regulators on seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum is meagre. Hence reviews on these aspects in annual chrysanthemum and other closely related flowers, ornamental plants and vegetable crops have been included and presented in this chapter.

2.1 Influence of spacing on growth, flowering, seed yield and

quality

Spacing plays a role in manipulating the micro climate and hence helps in enhancing the seed yield and quality of crop. Proper spacing improves the availability of nutrients, aeration and light intensity (Ravindran et al., 1986) which means better crop growth and response to the inputs and there by enhanced seed yield and quality.

2.1.1 Growth

Dongre (1984) noticed increased plant height (110.53 cm) and less number of branches per plant (2.30) with closer spacing of 30x20 cm, while decreased plant height (90.59 cm) and more number of branches per plant (5.02) were observed with wider spacing of 50x20 cm in marigold.

Mokashi (1988) recorded maximum plant height (77.36 cm) with closer spacing of 30x20 cm, while minimum plant height (72.42 cm) was observed with wider spacing of 40x30 cm in gaillardia.

Vijay Kumar (1988) reported increased plant height (42.33 cm) with closer spacing of 30x10 cm, where as decreased plant height (31.59 cm) was noticed in wider spacing of 30x30 cm in china aster.

In chrysanthemum, increased plant height (51.96 cm) and less number of branches per plant (28.96) were noticed with closer spacing of 30x20 cm, while wider spacing of 40x30 cm recorded decreased plant height (48.33 cm) and more number of branches (32.83) per plant (Shivanna, 1994).

In marigold significant increase in plant height (62.87 cm), number of main branches (6.05) and secondary branches (33.91) were observed with wider spacing of 30x30 cm, whereas decreased plant height (54.71 cm), less number of main branches (5.55) and secondary (22.15) branches were observed with closer spacing of 30x20 cm (Janakiram and Rao., 1995).

Belgoankar et al. (1996) reported increased plant height (109.60 cm), number of primary branches (31.62) and secondary branches (169.47) per plant with closer spacing of 45x45 cm, compared to wider spacing of 60x45 cm which recorded decreased plant height (106.69 cm), number of primary branches (30.35) and secondary branches (166.45) per plant in annual chrysanthemum.

Singh (1996) noticed increased plant height (36.24 cm) and more number of leaves per plant (36.22) with wider spacing of 25 x 20 cm compared to closer spacing of 20 x 10 cm which recorded (31.58 cm and 29.74, respectively) in tuberose.

Hugar (1997) reported that closer spacing of 30 x 10 cm recorded taller plants (34.29 cm) with less number of branches per plant (13.62), while wider spacing (30 x 30 cm) resulted in shorter plants (32.28 cm) with more number of branches (14.92) per plant in gaillardia.

Mishra (1998) recorded taller plants (77.33 cm) with closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm, while more plant spread (34.92 cm) was noticed with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm in gaillardia.

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Shivakumar (2000) noticed significant increase in plant height (101.3 cm) and less number of branches (9.9) with closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm, while shorter plants (89.7 cm) and more number of branches (16.8) with wider spacing of 60 x 45 cm in marigold.

Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) recorded that closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm gave taller plants (88.58 cm) with less number of branches per plant (23.58) compared to wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm (73.42 cm and 32.50, respectively) in annual chrysanthemum cv. Local White. In zinnia, significant increase in plant height (52.64 cm), plant spread (34.83 cm) and number of branches per plant (10.56) was observed with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm, whereas decreased plant height (47.74 cm), plant spread (31.02 cm) and number of branches per plant (8.66) with closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm (Poonam et al., 2002).

Srivastava et al. (2002) in marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Gainda noticed increased plant height (59.89 cm) and less number of secondary branches per plant (35.70) with closer spacing of 40 x 40 cm, while shorter plant height (57.73 cm) and more number of secondary branches (39.46) per plant with wider spacing of 60 x 40 cm.

Balanchandra et al. (2004) noticed increased plant height (74.60 cm) and less number of branches per plant (14.40) with closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm, whereas wider spacing of 45 x 45 cm recorded decreased plant height and more number of branches per plant (70.40 cm and 19.60, respectively) in ageratum.

Karuppaiah and Krishna (2005) recorded significant increase in plant height (64.12 cm), more number of primary branches (25.40) and secondary branches (47.02) per plant with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm compared to closer spacing of 20 x 30 cm (59.85 cm 21.27 and 38.35, respectively) in French marigold Cv. Red Brocade.

Shah et al. (2005) reported higher plant spread (32.00 cm) with wider spacing of 30 x 35 cm compared to closer spacing of 30 x 25 cm (31.16 cm) in china aster.

Mane et al. (2006) observed tallest plants (47.36 cm) with closer spacing of 20 x 15 cm compared to wider spacing of 20 x 25 cm (44.95 cm) in tuberose cv. Single.

Anju and Pandey (2007) reported maximum number of branches per plant, number of leaves per branch, diameter of stem and canopy of plant with wider spacing (40x30 cm), while plant height was highest in closer spacing (20x10 cm) in African marigold.

Chaudhary et al. (2007) in zinnia concluded that plants spaced at 30x45 cm spacing recorded increased plant height, number of branches per plant, length of the branches, internodal length and number of nodes per plant. Similarly, Dhatt and Ramesh Kumar (2007) noticed decreased plant height (81.64 cm), increased plant spread (80.06 cm) and number of branches (20.01) per plant with wider spacing of 60x60 cm, compared to closer spacing of 60x30 cm which recorded more plant height, less plant spread and number of branches (85.44 cm, 73.82 and17.47, respectively) in Coreopsis lanceolata

Ramachandrudu and Thangam (2007) recorded increased plant height (66.10 cm) and number of leaves per plant (9.87) with closer spacing of 30x10 cm whereas decreased plant height (56.83 cm) and number of leaves (9.73) per plant with wider spacing of 45x20 cm in gladiolus.

Dalvi et al. (2008) noticed decreased plant height (120.21 cm), increased number of leaves (10.34), leaf length (59.72 cm) and leaf breadth (2.66 cm) with the spacing of 30x20 cm in gladiolus, whereas wider spacing of 25x30 cm recorded 120.15 cm, 10.22, 59.25 cm and 2.51, respectively.

Srikanth et al. (2008) recorded decreased plant height (56.45 cm), more number of branches (7.00) and dry matter production (42.97 g) per plant with wider spacing of 60x15 cm whereas closer spacing of 45x15 cm recorded (56.45 cm, 6.65 and 16.47 g respectively) in lablab bean.

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2.1.2 Flowering, seed yield and yield components

Dongre (1984) concluded that wider spacing of 50x20 cm resulted in increased number of flowers per plant (21.97) and seed yield (0.54 g) per flower, while decreased number of flowers (12.29) and seed yield (0.31 g) with the closer spacing of 20x30 cm in marigold.

Mokashi (1988) noticed significantly more number of flowers per plant (226) with wider spacing of 40x30 cm, whereas closer spacing of 30x20 cm recorded flowers per plant 185.78 in gaillardia. Similarly, Vijay Kumar (1988) recorded significantly more number of flowers per plant (31.33) with wider spacing of 30x30 cm in china aster, while closer spacing of 30x10 cm recorded less number of flowers per plant (24.97).

Venugopal (1991) noticed that the more number of flowers per plant (85.93) and flower yield per plant (85.93 g) were significantly higher in wider spacing of 30x40 cm, while closer spacing of 30x20 cm recorded less number of flowers (77.47) and flower yield (74.54 g) per plant in everlasting flower.

Rao et al. (1992) recorded higher flower yield (12.12 t/ha) with closer spacing of 40 x 15 cm compared to wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm (10.30 t/ha) in chrysanthemum cv. Kasturi. Similarly, John and Paul (1995) reported significant increase in number of flowers per plant (38.78) with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm as compared to closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm (30.63) in chrysanthemum.

Belgoankar et al. (1996) reported delayed the days for opening of flower from bud emergence (26.44) and increased mean number of flowers per plant (456.02) and flower yield (22.89 t/ha) with closer spacing of 45x45 cm, while wider spacing of 60x45 cm recorded (26.18 days, 432.86 and 16.99 t/ha, respectively) in annual chrysanthemum.

Singh (1996) recorded delayed flowering (153.23 days) with closer spacing of 20x 10 cm compared to wider spacing of 25 x 25 cm (116.31 days) in tuberose.

Hugar (1997) observed early flower initiation (53 days) with the closer spacing of 30 x 10 cm, while wider spacing of 30 x 30 cm delayed flower initiation (56.2 days), produced more number of flowers per plant (106.67) and seed yield (5.51 q / ha). Whereas, closer spacing of 30 x 10 cm recorded 47.80 and 3.87 q/ha, respectively. He further reported that 1000 seed weight was not influenced by spacing in gaillardia.

Rupinder Kaur and Ramesh Kumar (1998) reported significantly higher number of flowers per plant (59.201), capsules per plant (21.12) and seed yield (0.48 g/plant) with the spacing of 25 x 25 cm in pansy, while maximum seed yield (11.33 g/m2) was noticed with closer spacing of 20 x 20 cm in pansy. Similarly, Shivakumar (2000) reported increased number of flowers per plant (31.2), number of seeds per flower (69.4) with wider spacing of 60x45 cm, whereas closer spacing of 30x30 cm recorded decreased number of flowers per plant (12.9) and seeds per flower (69.4) in marigold. Further, he reported that the seed yield per plot (65.7g) was significantly more with closer spacing of 30x30 cm.

Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) observed more flower yield (23958.20 Kg/ha) with closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm compared to wider spacing of 30 x 40 cm (20624.91 Kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum Cv. Local White.

Poonam et al. (2002) in zinnia, recorded maximum number of heads per plant (14.36) and seed yield per unit area (2.61 g) with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm compared to closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm (12.38 and 1.85 g, respectively). Similarly, Srivastava et al. (2002) noticed maximum flowers per plant (54.39) with wider spacing of 60 x 40 cm, while higher flower yield (27.78 t/ha) with closer spacing of 40 x 40 cm in marigold.

Balachandra et al. (2004) recorded higher seed yield (142.0 Kg/ha) with closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm compared to wider spacing of 45 x 45 cm (117.10 Kg/ha) in ageratum.

Karuppaiah and Krishna (2005) reported that closer spacing of 20 x 30 cm delayed days to 50 per cent flowering (81.26 days) compared to wider spacing of 30 x 40 cm (76.84

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days) and more number of flowers per plant (62.69) with wider spacing of 30 x 40 cm. While more flower yield (148.98 q) with closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm in French marigold.

Mane et al. (2006) observed wider spacing of 20 x 25 cm took maximum number of days required for sprouting (11.39 days) compared to closer spacing of 20 x 15 cm (9.50 days) in tuberose Cv. Single.

Dhatt and Ramesh kumar (2007) observed early flower initiation (125.14 days) and maximum yield (84.51 g/m2) with closer spacing of 60x30 cm in Coreopsis lanceolata compared to wider spacing of 60x60 cm recorded (125.36 days and 62.71, respectively). Whereas, Ramachandrudu and Thangam (2007) recorded delayed opening of first floret (60.00 days), increased number of florets per spike (11.93), floret diameter (11.13 cm), spike girth (2.83 cm), corm diameter (4.57 cm) and corm weight (30.40 g) with wider spacing of 45x20 cm in gladiolus.

Aliyu et al. (2008) recorded optimum yield of onion bulbs (30.83 t/ha) from 15 cm intra row spacing combined with 100 kg N per ha in onion. He further reported that application of 150 kg N per ha in plants spaced at 25 cm in the row spacing and 20 cm inter row spacing resulted in large bulbs. Whereas, Channabasavanna et al. (2008) recorded higher seed yield (566 q/ha) with closer row spacing of 30 cm compared to wider spacing of 60 cm (515 kg/ha) in ajowan.

Dalvi et al. (2008) recorded increased number of florets per spike (15.43), yield of spikes per plot (54.66 kg), yield of corms per plot (55.28 kg) and decreased number of cormels per plant (52.38) with the closer spacing of 30x30 cm in gladiolus.

Dhatt and Ramesh (2008) in Gaillardia aristata reported that the plants spaced at 60x60 cm took 123.31 days to anthesis and showed longest flowering duration (86.87 days). He further reported that wider spacing of 60x60 cm resulted in highest seed yield (106.75 g/m2) followed by closer spacing of 60x30 cm (99.85g/m2).

Mantur and Sateesh (2008) reported significant increase in average fruit weight (72.50 g), fruit yield (3.67 kg/ per plant) and fruit yield (7.94 kg/m2) under wider spacing of 60x60 cm in tomato, while maximum fruit yield (8.64 kg/m2) was noticed in closer spacing of 60x30 cm.

Pourhadian and Khajehpour (2008) recorded highest seed yield (3039 kg/ha) with 20 cm row distance compared to 40 cm (1930 kg/ha) which gave lowest seed yield in safflower.

Srikanth et al. (2008) reported less number of days for flower initiation (42.54), days to 50 per cent flowering (45.10), days to pod initiation (48.01), days to crop maturity (80.15) and increased pod yield (20.44 q/ ha) and seed yield (17.20 q/ ha) with closer spacing of 45x15 cm in lab lab bean compared to wider spacing (42.97, 45.56, 48.33, 81.35, 17.25 q/ha and 15.02 q, respectively). The harvest index (42.14), number of pods per plant (19.06), pod yield per plant (21.42 kg) and seed yield per plant (16.92 g) were also more in wider spacing of 60x15 cm.

2.1.3 Seed quality parameters

Ujjinaiah (1985) did not observe any significant effect of spacing on seed quality parameters like germination percentage and vigour index in sunflower.

Kobza (1991) studied the effect of plant density on seed quality parameters for ten years in china aster and finally concluded that the seed quality was not affected significantly by plant density.

Kobza (1993) reported that plant density does not affect the seed quality in marigold and similar results were also reported in gaillardia (Hugar, 1997).

Kanna Babu et al. (1993) reported that plant population of 55,555 plants per hectare gave higher seed quality parameters i.e., 100 seed weight (3.63 g), germination (93 %), field emergence (88 %), seedling vigour index (2673), dry weight of five seedlings (72 mg), shoot

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length (14.70 cm) and root length (14.10 cm) compared to plant population of 1,66,666 plants per hectare (2.88 g, 81.00%, 75.00%, 1776.90, 42 mg, 11.80 cm and 10.00 cm, respectively) in sunflower.

Balachandra et al. (2004) reported higher germination (65.70%) due to wider spacing of 45 x 45 cm compared to closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm (63.70%) in ageratum.

2.2 Influence of NPK on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and

quality

2.2.1 Physiological role of NPK

Noggle and Fritz (1979) summarized the role of NPK on physiology of plants. Nitrogen is a component of amminoacid, which is essential for protein synthesis. Nitrogen bases like purines, pyrimidines and many co-enzymes need nitrogen for their synthesis. It is also a component of cytochrome and chlorophyll which are essential for photosynthesis. While, Phosphorus forms a source of energy in the form of ATP and ADP, the cell division is also influenced by phosphorus. It is also a component of many enzymes, co-enzymes, nucleic acids and phospholipids and potash acts as catalyst for various enzymes and co-enzymes and starch synthesis takes place in the presence of potash. It has a vital role in photo respiration, translocation of metabolites and transpiration.

2.2.2 Growth

Maheshwar (1977) observed increased plant height in china aster with the application of nitrogen up to 180 kg and phosphorus 120 kg per ha. Similarly, Ramachandra (1982) obtained maximum plant height with 120:60:60 kg NPK per ha. While, Venkatesh (1983) recorded maximum plant height with 100:60:60 kg NPK per ha. Whereas, significantly maximum plant height was recorded at 250:120:75 kg NPK per ha (Mantur, 1988) and at 200:100:50 kg NPK per ha by Ravindra (1998) in china aster.

In china aster, Ramachandra (1982) noticed maximum plant height (40.0 cm), number of branches (10.5), leaf area index (0.57) and dry matter production (18.67), with application of 120:60:60 kg NPK per ha. Similar results were also observed in eight varieties of marigold by Nalwadi (1982) with the application of higher doses of fertilizer (225 kg N, 120 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O per ha).

Venkatesh (1983) observed that china aster plants receiving nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium at the rate of 120:60:60 kg per ha recorded higher plant height (60.4 cm) and number of branches per plant (22.4) compared to control.

Dongre (1984) in marigold indicated that, application of nitrogen and phosphorus each at 40 g per square metre recorded higher plant height (128.8 cm) and maximum number of branches per plant (4.05).

Jayanthi and Gowda (1988) observed significant increase in plant height (47.9 cm) and number of branches per plant (7.30) in chrysanthemum with the application of 300:400:200 kg NPK per ha.

Mantur (1988) found that application of 240 kg N, 120 kg P2O5 and 75 kg K2O per ha recorded maximum plant height, number of branches, dry matter production and higher leaf area index in china aster. While, Mokashi (1988) reported that plant height and number of branches per plant did not respond well to the application of higher doses of nitrogen (150 to 250 kg/ha) and phosphorus (80 to 120 kg/ha) in gaillardia.

In marigold, Arulmozhiyan and Pappaiah (1989) found significant increase in plant height and number of branches per plant with the application of 120 kg N and 90 kg P2O5 per ha. Similarly, Yassin and Pappiah (1990) stated that application of 75 kg nitrogen per ha along with sheep manure recorded maximum plant height (72.6 cm) and more number of branches per plant (23.7) in chrysanthemum.

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Jana and Pal (1991) reported in cosmos, that among the nutrient elements nitrogen and phosphorus deficiency showed maximum reduction in growth. Maximum growth of plants were obtained with combined application of 20 g nitrogen, 10 g phosphorus and 10 g potash per square metre.

In calendula, application of NPK at the rate of 100:50:25 kg per ha increased the height of plant, number of branches and leaves per plant (Sigedar et al., 1991). Similarly, Rao et al. (1992) noticed increase in number of lateral branches per plant with higher level of nitrogen (200 kg/ha) in chrysanthemum.

Ramesh kumar and Kiranjeet Kaur (1996) in balsam found increased number of secondary branches per plant and plant height with the application of nitrogen and phosphorus respectively with 20 and 10 grams per square metre. Similarly, Baboo and Sharma (1997) in chrysanthemum indicated that plants receiving 300:200:120 kg NPK per ha recorded maximum plant height and more number of branches.

Hugar (1997) reported increased plant height (43.0 and 39.3 cm), leaf area index (4.83 and 4.62) and dry matter production (29.92 and 28.12 g) with the application of 75 kg N per ha in rabi and summer, respectively. Whereas, increase in number of branches (34.7 and 34.2) and leaves (343 and 327) was recorded at 100 kg N per ha in rabi and summer respectively in gaillardia.

De and Dhimon (1998) reported maximum plant height (65 cm) with combined application of 200 kg N and 400 kg K2O per ha when compared to control (33 cm) in chrysanthemum. Similarly, in gaillardia the application of 30 g of nitrogen per square metre recorded significantly maximum plant height of 80.8 cm over the lower doses of nitrogen (Mishra, 1998).

Ravindra (1998) reported that all the growth parameters like plant height, number of leaves, stem diameter etc., were influenced by nitrogen and phosphorus application, but the effect of potassium was minimum in china aster.

Agarwal et al. (2002) obtained significantly maximum plant height (69.6 cm) and number of branches (21.9) with application of 200 kg N per ha, compared to control (52.5 cm and 12.8 respectively) in marigold.

Doddagoudar (2002) reported maximum plant height (47.3 cm), number of branches (9.13) and leaves (42.7) per plant and maximum dry weight (34.25 g) with application of 240:180:80 kg NPK per ha in china aster.

Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) observed significantly increased plant height (97.89 cm) and number of branches (34.00) per plant with the application of higher dose of nitrogen (150 kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum.

Kumar et al. (2003) reported that plant height (34.80 cm) and number of branches (4.43) increased significantly with nitrogen of 300 kg per ha as compared to 26.34 cm plant height and 3.3 branches in control without any nitrogen application. Similarly, phosphorus increased the plant height and number of branches, wherein plants receiving higher dose of phosphorus in china aster.

Acharya and Dashora (2004) reported that application of 200 kg per ha each of nitrogen and phosphorus produced maximum plant height (95.92 cm), plant spread (49.31 cm) and branches (14.2) when compared to other levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and control in African marigold. Similarly, Saud and Ramachandra (2004) reported that higher dose of fertilizer (150:150:150 kg NPK/ha) resulted in maximum number of primary and secondary branches in French marigold.

Gnyandev (2006) reported increased plant height (49.52 cm), number of branches (11.66) and leaves (40.61) per plant with the application of higher dose of fertilizer (270:180:150 kg NPK/ha) in china aster.

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Ajay and Vijay (2007) recorded significant increase in number of leaves per plant (36.71), number of branches per plant (11.24) with the application of higher dose of nitrogen (100 kg) in calendula compared to control (27.17 and 9.54, respectively).

Gaurav and Prabhakar (2007) noticed increased number of corms per plant (1.75), number of cormels per plant (19.66) with higher fertilizer level (50:25:25 NPK kg/ha) in gladiolus cv. White Friendship.

Channabasavanna et al. (2008) reported in ajowan maximum seed yield per ha (477 kg) with the application of 60:30:30 kg NPK per ha in ajowan.

Srikanth et al. (2008) recorded increased plant height (58.10 cm), number of branches (7.90), dry matter production (18.96 g) per plant with the application of higher dose of 33:67:33 kg NPK per ha in lablab bean.

2.2.3 Flowering, seed yield and yield components

Venkatesh (1983) recorded significantly higher number of flowers in china aster with the application of 100:60:60 kg NPK per ha and he could not observe any influence of fertilizers on flower diameter, however he obtained increased dry weight of flowers only with potash levels.

Dongre (1984) reported that application of 40 g of N and 40 g of P2O5 per square metre gave maximum number of flowers per plant and seed yield per plant in marigold.

Jayanthi and Gowda (1988) in chrysanthemum reported that flower diameter and flower yield were increased significantly with the application of 300:400:200 kg NPK/ha. While, Mantur (1988) obtained higher number of flowers per plant (36.85), flower yield (83.92 g/plant), large size flowers (5.78 cm) and higher seed yield per plant (6.72 g) with the application of 180:120:100 kg NPK per ha in china aster.

According to Anuradha et al. (1990) the number of days taken to 50 per cent flowering was reduced with increased levels of N and P2O5 (each from 0 to 90 kg N and P2O5/ha) in marigold.

On the contrary, Sharanabasappa (1990) reported that application of higher dose of N and P2O5 at 150 and 100 kg per ha, respectively delayed days to first flowering by 6 days and 50 per cent flowering by 7.37 days over the control in everlasting flower.

Jana and Pal (1991) reported that nitrogen and phosphorus treatment showed maximum reduction in flowers and seed yield in cosmos and maximum flowers and seed yield obtained with combined application of 20 g N, 10 g P and 10 g K per m2.

Yadav and Bose (1993) stated that application of 300:100 kg N and P2O5 per ha significantly increased the seed yield in marigold but further increase in nitrogen (400 kg) and phosphorus (400 kg) levels reduced the seed yield. While, in gaillardia, the application of 75 kg nitrogen per ha significantly increased the number of flowers per plant, ten flower weight and seed yield except breadth of flower (Hugar, 1997). He further reported that the increase in N level to 125 kg per ha did not affect the flower and seed yield as compared to 75 kg per ha.

De and Dhimon (1998) reported in chrysanthemum that number of flowers per plant were maximum (32) with the combination of 600 kg N and 200 kg K2O per ha followed by 400 kg N and 200 kg K2O per ha.

Ravindra (1998) reported in china aster, that the time taken for flowering increased with the application of nitrogen. While, phosphorus reduced the time taken for flowering. Flowering duration was increased with increased nitrogen and phosphorus application. While, potassium had no influence on both flowering time and duration of flowering. The flower yield was maximum with the application of 200:100:100 kg NPK per ha.

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Rupinder Kaur and Ramesh Kumar (1998) noticed that the number of flowers per plant (65.42) and seed yield per plant (0.59 g) were significantly influenced by the application of N and P and was maximum in 30 g of N and 20 g of P2O5 per square metre in pansy. Whereas, Yadav et al. (1998) concluded that application of 80 kg nitrogen per ha significantly increased the diameter of head, 1000 seed weight and seed yield over 40 and 60 kg N per ha in sunflower.

According to Shivakumar (2000), application of 315:84:84 kg NPK per ha significantly increased the number of capitula harvested per plant (25.2), number of seeds per capitula (216), seed yield per plant (7.88 g) and per ha (437 kg). 1000 seed weight did not differ significantly although it was higher in higher fertilizer level (315:84:84 kg NPK/ha) in marigold.

Singh and Sangama (2000) reported in china aster, significant increase in length of flower stalk (27.27 cm) and number of flowers per plant (35.22) with higher levels of N (300 kg/ha), but the number of days taken for 100 per cent flowering, diameter of flower and weight of 5 flowers were not significantly influenced by graded levels of nitrogen.

Doddagoudar (2002) recorded more number of capitula per plant (24.2), higher weight of capitula (1.77 g), larger diameter of capitula (5.10 cm), higher seed weight per capitula (0.33 g), filled seed weight per capitula (0.26 g), filled seed percentage (78.7), 1000 seed weight (1.86 g) and harvest index (16.5) with the application of 240:180:80 kg NPK per ha in china aster.

Significantly higher flower yield (35786.92 kg/ha) was recorded with the application of higher nitrogen level (150 kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum (Karavadia and Dhaduk, 2002). While, Mohanty et al. (2002) noticed in marigold that the days required for flowering was prolonged from 68.03 days in (control) to 71.29 days with application of nitrogen (30 g/m2). Further, more number of flowers and highest yield of flower was obtained with 30 g N per sq. m.

Kumar et al. (2003) reported in china aster maximum number of flowers per plant (35.22), flower diameter (5.13 cm) and flowering duration (37.45 days) with higher dose of nitrogen 300 kg per ha followed by 250 kg per ha and plants receiving higher dose of phosphorus took less time to produce first flower bud (54.05 days) as compared to other levels of fertilizer.

Maximum flower production in chrysanthemum cv. Jayanthi could be assured with the application of 20 g N and 16 g K per plot. It may be more advantageous when chrysanthemum plants were pinched at 20 days after transplanting (Singh and Baboo, 2003). Singh and Baboo (2003) reported in marigold that application nitrogen 375 kg per ha gave highest flower yield (329.7 q/ha). Such boosting effect might be due to higher accumulation of carbohydrates in flower heads and increased flower size plants which received higher dose of phosphorus took less time to first flower appearance (50.2 days) as compared to control (58.2 days). The higher dose of P (210 kg/ha) also produced maximum flower yield (317.21 q/ha) than lower levels of phosphorus and control.

Acharya and Dashora (2004) reported in African marigold that application of 200 kg of N and P fertilizers per ha recorded increased diameter of flower, number of flowers per plant and flower yield per plant and per ha when compared to other levels of N and P.

Gnyandev (2006) noticed more number of days to 50 per cent flowering (90.26), increased number of flowers per plant (32.15), flower diameter (5.09 cm), number of seeds per flower (68.73), seed yield per plant (4.75 g) and seed yield per ha (342.23 kg) with the application of higher fertilizer level (270:180:150 kg NPK/ha) in china aster.

Ajay and Vijay (2007) noticed longer days for bud initiation (54.30), days to first bud opening (76.00) and increased flower diameter (5.08 cm), number of flowers per plant (93.17), flower yield (850.17 g/m2) and flower yield (85.01 q/ ha) with the application of higher dose of nitrogen (100 kg/ha) in calendula.

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Ramesh Naik et al. (2008) stated that the application of higher dose of fertilizer, 150 percent of RDF resulted in significant increase in number of capitula per plant (46.66), seed weight per plant (55.06 g), seed yield per ha (13.70 q) and stalk yield (23.63 q/ha) in safflower.

Singh et al. (2008) reported maximum flower bud diameter (2.91 cm), flower width (4.73 cm), number of bulbs per plant (1.49), weight of bulbs per plant (68.73 g), bulb diameter (5.37 cm), number of bulblets per plant (1.87) and weight of bulblets (2.50 g) with the application of higher dose of nitrogen 250 kg per ha in Asiatic hybrid lily cv. Novecento.

Srikanth et al. (2008) recorded longer days to flower initiation (45.45), days to 50 per cent flowering (48.36), days to pod initiation (51.00), days to crop maturity (84.75), and increased harvest index (43.56), number of pods per plant (22.50), pod yield per plant (23.68 g), pod yield per ha (22.23 q), seed yield per plant (19.95 g) and seed yield per ha (18.50 q) in lablab bean with the application of higher levels of fertilizer 33:67:33 kg NPK per ha.

Manjunatha et al. (2008) recorded significant increase in number of fruits per vine (2.18), number of seeds per fruit (384), seed yield per fruit (36.40 g), seed yield per vine (81.11 g), seed yield per plot (1603.0 g) and seed yield per ha (471 kg) with higher dose of fertilizer 150:60:60 kg NPK per ha in pumpkin cv. Arka Chandan.

2.2.4 Seed quality parameters

Maheshwarappa et al. (1985) reported an increase in 100 seed weight and germination percentage with increased level of nitrogen and phosphorus in sunflower up to 120 and 90 kg/ha, respectively.

Mantur (1988) noticed an increase in germination percentage, root length and shoot length and vigour index with increase in NPK up to 180:120:100 kg/ha in china aster.

Hugar (1997) recorded higher germination percentage, root length, shoot length and vigour index in gaillardia with 100 kg nitrogen per ha.

Devidaya and Agarwal (1998) noticed significant improvement in 1000 seed weight with the application of N and P2O5 (up to 120 and 60 kg/ha, respectively) in sunflower.

Shivakumar (2000) reported that seed quality parameters like root length, shoot length and seedling dry weight except germination percentage and vigour index were not influenced by different fertilizer levels. However, all these parameters recorded higher values at higher fertilizer doses (315:84:84 kg NPK/ha) in marigold.

Higher germination percentage (90.4), shoot length (3.54 cm), root length (1.40 cm), speed of germination (36.6), seedling dry weight (115.9 mg) and seedling vigour index (1449) were recorded with the application of 240:180:180 kg NPK per ha in china aster (Doddagoudar et al., 2004).

Gnyandev (2006) reported increase an in 1000 seed weight (2.14 g), germination percentage (88.90), seedling length (4.74 cm), vigour index (421), seedling dry weight (17.32 cm) and lower electrical conductivity (1.47 dSm-1) with the application of higher dose of fertilizer 270:180:150 kg NPK per ha in china aster.

Manjunath et al. (2008) recorded significant increase in 100 seed weight (8.78 g), seed germination percentage (92.00) and field emergence percentage (88.80) with the application of 150:60:60 kg NPK per ha in pumpkin cv. Arka Chandan.

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2.3 Influence of growth regulators on plant growth, flowering,

seed yield and quality

2.3.1 Gibberellic acid

Gibberellins are the most widely used plant growth substances in horticulture. These are made up of diterpenoid acid, that function as plant growth regulators influencing a range of developmental processes in plants life like stem elongation, germination, breaking dormancy, flowering, sex expression, enzyme induction and leaf and fruit senescence. Gibberellins are characterized by gibbane carbon skeleton and based on the substitution of gibbane carbon skeleton more than 100 gibberellins are available at present. The most commonly used one is GA3. Kohl and Kofranek (1957) were among the first to investigate the possible use of GA3 in flowering crops.

2.3.2 Growth

Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm recorded maximum plant height (46.39 and 58.93 cm) and more number of branches (14.13 and 13.77) compared to control (36.90 and 37.90 cm and 6.06 and 6.80, respectively) in marigold and china aster (Lal and Mishra, 1986). Similarly, spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm recorded maximum height and more number of branches compared to control in chrysanthemum (Nagarjuna et al., 1988).

Syamal et al. (1990) noticed maximum height, number of leaves and number of branches in the plants treated with GA3 at 200 ppm as compared to control in marigold and china aster.

GA3 at 100 ppm resulted in maximum plant height (53.87 cm) and more number of leaves per plant (6.33) compared to control (44.90 cm and 4.67, respectively) in gladiolus (Leena Ravidas et al., 1992). Similarly, Das and Das (1992) observed significant increase in plant height (69.30 cm) and number of leaves (26.00) compared to control (45 cm and 18, respectively) with 200 ppm of GA3 spray in Hemerocallis aurantiaca (Day lily).

Goyal and Gupta (1996) observed increased plant height (91.63 cm) and more number of shoots per plant (14.62) in rose with GA3 at 45 ppm spray compared to control (60.37 cm and 10.50, respectively).

Singh and Bijimol (2001) observed an increase in plant height (35.15 cm) and more number of leaves per plant (32.83) in tuberose with GA3 at 200 ppm compared to control (21.87 cm and 18.91, respectively).

Maurya and Nagada (2002) noticed maximum height (104.50 cm) in the plants treated with GA3 (100 ppm) as compared to control (95.10 cm) in gladiolus cv. Friendship. GA3 (90 ppm) significantly increased the plant height (69.00 cm) and number of branches per plant (6.60) compared to control (58.52 cm and 6.10, respectively) in dahlia (Khan and Tewari, 2003).

Spraying of GA3 at 100 ppm recorded maximum plant spread (31.10 cm) and more number of leaves (15.19) compared to control (20.00 cm and 11.23, respectively) in gerbera (Sujatha et al., 2002). Similarly, Prabhat Kumar et al. (2003) noticed maximum height (62.00 cm) and number of branches per plant (20.27) in the plants treated with GA3 (200 ppm) as compared to control (46.77 cm, and 16.57, respectively) in china aster cv. Kamini.

Lone et al. (2005) observed significant increase in plant height (99.42 cm) and more number of branches per plant (14.96) with the spraying of GA3 (250 ppm) compared to control (82.08 cm and 9.33, respectively) in chilli cv. K-2.

In gladiolus, Pranav Rana et al. (2005) revealed that GA3 100 ppm spray increased plant height (119.88 cm) compared to control (115.68 cm). While, Chandrappa et al. (2006) recorded maximum plant height (46.44 cm) with spraying of GA3 (750 ppm) compared to control (45.22 cm) in anthurium cv. Royal Red.

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Panwar et al. (2006) reported in tuberose that GA3 at 100 ppm resulted in more number of leaves per plant and increased length of spike. Whereas, significant increase in plant height (40.13 cm), number of leaves per plant (5.69), leaf length (18.11) and leaf width (10.43 cm) in anthurium was recorded with foliar application of 500 ppm GA3. (Dhaduk et al., 2007)

Kishan et al. (2007) recorded an increase in plant height (89.50 cm), and number of branches per plant (8.75) in winter, (74.33 cm and 13.66) in summer with the application of GA3 at 300 ppm in African marigold.

Significant increase in plant height at harvest (101.2 cm), number of branches per plant (14.5) was recorded with foliar application of GA3 at 200 ppm in marigold (Sunitha, 2006). While, Umrao et al. (2007) reported maximum plant height (97.14 cm), number of leaves per plant (10.02), leaf length (45.51 cm) and spike diameter (0.989 cm) with the application of 30 mg per litre of GA3 in gladiolus.

Manjunath et al. (2008) noticed more number of fruits per plant (1.49), number of seeds per fruit (374), seed yield per fruit (34.26 g), seed yield per vine (52.93 g), seed yield per plot (1019.00 g) and seed yield per ha (346 kg) with the application of 25 ppm of gibberellin compared to control (1.29, 327, 28.58 g, 39.40 g, 1556 g and 524 kg/ha) in pumpkin cv. Arka Chandan.

Pawar et al. (2008) noticed significant increase in plant height (66.83 cm), plant spread (2454.50 cm) with foliar application of 200 ppm of GA3 in gaillardia.

Sandeep et al. (2008) recorded increased plant height (22.07 cm), more number of leaves per plant (30.60), number of branches per plant (14.24), leaf area (39.95 cm2) with the application of GA3 at 200 ppm in Calendula officinalis cv. Red Orange.

2.3.3 Flowering, seed yield and yield components

Lal and Mishra (1986) in marigold and china aster recorded more number of flowers (22.87 and 84.80) with 200 ppm GA3 spray compared to control (15.63 and 16.30, respectively).

Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm (Nagarjuna et al., 1988) or twice at 100 ppm (Koriesh et al., 1989) induced early flowering, increased size of the flowers, fresh weight and dry weight of flowers in chrysanthemum.

Induction of early flowering (85.36 days) and increased number of flowers (56.00), flower yield per plant (574.55 g) and test weight of seed (2.41 g) was noticed with the application of GA3 500 ppm compared to control (91.45 days, 27.67, 274.84 g / plant and 2.12 g, respectively) by Singh et al. (1991) in African marigold.

Leena Ravidas et al. (1992) reported that GA3 at 50 ppm gave maximum number of florets (16.0) per spike, weight of corm (35.61 g) and weight of cormels (13.48 g) compared to GA3 at 100 ppm (35.68 g and 12.12 g, respectively) in gladiolus cv. Friendship. While, Goyal and Gupta (1996) noticed that GA3 at 45 ppm increased the number of flowers (18.00) and flower yield (249.29 g) per plant compared to control (16.00 and 160.91 g, respectively) in rose.

Singh and Bijimol (2001) reported that spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm took less number of days for sprouting (11.50 days) and significantly increased the number of florets per spike (41.66) and weight of florets per plant (55.40 g) compared to GA3 100 ppm (9.30 days, 39.91 and 46.45 g, respectively) in tuberose.

Maurya and Nagda (2002) noticed that spraying of GA3 at 100 ppm increased the number of corms per plant (1.87), weight of corms per plant (78.70 g) and weight of corms per bed (1.60 kg) in gladiolus cv. Friendship compared to control (1.20, 53.30 g and 0.95 kg/bed, respectively).

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Spraying of GA3 at 150 ppm recorded more number of flowers per plant (18.63) and diameter of flower head (7.53 cm) compared to control (13.79/plant and 6.93, respectively) in gerbera (Sujatha et al., 2002). While, Khan and Tewari (2003) recorded more number of flowers per plant (15.80) with GA3 at 90 ppm compared to control (13.37) in dahlia.

In China aster cv. Kamini, Prabhat Kumar et al. (2003) noticed that spraying of GA3 200 ppm gave maximum number of flowers per plant (67.33), flower weight (2.86 g) and flower yield (192.59 g) compared to GA3 at 100 ppm (65.67, 2.81 g and 184.51 g. respectively).

Pranav Rana et al. (2005) reported that spraying of GA3 at 100 ppm significantly increased the number of florets per spike (14.29), number of corms per plant (1.66) and corm weight (50.80 g) compared to control (12.87, 1.45 and 49.07 g, respectively) in gladiolus.

Baskaran and Misra (2007) observed early induction of flowering in gladiolus with the application of 500 ppm GA3 followed by 100 ppm.

Dhaduk et al. (2007) in anthurium reported increased number of flowers per plant (3.93), stalk length (8.53 cm) and spathe length (9.09 cm) with foliar application of 500 pppm of GA3. Whereas, Devadanam et al. (2007) observed minimum number of days required for spike emergence (43.48) maximum spike length (87.20 cm), spike girth (2.84 cm), rachis length (21.37), floret length (6.56 cm) and floret diameter (3.88 cm) with foliar spray of GA3 at 150 ppm in tuberose.

Kishan Swaroop et al. (2007) recorded minimum days to bud initiation (70.75 cm), days to first flowering (91.50),increased number of flowers per plant (23.25), fresh weight of single flower (6.92 g), yield of flowers per plant (433 g), number of seed per flower (297.50) and 247.00) and seed yield per plant (23.50 g) in winter and (80.66 cm, 103.66, 62.66, 6.06 g, 286.66 g and 1.22 g, respectively) in summer with the application of GA3 at 300 ppm in African marigold.

Samruban and Karuppaiah et al. (2007) noticed early days to 50 per cent flowering (82.60) and increased number of flowers per plant (25.51) and diameter (2.24 cm) with the application of 50 ppm GA3 in French marigold. While, Sunitha et al. (2006) recorded significantly less number of days to 50 per cent flowering (50.3), more number of flower (68.7), seed yield per plant (20.6 g) and seed yield per ha (531 kg) with foliar application of GA3 at 200 ppm in marigold.

Umrao et al. (2007) reported maximum corm diameter (5.28 cm) and weight per corm (22.69 g) with the application of 300 mg per litre of GA3. Further, he reported 400 mg per litre gave highest number of florets per spike (14.20) and number of corms (1.20) per plant. 2.3.4 Seed quality parameters

Shivaprasad Shetty (1995) noticed increased germination percentage (90.75) and vigour index (660) in china aster by spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm compared to GA3at 100 ppm (87.50% and 552, respectively).

Doddagoudar et al. (2004) recorded maximum germination percentage (93.00), shoot length (3.77 cm) root length (1.56 cm). Seedling vigour index (496) and seedling dry weight (18.00 mg) with spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm compared to control (87.50%, 3.15cm, 1.27 cm, 388 and 12.80 mg, respectively) in china aster.

Spraying of GA3 200 ppm to bell pepper cv. California Wonder, recorded higher germination percentage (91.05), root length (5.55 cm), shoot length (7.50 cm) seedling dry weight (53.50 mg) and seedling vigour index (1174) compared to control (8 1.50%, 4.27 cm, 5.75 cm, 42.85 mg and 518, respectively) (Yogananda et al., 2004).

Sunitha (2006) recorded significantly higher seed quality parameters such as 1000 seed weight (3.3 g), germination percentage (90.1), root length (6.3 cm), shoot length (5.4 cm), seedling dry weight (11.4 mg), vigour index (1059) and field emergence (77.1 %) with foliar application of GA3 at 200 ppm in marigold.

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In ridge gourd, Hilli et al. (2008) recorded increased 100 seed weight (13.88 g), seed germination percentage (93.22) and field emergence percentage (83.95) vigour index (3026), seedling dry weight (83.55 mg) and lower electrical conductivity (0.801 dSm-1) in summer and (11.70 g, 87.37%, 84.00% 3026, 82.48 mg and 0.814, respectively) in kharif with foliar application of 350 ppm of GA3.

Manjunatha et al. (2008) recorded increased 100 seed weight (8.72 g), seed germination percentage (92.00) and field emergence percentage (87.40) with foliar application of 25 ppm of gibberellin in pumpkin cv. Arka chandan.

2.4 Influence of tricontanol on plant growth, flowering and seed

yield and quality parameters

2.4.1 Tricontanol

Tricontanol (TRIA), a 30-carbon primary alcohol, was first identified by Chibnall et al. (1933) in lucerne as a natural component of plants, and verified this early by mass spectroscopy. Later it was observed to increase the growth of plants following application as side dressing. The plant growth regulating activity of TRIA extracted from alfalfa was first discovered in 1977. TRIA is synthesized by plants and is a component of most biological material. Exogenous application of TRIA regulates several physiological and biological processes and is known to increase yield of crops (Stanley and Robert, 1983).

2.4.2 Growth

Pandita et al. (1991) noticed maximum plant height at harvest with two foliar sprays of 1.25 ppm vipul (tricontanol 0.1%) in rainy season and three foliar sprays of 2.5 ppm in the summer season in okra. While, Ray (1991) reported relative increase in growth rate, leaf area and leaf area index with the application of tricontanol at 0.3 to 3.0 mg per litre compared to control in capsicum.

Sharma (1995) noticed increased plant height and number of branches with foliar spray of 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10 ppm of miraculan over control in tomato.

Miniraj and Sanmugavelu (1987) in chilli recorded significantly more number of branches (13.75), number of leaves (850.63) per plant with foliar application of 2 ppm of tricontanol. While, Arvinda kumar et al. (2002) reported an increase in plant height and number of branches with the foliar application of tricontanol 1ml/2l over control in mustard.

Shaikh et al. (2002) recorded increased plant height (84.26 cm), and number of leaves per plant (42.11) with the foliar application of miraculan 2000 ppm over control (81.66 cm and 36.03, respectively) in onion cv. Nasik Red.

Dhall and Sanjeev (2004) recorded highest number of branches per plant (14.2) with the application of 0.75 ml vipul per litre (tricontanol 0.1%) in tomato. Whereas, Karuppaiah et al. (2007) in radish recorded increased plant height, number of branches and leaf area with the application of 10 ppm of tricontanol.

Satao et al. (2007) reported increased plant height and number of leaves by spraying four times (35, 50, 65 and 80 days) after sowing with 0.8 ml per litre of miraculan in okra.

2.4.3 Flowering, seed yield and yield components

Significantly more number of fruits per plant and yield was obtained by spraying tomato plants with tricontanol at 2.3 x 10-6M (Eriksen et al., 1982).

Gunasekaran and Shanmugavel (1983) reported highest yield (1230.3 g/plant) with tricontanol at 1 ppm applied at 15 days after transplanting and at flowering in tomato. While, Zheng et al. (1986) reported foliar spray in beans with 10 ppm of tricontanol increased yield by 10 per cent over the control.

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Gaur et al. (1987) reported highest yield in safflower with application of miraculan at 500 ppm and 25 kg phosphorus per ha. Whereas, Parmil Singh et al. (1990) recorded increased seed and oil yield in sunflower with the application of 2 mg per ml of tricontanol.

Significantly higher leaf yield was recorded with the application of tricontanol (2.5-10 ppm) compared to control in spinach. He further reported highest leaf yield was with 5 ppm of tricontanol (Kadam et al., 1988).

Ray (1991) reported higher dry matter accumulation and better yields in plants treated with 0.5 to 1.0 mg tricontanol in capsicum. While, Yadav et al. (1992) reported increased pod yield with the application of 0.2 percent miraculan compared with that of untreated control in pea.

Sharma (1995) reported increased number of fruits, yield of fruits and seed per ha with the application of 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10 ppm of miraculan compared to control. He further reported that spraying at four weeks after transplanting with 75 pm was most effective in enhancing fruit and seed yield per ha compared to 8 and 12 weeks after transplanting in tomato.

Miniraj and Shanmugavelu (1997) in chilli recorded early days taken for first flowering (70.9), increased number of flowers (499.1) per plant, single plant yield (80.25 g), yield per ha (4.45 q) with foliar application of 2ppm of tricontanol.

Muralidharan et al. (2000) recorded significant number of fruits per plant (37), individual fruit weight (41.6 g), fruit volume (32.6 cm3) and fruit firmness (1.79 mm) with the application of vipul 0.01 % (tricontanol) 300 ml ha-1 in tomato.

Arvinda kumar et al. (2002) reported increased number of siliqua per plant, length of siliqua, number of seeds per siliqua, 1000 seed weight and seed yield with the application of 1ml/l of tricontanol over control in mustard.

Muralidharan et al. (2002) reported higher pod yield with the application of 0.1% miraculan and 0.05 % miraculan at 200, 250 and 300 ml per hectare over control. He further recorded highest dry pod yield (3.22 t/ha) with 300 ml of miraculan 0.1% in chilli.

Shaikh et al. (2002) recorded minimum days to 50 per cent flowering (82.22), increased number of umbels per plant (4.56), umbel diameter (4.28 cm), seed weight per umbel (3.07 g), seed yield per plant (16.73 g) and seed yield per ha (12.69 q) with the application of 2000 ppm miraculan in onion cv. Nasik Red. While, Dhall and Sanjeev (2004) in tomato reported increased number of fruits per plant (94.67), early and total yield per plant (0.480 and 3.2 kg) with the application of 0.75 ml vipul per litre (tricontanol 0.1%).

Sharma et al. (2005) reported tricontanol spray (1.25 ppm) at 15, 30 and 40 DAT significantly increased number of flowers per plant (118.2), size of flowers (8.9 cm), weight of flowers per plant (739.0 g) and flower yield per ha (36.5 q) in African marigold.

Karuppaiah et al. (2007) in his studies on growth regulators in radish reported increased tuber length and tuber yield with the application of 10 ppm of tricontanol. Whereas, Tripathi et al. (2007) recorded increased number of flowers per plant, percent pod setting per plant, 1000 seed weight, seed yield per ha, harvest index and productivity with the application of 5 ppm miraculan in chickpea over control.

Samui and Roy (2007) reported that application of tricontanol 0.05% EC and tricontanol 0.1% EC at 0.250, 0.500 and 1.000 g a.i. per ha foliar spray significantly increased dry matter production, tuber bulking rate, size of tubers and yield in potato.

Satao et al. (2007) reported an increase in number of flowers, number of pods and green pod yield with the application of miraculan at 0.8 ml per litre sprayed four times (35, 50, 65 and 80days) after sowing in okra.

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2.4.4 Seed quality parameters

Shaikh et al. (2002) recorded increased 1000 seed weight (3.85 g), seed germination percentage (84.1) and seedling vigour index (983) with the application of 2000 ppm of miraculan in onion cv. Nasik Red.

2.5 Influence of cycocel on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and

quality

Cycocel is chemically termed as (2-Chloro ethyl) trimethyl ammonium chloride. In 1960, a new group of quaternary ammonium compounds were reported, the most active of these was designated as CCC, an analog of choline, in that hydroxyl group in choline was replaced with a chlorine substitute. Its trival name chloro choline chloride abbreviated as CCC. The chemical acts as growth retardant in large number of species than any of the earlier compounds.

2.5.1 Growth

Shanmugam and Muthuswamy (1974) reported marked suppression of plant growth at all concentrations (500, 1000 and 2000 ppm) of CCC in chrysanthemum compared to control.

Sen and Naik (1977) noticed marked reduction in plant height over control with foliar spray of cycocel (1000 ppm) in both pinched and unpinched Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Early white.

Narayanagowda and Jayanthi (1991) reported in marigold that foliar spray of cycocel successfully reduced the plant height at all concentrations (1000, 1500 and 2000 ppm), increased the number of branches at pre blooming stage and post blooming stage in first and second season, respectively.

Shreedhar (1993) in his studies on gaillardia noticed higher number of branches, leaves and dry matter production and reduced plant height with CCC (2000 ppm) as compared to CCC (3000 ppm).

Aswath et al. (1994) noticed decreased plant height, branch length and internodal length with increase in concentrations of cycocel in china aster. Maximum number of branches and leaves were recorded in CCC at 1500 ppm.

Spraying of CCC (1000 ppm) on gaillardia significantly increased the number of branches, leaves, leaf area index and total dry matter production compared to control (Hugar, 1997).

Khandelwal et al. (2003) reported that spraying of 1000, 2000 and 3000 ppm of CCC significantly reduced the plant height, but increased the number of branches and leaves at all concentrations compared to control in African marigold. While, Singh (2004) reported that CCC at 2000 ppm exhibited maximum number of leaves and secondary shoots and significantly reduced plant height in rose.

Significant reduction in plant height, increased number of primary and secondary branches, number of leaves per plant, leaf area and plant spread was recorded with foliar spray of cycocel at 500 and 250 ppm in French marigold. Further, reported 500 ppm was superior over all other treatments (Samruban and Karuppaiah, 2007).

Pawar et al. (2008) recorded reduction in plant height, increased number of branches and plant spread with foliar application of cycocel at (750, 1000 and 1250 ppm, respectively) in gaillardia cv. Picta Mixed.

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2.5.2 Flowering, seed yield and yield components

Parmar and Singh (1983) in marigold noticed more flowers per plant and flower yield with foliar spray of CCC at 500 and 750 ppm of spray respectively compared to control. While, Narayanagouda (1985) reported in china aster that application of CCC (1000 ppm) increased the number of days to 50 per cent flowering, number of flower per plant and flower yield compared to control.

In china aster, maximum number of flowers per plant and yield of flowers per plant was recorded with CCC at 2000 ppm. Whereas, minimum yield and maximum peduncle length was recorded in control (Narayanagouda, 1985).

Aswath et al. (1994) reported that application of cycocel (1000 ppm) delayed the flower bud appearance by 12.40 days. Higher number of flowers per plant was obtained due to the spray of 1500 ppm cycocel followed by alar (1500 ppm) in china aster.

Narayangouda et al. (1996) reported that cycocel treated plants of Gundu Mallige flowered early with longer duration of flowering and increase in number and flower yield (120.59) per plant.

Hugar (1997) reported that spraying of CCC (1000 ppm) to gaillardia plants significantly increased the days to 50 per cent flowering, number of flowers per plant, seed yield per plant, seed recovery percentage, 1000 seed weight, but decreased capitulum diameter compared to control.

Khandelwal et al. (2003) observed significantly increased number of flowers, number of days to first flowering and decreased diameter of flowers with increasing concentration of CCC (1000, 2000 and 3000 ppm) compared to control. Similarly, Singh (2004) reported in rose that CCC (2000 ppm) recorded maximum diameter of flower, early induction of flower bud and flowering compared to CCC (1000 ppm).

Significantly more number of flowers per plant (32.43 and 30.17 cm), increased diameter of head (3.46 and 3.30 cm) and stalk length (8.2 and 8.28 cm) was recorded in French marigold with foliar application of cycocel at 500 and 250 ppm (Samruban and Karuppaiah, 2008).

Pawar et al. (2008) recorded significant increase in diameter of flower, highest diameter and yield of flower per hectare with the application of cycocel at 750, 1000 and 1250 ppm, respectively. He further reported that 1000 ppm was significantly superior over all treatments in gaillardia.

2.5.3 Seed quality parameters

Mantur (1988) reported that germination percentage, vigour index, shoot and root length of seedling were significantly increased by spraying of CCC at 1000 ppm compared to control in china aster.

Significantly higher 1000 seed weight, seed germination percentage and seedling vigour index with spraying of CCC (1000 ppm) was noticed in gaillardia compared to other treatments and control (Hugar, 1997).

Akkannavar (2001) reported higher germination percentage, root length and shoot length, speed of germination, seedling dry weight, seedling vigour index with spraying of CCC (500 ppm) compared to control.

2.6 Influence of mepiquat chloride on plant growth, flowering,

seed yield and quality

Mepiquat chloride (1,1 Dimethyl piperidinium chloride, DPC), a growth regulator known to suppress vegetative growth in cotton (Cothren, 1979). Mepiquat chloride is relatively a new chemical and the literature available on the effect of this chemical is very scanty.

INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED YIELD AND QUALITY IN ANNUAL CHRYSANTHEMUM (Chrysanthemum coronarium L.)