RULES OF EVIDENCE Based on the Book of Regalado
[RULE 128]
GENERAL PROVISIONS Sec 1. Evidence defined .
Evidence is the means, sanctioned by these rules, of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact. (1)
Sec. 2. Scope .
The rules of evidence shall be the same: - in all courts and
- in all trials and hearings,
- EXCEPT as otherwise provided by law or these rules. (2a) Notes:
Evidence, defined: Bustos v. Lucero: Evidence is the mode and manner of proving competent facts in judicial proceedings.
Proof is the result or effect of evidence.
- This is the result when the requisite quantum of evidence of a particular fact has been duly admitted and given weight.
Factum Probandum
- Ultimate fact or the fact sought to be established - Refers to the proposition
Factum Probans
- The evidentiary fact or the fact by which the factum probandum is to be established.
- Refers to the materials which established the proposition Rules of Evidence as Procedural Law
- Amendments in such rules may validly be made applicable to cases pending at the time of such change. Parties have no vested right in the rules of evidence.
- HOWEVER, in criminal cases, if the amendment would permit the reception of a lesser quantum of evidence to convict, retroactive application would be unconstitutional for being ex post facto.
Other Laws Governing Evidence
- GR: Rules of evidence is governed by the Rules of Court (RoC) - EXC: Application of other laws
Examples:
- RA 4200 (Anti Wiretapping),
- Code of Commerce (weight of entries in merchant books) - Electronic Commerce Act
- NCC, RPC
- Constitution: Bill of Rights - Art III
o Sec 2: The right of people against unreasonable searches and seizures
o Sec 3: The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable (EXC. By order of court or when provided by law for safety and public order)
o Evidence obtained in violation of such provisions shall be INADMISSIBLE
Applicability of the Rules of Evidence:
- GR: Applicable ONLY in judicial proceedings - EXC: In quasi-judicial proceedings
o The same apply by analogy, or in a suppletory character and whenever practicable and convenient.(Rule 1 Section 4) o It shall apply also when the governing law of such
proceeding specifically adopts such rules o Note: NOT applicable in agrarian cases Classification of Evidence According to Form
1. Object (Real) Evidence : directly addressed to the senses of the court and consist of tangible things exhibited or demonstrated in open court, in an ocular inspection, or at place designated by the court for its view or observation of an exhibition, experiment or demonstration.
- This is referred to as “autoptic proference” since it proffers or presents in open court the evidentiary articles for observation or inspection
2. Documentary Evidence: Evidence supplied by written instruments or derived from conventional symbols, such as letters, by which ideas are represented on material substances
- Rule 130 Sec 2: writings or any material containing letters, words,
numbers, figures, symbols or other modes of written expression offered as proof of their contents
3. Testimonial Evidence : That which is submitted to the court through the testimony or deposition of a witness.
Other Classification of Evidence:
1. Relevant, Material, and Competent Evidence
- Relevant: evidence having any value in reason as tending to prove any matter provable in an action.
o TEST: The logical relation of the evidentiary fact to the fact in issue, whether the former tends to establish the probability or improbability of the latter.
- Material: evidence directed to prove a fact in issue as determined by the rules of substantive law and pleadings.
o TEST: w/n the fact it intends to prove is an issue or not. o W/N a fact is in issue: Determined by substantive law,
pleadings, pre-trial order and by admissions or confessions on file.
o Evidence may be relevant BUT may be immaterial.
- Competent: one that is not excluded by the Rules, statutes or the Constitution.
2. Direct and Circumstantial Evidence
- Direct: that which proves the fact in dispute w/o the aid of any inference or presumption
- Circumstantial: proof of a fact or facts from which, taken either singly or collectively, the existence of a particular fact in dispute may be inferred as a necessary or probable consequence.
3. Cumulative and Corroborative Evidence
- Cumulative: evidence of the same kind and to the same state of facts.
- Corroborative: additional evidence of a different character to the same point.
4. Prima Facie and Conclusive Evidence
- Prima Facie: that which, standing alone, unexplained or uncontradicted, is sufficient to maintain the proposition affirmed. - Conclusive: the class of evidence which the law does not allow to be
contradicted.
5. Primary and Secondary Evidence
- Primary: that which the law regards as affording the greatest certainty of the fact in question. Also known as “best evidence”. - Secondary: that which is inferior to the primary evidence and is
permitted by law only when the best evidence is not available. Also known as “substitutionary evidence”.
6. Positive and Negative Evidence
- Positive: when the witness affirms that a fact did or did not occur.
o Entitled to a greater weight since the witness represents of his personal knowledge the presence or absence of a fact. - Negative Evidence: when the witness did not see or know of the
occurrence of a fact.
o Lesser weight since there is a total disclaimer of personal knowledge, hence without any representation that the fact could or could not have existed or happened.
o It is admissible only if it tends to contradict positive evidence of the other side or would tend to exclude the existence of fact sworn to by the other side.
Sec. 3. Admissibility of evidence . Evidence is admissible when:
- it is relevant to the issue AND
- is not excluded by the law or these rules. (3a) Sec. 4. Relevancy ; collateral matters .
Evidence must have such a relation TO:
- the fact in issue as to induce belief in its existence or non-existence. Evidence on collateral matters:
- shall NOT be allowed ,
- EXCEPT when it tends in any reasonable degree to establish the probability or improbability of the fact in issue. (4a)
Notes:
Evidence is ADMISSIBLE when: 2 Requisites (see codal) - When it is Relevant
o it must have a relation to the fact in issue as to induce belief of its existence or non-existence
o Determined by the rules of logic and human experience. - When it is Competent
o When not excluded by the law or by the RoC
o Determined by the prevailing exclusionary rules on evidence Note: The weight however of admissible evidence depends on judicial evaluation within the Rule 133 and rules of the SC.
o While evidence is admissible, it may be entitled to little or no weight at all.
o Conversely, evidence of great weight may also be inadmissible.
Requisites of Admissibility of Evidence According to Professor Wigmore 1. That none but facts having rational probative value are admissible & 2. That all facts having rational probative value are not forbidden by
specific rules
Note: Here, Relevant Evidence means any class of evidence which has “rational probative value” to establish the issue in controversy
When is admissibility determined? – At the time it is OFFERED to the court
- Real Evidence : offered
o when the same is presented for its view or evaluation
o when the party rests his case and the real evidence consists of objects exhibited in court
- Testimonial Evidence : offered by the calling of the witness to the stand
- Documentary Evidence : offered by the proponent immediately before he rests his case
When should admissibility be objected?
- At the time evidence is offered to the court OR
- As soon thereafter as the objection to its admissibility shall have become apparent
o Objection to the qualification of the witness : made at the time such person is called to the stand
o Objection to the testimony: made at the time the question is asked or after the answer is given when the objectionable features become apparent by reason of the answer
Note: if not done within such time – right to object is deemed WAIVED Doctrines and Rules of Admissibility Sanctioned by the Supreme Court 1. Conditional Admissibility
- When the evidence at the time it is offered appears to be immaterial or irrelevant, such evidence may be received on condition that the other facts will be proved thereafter
- IF not proved subsequently: evidence given will be stricken out. - REQUISITE: There should be no bad faith on the part of the
proponent. (necessary to avoid unfair surprises)
2. Multiple Admissibility
- When the evidence is relevant AND competent for two or more purposes, such evidence should be admitted for any or all the purposes for which it is offered
- PROVIDED it must satisfy all the requirements for its admissibility. 3. Curative Admissibility
- The right of the party to introduce incompetent evidence in his behalf where the court has admitted the same kind of evidence adduced by the adverse party.
- 3 Theories of Curative Admissibility cited by Wigmore
o American rule – the admission of incompetent evidence w/out objection by the opponent, does not justify rebutting it by similar incompetent evidence.
o English rule – if inadmissible evidence is admitted, the adverse party may resort to similar inadmissible evidence o Massachusetts rule –similar incompetent evidence may be
admitted in order to avoid a plain and unfair prejudice caused by the admission of the other party’s evidence
- What should be determined to apply the curative admissibility rule?
1. w/n the incompetent evidence was seasonably objected to Lack of objection: waiver of the right to object admissibility
BUT does NOT deprive him to introduce similar rebutting evidence
2. w/n the admission of such evidence will cause a plain and unfair prejudice to the party against whom it was admitted When the admissible evidence has been improperly
excluded, the other party should not be permitted to introduce similar evidence
Stonehill, et al. v. Diokno: Documentary evidence illegally obtained, is inadmissible on a timely motion or action to suppress. (Applies to illegally obtained confessions)
Collateral Matters, defined: Matters other than the facts in issue and which are offered as a basis for inference as to the existence or non-existence of the facts in issue
- GR: Collateral matters are INADMISSIBLE or not allowed
- EXC: when it tends in any reasonable degree to establish the probability or improbability of the fact in issue (“Circumstantial Evidence” or evidence of relevant collateral facts)
Note: What is prohibited – IRRELEVANT collateral facts
4 Main Divisions of the Rules of Evidence: (1) Admissibility of Evidence Rule 130; (2) Burden of proof and what need not be proved Rule 131 & 129; (3) Presentation of Evidence Rule 132; (4) Weight and Sufficiency of Evidence Rule 133; Note: Rule 134 has been transposed to Part I as Rule 24
[RULE 129]
WHAT NEED NOT BE PROVED Sec 1. Judicial notice, when mandatory .
A court shall take judicial notice, without the introduction of evidence: - of the existence and territorial extent of states, their political
history, forms of government and symbols of nationality, - the law of nations,
- the admiralty and maritime courts of the world and their seals, - the political constitution and history of the RP,
- the official acts of legislative,
- executive and judicial departments of the RP, - the laws of nature,
- the measure of time, and - the geographical divisions. (1a)
Sec. 2. Judicial notice, when discretionary .
A court MAY take judicial notice of matters which: - are of public knowledge, or
- are capable to unquestionable demonstration, or
- ought to be known to judges because of their judicial functions. (1a)
Sec. 3. Judicial notice, when hearing necessary . During the trial, the court:
- on its own initiative, OR on request of a party, may:
- announce its intention to take judicial notice of any matter and - allow the parties to be heard thereon.
AFTER the trial and BEFORE judgment OR ON appeal, the proper court:
- on its own initiative OR on request of a party,
may:
- take judicial notice of any matter and
- allow the parties to be heard thereon IF such matter is decisive of a material issue in the case.
Notes:
Judicial Notice (JN), Defined: cognizance of certain facts which judges may properly take and act on without proof.
- JN is based on convenience and expediency.
- JN relieves the parties from the necessity of introducing evidence to prove the fact noticed. The fact is proven by JN.
- The stipulation and admission of the parties or counsel cannot prevail over the operation of the doctrine of judicial notice, and such are all subject to the operation of the doctrine.
Two kinds of JN: - Mandatory - Discretionary
How JN May be Taken by the Court: 1. On its own initiative or motion
2. When it is requested or invited by the parties
Note: In Either Case, the court may allow the parties to be heard on the matter in question
- The purpose of the hearing: NOT for the presentation of evidence o but to afford the parties reasonable opportunity to present
information relevant to the propriety of taking such JN or to the tenor of the matter to be noticed
o Also to notify them of the court’s intention to take JN (no notice = improper JN)
What stage may the court take judicial notice of a fact? - During trial;
- After trial and before judgment; - On Appeal
Republic v. CA: JN must be exercised with caution and every reasonable doubt on the subject must be resolved in the negative.
Judicial Notice of Laws
- GR: courts of justice are required to take JN of the laws - EXC: In case of ORDINANCES, the rule is different
o MTCs: Required to take JN of the ordinances of the municipality or city wherein they sit.
o RTC however, they must take such JN ONLY when: Required to do so by statute (ex. city charter); and In a case on appeal before them and wherein the
inferior court took JN of an ordinance involved in said case. (only to determine the propriety of taking JN)
- Appellate courts may also take JN of municipal and city ordinances not only where the lower courts took JN BEC these are facts capable of unquestionable demonstration.
- For the same reason, Courts may take judicial notice of administrative regulations
Rule on JN of Decisions of Courts
- ALL courts are required to take judicial notice of the decisions of the Supreme Court
- Lower courts are to take JN of decisions of higher courts (ex. CA) BUT NOT of the decisions of coordinate trial courts NOR even of a decision or the facts involved in another case tried by the same court
o EXCEPT when:
Parties introduce the same in evidence
The court as a matter of convenience, decides to do so
Judicial Notice vs. Personal Knowledge of a Judge - The 2 should not be confused
- It is not essential that matters of JN be actually known to the judge. The judge may at his discretion, inform himself in any way which may seem best to him, and act accordingly.
Foreign Laws may NOT be Taken Judicial Notice
- Existence of foreign laws is one of FACT and NOT of LAW - It MUST BE PROVED like any other fact:
o EXCEPT: when the laws are within the actual knowledge of the court either because:
They are generally known OR
They have been actually ruled upon in other cases before it and none of the parties object
How WRITTEN Foreign Law May be Proved
- Requirements in Sec 24 and 25 of rule 132 must be complied w/:
o BY an official publication
o BY a duly attested and authenticated copy thereof
- Absent the above evidence : The Doctrine of Processual Presumption shall apply
o The foreign law is presumed to be the same as that in the RP - Note: Exceptions to the required proof in Sec 24 and 25:
o Testimony of a witness who was an active member of the California Bar and who is familiar with the laws with a full quotation of the cited law was accepted as sufficient proof. o An affidavit of an US attorney which does not state the
specific law but merely contained his interpretation of the facts of the case is NOT sufficient proof.
How UNWRITTEN Foreign Law May be Proved
- Rule 130, Sec 46: A published treatise, periodical or pamphlet on a subject of such law or a testimony of a written expert
Sec. 4. Judicial admissions . An admission verbal or written,
- made by the party in the course of the proceedings in the same case,
does not require proof.
The admission may be contradicted ONLY by showing: - that it was made through palpable mistake or - that no such admission was made. (2a) Notes:
Judicial Admissions May be Made IN: 1. The pleadings filed by the parties
2. In the course of the trial either by verbal or written manifestations or stipulations
3. In other stages of the judicial proceeding, as in pre-trial of the case Note: Depositions, written interrogatories, or requests for admission are also considered judicial admissions
To be considered a judicial admission:
- GR: It must be made in the SAME case in which it is offered - EXC: It may be made in another case or another court PROVIDED:
IF the judicial admission was made in a judicial proceeding, it is entitled to greater weight. o It is pertinent to the issue involved
o There must be no objection - EXC to EXC:
1. The said admissions were made only for purposes of the first case as in the rule on implied admissions and their effects under Rule 26
2. The same were withdrawn with the permission of the court therein
3. The court deems it proper to relieve the party therefrom. Judicial Admissions v. Extrajudicial Admissions:
- Judicial: Those so made in the pleadings filed or in the progress of a trial.
- Extrajudicial: Those made out of court, or in a judicial proceeding other than the one under consideration
Rules on Extrajudicial Admissions:
- Extrajudicial admissions or other admissions are, as a rule and where elements of estoppel are not present, disputable.
- Admissions in a pleading withdrawn are considered extrajudicial admissions – must be proved by a formal offer in evidence of the original pleading
- Admissions in a pleading superseded by an amended pleading although filed in the same case are:
o judicial admissions (Note: Based on Regalado on his interpretation of Sec 4 as amended, p. 792)
o still extrajudicial (If based on Torres v. CA, et al. G.R. No. L-37420-21, July 31, 1984) – also Judge B.
Note: When the parties agree on what the foreign law provides, these are admission of facts that the court may rely upon, and hence, they are in estoppel to take a contrary position.
Rules on Contradicting Judicial Admissions
- GR: Judicial Admissions cannot be contradicted by the admitter who is the party himself
- EXC: May be contradicted when:
o Such is made through palpable mistake or o No such admission was made or
o In the case of a pre-trial admission in a civil case, to prevent manifest injustice (Sec 7, Rule 18) – Note: applies to
criminal cases if the pre-trial admission is reduced into writing and signed by the accused and his counsel.
[RULE 130]
RULES OF ADMISSIBILITY A. OBJECT (REAL) EVIDENCE
Sec 1. Object as evidence . Objects as evidence are:
- those addressed to the senses of the court. When an object is relevant to the fact in issue:
- it may be exhibited to, examined or viewed by the court. (1a) Notes:
- When an object is relevant to a fact in issue, the court may acquire knowledge thereof by actually viewing the object – the object is called real evidence
- Also known as autoptic proference, physical or demonstrative
evidence
- It is the highest form of evidence
- Even if other evidence have been introduced, it will not prevent the court from viewing an object to resolve the issue
- Also, the fact that an ocular inspection has been held does not preclude a party from introducing other evidence on the same issue. Requirements of an Ocular Inspection (OI)
- An OI conducted by the judge w/o notice to or the presence of the parties is invalid, as an OI is part of the trial.
- W/N an OI is to be made lies in the discretion of the court.
When can a Court Refuse the Introduction of Object (real) Evidence and Rely on Testimonial Evidence Alone:
1. When the exhibition of such object is contrary to public policy, morals or decency
2. When to require its being viewed in court or in an ocular inspection would result in delay, inconvenience, unnecessary expense out of proportion to the evidentiary value of such object
3. When such object (real) evidence would be confusing or misleading, as when the purpose is to prove the former condition of the object and there is no preliminary showing that there has been no substantial change in said condition
4. The testimonial or documentary evidence already presented clearly portrays the object in question as to render a view thereof unnecessary
When may object (real) evidence which is repulsive or indecent still be viewed by the court?
- IF the view of the same is necessary in the interest of justice - In such case, the court may exclude the public from such view - Note: The view may NOT be refused IF the indecent or immoral
objects constitute the very basis of the criminal or civil actions (ex. case against obscene exhibits)
-What does object (real) evidence include?
- Such evidence includes any article or object which may be known or perceived by the use of any of the senses of: hearing (auditory), touch (tactile), taste (gustatory) or smell (olfactory)and sight
- It may include:
o Examination of the anatomy of a person or any substance taken therefrom
o Conducting tests, demonstration or experiments
o Examination of representative portrayals of the object in question provided the same are properly authenticated (ex. maps, diagrams, sketches, pictures, audio-visual records) - Note: Such real evidence may be amplified by interpretations
afforded by testimonial evidence especially by experts (x-ray interpreted by doctors)
Documents are Considered:
- Object (real) Evidence IF their Purpose is: To prove their existence or condition, or the nature of the handwritings thereon or to determine the age of the paper used, or the blemishes or alterations thereon.
- Otherwise, They are Considered Documentary Evidence IF their Purpose is: to establish the contents or tenor thereof.
Physical Examination of a Person May be Conducted: - BY the court OR under its direction
- TO show the nature, extent or location of injuries, facial features, his resemblance or possibility of relationship to another, or his racial origin, his probable age, fact of pregnancy
B. DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE Sec. 2. Documentary evidence . Documents as evidence consist of:
- writing or
- any material containing letters, words, numbers, figures, symbols or - other modes of written expression
offered as proof of their contents. (n)
1. BEST EVIDENCE RULE (Primary Evidence Rule) Sec. 3. Original document must be produced ; exceptions . When the subject of inquiry is the contents of a document:
- no evidence shall be admissible other than the original document itself,
EXCEPT in the following cases: (a) When the original:
- has been lost or destroyed, or cannot be produced in court, - without bad faith on the part of the offeror;
(b) When the original:
- is in the custody or under the control of the party against whom the evidence is offered, and
- the latter fails to produce it after reasonable notice;
(c) When the original:
- consists of numerous accounts or other documents which cannot be examined in court without great loss of time and
- the fact sought to be established from them is only the general result of the whole; and
(d) When the original: - is a public record
- in the custody of a public officer OR is recorded in a public office. (2a)
Sec. 4. Original of document . (a) The original of the document is:
- one the contents of which are the subject of inquiry. (b) When a document:
- is in two or more copies executed at or about the same time, with identical contents,
all such copies are equally regarded as originals. (c) When an entry:
- is repeated in the regular course of business,
- one being copied from another at or near the time of the transaction, all the entries are likewise equally regarded as originals. (3a)
Notes:
Document, defined: A deed, instrument or other duly authorized paper by which something is proved, evidenced or set forth.
Documentary Evidence, defined: That which is furnished by written instruments, inscriptions and documents of all kinds.
Best Evidence Rule, defined: that rule which requires the highest grade of evidence obtainable to prove a disputed fact.
- Purpose: To prevent fraud, perjury, and To exclude uncertainties in the contents of a document
Best Evidence Rule is Applied to Documentary Evidence ONLY - Operates as a rule of exclusion
- GR: Original writing itself must be produced in court. Secondary/substitutionary evidence cannot inceptively be introduced
o Effect: The non-production of the original document gives rise to the presumption of suppression of evidence (Sec 131) - EXC: Secondary evidence may be produced in 4 Instances in Sec 3 Note: In case of real evidence, secondary evidence may be introduced w/o having to account for the non-production of such primary evidence
Best Evidence Rule is Applicable ONLY: when the contents of the document is the subject of inquiry.
- It does NOT apply when the issue is only as to:
o w/n the document exists or w/n it was actually executed or o the circumstances relevant to or surrounding its execution Note: Here, testimonial evidence or other evidence will suffice. When a document is presented to prove existence or condition – It is offered as REAL evidence, NOT documentary evidence
- Parol evidence of the fact of execution is allowed
- HOWEVER, in criminal cases, where the issue is not only with respect to the contents of the document but also as to whether such document actually existed with the participation as imputed to the accused – the original must be produced (ex. in libel, the newspaper must be presented)
o In this case, the presentation of the original should affect ONLY the weight of the evidence intended to establish the execution of the document
Affidavits and depositions are not best evidence and hence not admissible, IF the affiants or deponents are available as witnesses
- It is not best evidence ONLY when the contents of the affidavits or depositions are NOT the issues in the case BUT are merely used to establish the issues in controversy
o Affidavits are regulated by the hearsay evidence rule (Rule 130 Sec 26) to safeguard the right of cross examination. o Depositions are regulated by Rule 23 Sec 4
When “Other Copies of a Document” are Considered Originals (Sec 4) - It includes regular entries in journals and ledgers.
- A signed carbon copy executed at the same time as the original is known as a “duplicate original” and may be introduced w/o the original
Rules on Carbon Copies Considered as Originals
- Documents prepared in several copies through the use of carbon sheets are considered originals:
o PROVIDED that the writing of a contract upon the outside sheet, including the signature of the party sought to be charged thereby, produces a facsimile upon the sheets beneath, such signature being thus reproduced by the SAME
stroke of the pen
- Even if the signature was made through separate acts or separate occasions, ALL the CARBON COPIES are considered originals
o IF each copy was intended as a repository of the same legal act of the party thereto.
- BUT imperfect carbon copies are merely secondary evidence even if the text was made at the same time as the signed original
o Ex. incomplete signatures, something else is left to be done in order that a document could evidence a binding obligation Rules on Telegrams and Cables – W/N the dispatch sent or the dispatch received is the best evidence of the message (depends on the issue)
- IF the issue is the contents of the telegrams
o as received by the addressee - original dispatch received is the best evidence
o as sent by the sender – the original is the message delivered - IF the issue is the inaccuracy of the transmission
o BOTH the sent and received dispatch are originals. Provincial Fiscal of Pampanga v. Reyes: in case of libel IF the issue is:
- On the contents of the articles sent by the accused for publication o The manuscript is the best evidence
- On what was actually published
o A copy of the newspaper is the best evidence 2. SECONDARY EVIDENCE
Sec. 5. When original document is unavailable . When the original document:
- has been lost or destroyed, or - cannot be produced in court, the offeror, upon proof of:
- its execution or existence and
- the cause of its unavailability without bad faith on his part, may prove its contents:
- by a recital of its contents in some authentic document, or - by the testimony of witnesses in the order stated. (4a) Notes:
1 st Exception to the Best Evidence Rule: When the original is lost or destroyed
What Must be Proved by Satisfactory Evidence in Order for Secondary Evidence May be Admissible:
1. Due execution of the original : proved through the testimony of either: a. The person/s who executed it
b. The person before whom its execution was acknowledged or
c. Any person who was present and saw it executed and delivered or who thereafter saw it and recognized the signatures, or
d. One to whom the parties previously confessed its execution 2. Loss, destruction or unavailability of all such originals
- The cause must NOT be due to the offeror’s bad faith - Loss or Destruction may be Proved BY:
o Any person who knew of such fact
o Anyone who, in the judgment of the court had made a sufficient examination in the places where the document or papers of similar character are usually kept by the person in whose custody the document was and had been unable to find it
o Anyone who has made any other investigation which is sufficient to satisfy the court that the document is indeed lost.
- Duplicates must be accounted for: Only when ALL cannot be presented can it be considered unavailable/lost/destroyed
3. Reasonable diligence and good faith in the search for or attempt to produce the original
PNB v. Olila: When the original is OUTSIDE the jurisdiction of the court (ex. Abroad), secondary evidence is ADMISSIBLE
What Constitutes Secondary Evidence? (Note: Applies to BOTH 1 st and 2 nd Exceptions to the Primary Evidence Rule)
1. A copy of said document
2. A recital or its contents in an authentic document or 3. The recollection of witnesses
GR: Availment of such secondary evidence MUST be in the aforesaid order
EXC: Definite Evidentiary Rule When the law specifically provides for the class and quantum of secondary evidence to establish the contents of a document or bars secondary evidence such requirement is controlling
- Example. Lost holographic will must be proved only by a copy, lost notarial will may be proved by the testimony of credible witnesses Contents of a Document may be Proven BY:
1. Any person who read it
2. Any person who heard it read knowing or it being proved from other sources that the document so read was the one in question
3. Any person who was present when the contents of the document were talked over between the parties thereto to such an extent as to give him reasonably full information as to its contents
4. Any person to whom the parties to the instrument have confessed or stated the contents thereof.
Sec. 6. When original document is in adverse party's custody or control . IF the document is in the custody or under the control of adverse party:
- he must have reasonable notice to produce it.
IF after such notice AND after satisfactory proof of its existence, he fails to produce the document:
- secondary evidence may be presented as in the case of its loss. (5a)
Notes:
2 nd Exception to the Best Evidence Rule: Original is in the custody or under the control of the adverse party who fails to produce it
Facts Which Must be Shown by the Party Offering Secondary Evidence 1. The adverse party’s custody or control of the original document;
o No need to prove actual possession. It is enough to show the circumstances that would indicate his possession.
2. That reasonable notice was given to the adverse party who has the custody or control of the document;
3. Satisfactory proof of the document’s existence;
4. Failure or refusal by the adverse party to produce it in court. Requirement of “Notice” Demanding the Original Document:
- No particular form of notice is required, as long as it fairly apprises the other party as to what papers are desired. Even an oral demand in court will suffice.
- HOWEVER, notice must be given to the adverse party or his attorney even if the document is in the actual possession of a 3rd party - Notice is done by: Motion or Subpoena duces tecum
Notice is NOT Required:
- When the receipt of the original document is acknowledged on a carbon copy. (The duplicate itself is an original copy and the only issue is the receipt of the original)
- When the nature of the action is in itself a notice, as when it is for the recovery or annulment of documents wrongfully obtained or withheld by the other party
*See Notes on Section 8 as it relates to Section 6
Effect of JUSTIFIED Refusal of the Adverse Party to the Produce the Document
- Does NOT give rise to the presumption of suppression of evidence or create an unfavorable inference against him
- IT only authorizes the introduction of secondary evidence Rules on Production of Documents: Rule 130 v. Rule 27
Rule 130 Rule 27
Production is procured by mere notice to the adverse party
Production is in the nature of a mode of discovery
Requirements of notice must be fulfilled as a condition precedent for the subsequent presentation of secondary evidence
Can be sought only by proper motion and only upon good cause
Presupposes that the evidence to be produced is intended as evidence
Contemplates a situation wherein the document is either assumed to be favorable to the party in possession thereof or that the party seeking its production is not sufficiently informed of the contents of the same
3 rd Exception to the Best Evidence Rule: When the original consists of numerous accounts or other documents which cannot be examined in court
w/out great loss of time Requisites for the 3rd Exception to Apply:
1. The voluminous character of the records must be established and 2. Such records must be made accessible to the adverse party so that
their correctness may be tested on cross examination Instances When the Original Must STILL be Produced
1. When the detailed contents of the records of accounts are challenged for being hearsay or
2. Issues are raised as to the authenticity or correctness of the detailed entries
Note: Here, a summary of the voluminous records can be considered as secondary evidence
Sec. 7. Evidence admissible when original document is a public record . When the original of document:
- is in the custody of public officer or - is recorded in a public office, its contents may be proved:
- by a certified copy issued by the public officer in custody thereof. (2a)
Notes:
4 th Exception to the Best Evidence Rule: When the original is a public record in the custody of a public officer or is recorded in a public office Such Document may be Evidenced BY:
- An official publication or
- A copy attested by the officer having legal custody and
- In the case of an authorized public record, by a copy thereof attested by its legal keeper
Sec. 8. Party who calls for document not bound to offer it .
A party who calls for the production of a document and inspects the same - is not obliged to offer it as evidence. (6a)
Note:
When the document is produced, it must fulfill the requisites of admissibility to be admitted. The party demanding it is also NOT obliged to offer it.
3. PAROL EVIDENCE RULE Sec. 9. Evidence of written agreements.
When the terms of an agreement have been reduced to writing: - it is considered as containing all the terms agreed upon and
- there can be, between the parties and their successors in interest, no evidence of such terms other than the contents of the written agreement.
HOWEVER, a party may present evidence to:
- modify, explain or add to the terms of written agreement - IF he puts in issue in his pleading:
(a)An intrinsic ambiguity, mistake or imperfection in the written agreement; (b)The failure of the written agreement to express the true intent and agreement of the parties thereto;
(c)The validity of the written agreement; or
(d)The existence of other terms agreed to by the parties or their successors in interest AFTER the execution of the written agreement.
The term "agreement" includes wills. (7a) Notes:
Parol Evidence, defined: Any evidence aliunde (oral or written), which is intended or tends to vary or contradict a complete and enforceable agreement in a document
Basis and Effect of the Parol Evidence Rule
- Basis: When the parties have reduced their agreement into writing, all their previous and contemporaneous agreements on the matter are merged therein.
- Effect: Hence, a prior or contemporaneous verbal agreement is not admissible to vary contradict or defeat the operation of a valid instrument.
When Can Parol Evidence of a Collateral Agreement (CA) Between the Same Parties on the Same or Related Subject Matter Still be Admissible Notwithstanding the Existence of a Written Agreement?
1. When the CA is not inconsistent with the terms of the written contract 2. When the CA has not been integrated in and is independent of the
written contract as where it is suppletory to the original contract 3. When the CA is subsequent to or novatory of the written contract 4. When the CA constitutes a condition precedent which determines
whether the written contract may become operative or effective.
o No. 4 does not apply to a condition subsequent not stated in the agreement
NOTE: In order to apply the above exceptions, evidence thereon may be allowed PROVIDED they have been put in issue (as part of Sec. 9, Par. d) Parol Evidence Rule Also does NOT APPLY (may not be invoked against the other):
- When at least 1 party to the suit is not a party or privy to the written instrument in question and does not base a claim or assert a right originating in the instrument.
- A stranger may introduce extrinsic evidence against the written agreement
-Parol Evidence is Admissible PROVIDED Section 9 Paragraphs A to D are put in issue
- GR: Such facts must be put in issue by the pleadings
- EXCEPTION: Parol Evidence may still be admitted even if the required matters are not put in issue by the pleadings:
o If such facts are invoked in his answer (since it also puts it in issue)
o When parol evidence is NOT OBJECTED to (waiver of right to object inadmissibility)
Requisites for the Admissibility of Parol Evidence 1. There is a valid contract
2. The terms of the agreement were reduced into writing
3. The controversy must be between the parties of the agreement of their successors in interest (parties to the agreement must be the parties to the suit)
4. There is a dispute as to the terms of the agreement
Rule on Express Trusts Concerning an Immovable or Any Interest Therein
- Cannot be proved by parol evidence - Relief: Reformation of contracts
Parol Evidence Rule v. Best Evidence Rule:
Parol Evidence Rule Best Evidence Rule
Presupposes that the original document is available in court
Contemplates a situation where the original writing is not available and/or there is a dispute as to w/n the said writing is the original
Prohibits the varying of the terms of the written agreement
Prohibits the introduction of secondary evidence regardless of w/n it varies the contents of the original Applies ONLY to documents which
are contractual in nature or “written agreement (EXC. It applies to wills)
Applies to all kinds of writings
Can be invoked ONLY when there is a controversy bet. the parties to the written agreement and their privies or any party directly affected thereby
Can be invoked by ANY party regardless of w/n such party has participated in the writing involved. 1 st Exception to the Parol Evidence Rule: An intrinsic ambiguity, mistake or
imperfection in the written agreement (Sec 9 Par A) Ambiguities in the Written Agreement or Will
1. “Latent or Intrinsic Ambiguity” – Contemplated in Sec 9 – Curable by Parol Evidence
- When the writing on its face appears to be clear and unambiguous but there are collateral matters or circumstances which make the meaning uncertain
- When a writing admits of 2 or more constructions
- Ex. “I give my estate to my cousin Jimmy Ibarra” (I have 2 cousins with that same name)
2. “Patent or Extrinsic Ambiguity” – NOT contemplated, Cannot be Cured by Parol Evidence
- That which is apparent on the face of the writing and requires something to be added in order to ascertain the meaning. Ex. “I give my estate to my first cousin”
3. “Intermediate Ambiguity” – May also be Cured by Parol Evidence PROVIDED it is also put in issue
- Because of the words of the writing, though seemingly clear and with a settled meaning, is actually equivocal and admits 2 interpretations Note: False description shall not vitiate a document IF the subject is sufficiently identified.
Note: When the terms of the agreement are clear – the courts have no right to interpret it
“Mistake” means “Mistake of Fact”
- Such mistake may be a mutual mistake between the parties OR - Where an innocent party was imposed upon by unfair dealing of the
other.
- Such mistake should be alleged and proved by clear and convincing evidence
“Imperfection” Includes:
- An inaccurate statement in the agreement or - Incompleteness in the writing or
- Presence or inconsistent provisions therein
Note: Art. 1363 NCC : When one party was mistaken and the other party knew that the instrument did not state the real agreement and concealed such fact – the instrument may be reformed.
2 Exception to the Parol Evidence Rule: nd Failure of the written agreement to express the true intent and agreement of the parties
Purpose: to enable to court to ascertain the true intention of the parties or the true nature of the transaction
3 rd Exception to the Parol Evidence Rule: The validity of the written agreement
In the inquiry into the Validity if the Agreement, Parol Evidence may be Admitted to Show:
- The true consideration of the contract or the want or illegality thereof - The Incapacity of the parties
- W/n the contract is fictitious or absolutely simulated - W/n there was fraud in inducement
4 th Exception to the Parol Evidence Rule: The existence of other terms agreed to by the parties or their successors in interest AFTER the execution
of the written agreement
Note: Amendment in Section 9
4. INTERPRETATION OF DOCUMENTS
Sec. 10. Interpretation of a writing according to its legal meaning . The language of a writing is to be interpreted:
- according to the legal meaning it bears in the place of its execution, - UNLESS the parties intended otherwise. (8)
Sec. 11. Instrument construed so as to give effect to all provisions .
In the construction of an instrument, where there are several provisions or particulars:
- such a construction is, if possible, to be adopted as will give effect to all. (9)
Sec. 12. Interpretation according to intention ; general and particular provisions .
In the construction of an instrument:
- the intention of the parties is to be pursued;
and when a general and a particular provision are inconsistent, - the latter is paramount to the former.
- So a particular intent will control a general one that is inconsistent with it. (10)
Sec. 13. Interpretation according to circumstances . For the proper construction of an instrument:
- the circumstances under which it was made,
- including the situation of the subject thereof and of the parties to it, may be shown, so that the judge may be placed in the position of those whose language he is to interpret. (11)
Sec. 14. Peculiar signification of terms . The terms of a writing:
- are presumed to have been used in their primary and general acceptation,
but evidence is admissible to show that they have:
- a local, technical, or otherwise peculiar signification, and
- were so used and understood in the particular instance, in which case the agreement must be construed accordingly. (12)
Sec. 15. Written words control printed .
When an instrument consists partly of written words and partly of a printed form, AND the two are inconsistent:
- the former controls the latter. (13)
Sec. 16. Experts and interpreters to be used in explaining certain writings . When:
- the characters in which an instrument is written are difficult to be deciphered, or
- the language is not understood by the court, the evidence:
- OF persons skilled in deciphering the characters, or who understand the language
- is admissible to declare the characters or the meaning of the language. (14)
Sec. 17. Of Two constructions, which preferred .
When the terms of an agreement have been intended in a different sense by the different parties to it:
- that sense is to prevail against either party in which he supposed the other understood it, and
when different constructions of a provision are otherwise equally proper: - that is to be taken which is the most favorable to the party in
whose favor the provision was made. (15) Sec. 18. Construction in favor of natural right .
When an instrument is equally susceptible of two interpretations: - one in favor of natural right AND the other against it, - the former is to be adopted. (16)
Sec. 19. Interpretation according to usage .
An instrument may be construed according to usage, in order to determine its true character. (17)
C. TESTIMONIAL EVIDENCE
1. QUALIFICATION OF WITNESSES Sec. 20. Witnesses ; their qualifications .
EXCEPT as provided in the next succeeding section: - all persons who can perceive, and
- perceiving, can make known their perception to others, may be witnesses.
- Religious or political belief,
- interest in the outcome of the case, or - conviction of a crime
UNLESS otherwise provided by law, shall not be a ground for disqualification. (18a)
Notes:
Witness, defined: Reference to a person who testifies in a case or gives evidence before a judicial tribunal
Competence of a Witness, defined: The legal fitness or ability of a witness to be heard on the trial of a case.
Rule on Competency of Witness
- GR: A person who takes the witness stand is presumed to possess the qualification of a witness (Presumption of Competency)
- EXC: Prima Facie Presumption of Incompetency when:
o The person has been recently found to be of unsound mind by a court of competent jurisdiction or
o One is an inmate of an asylum for the insane
Note: The burden is upon the party objecting to the competency of a witness to establish the grounds of incompetency.
When are the Qualifications and Disqualifications of Witnesses Determined?
- At the time the witnesses are produced for examination in court (called to the stand) OR
- At the time of the taking of their depositions.
Note: If they are children of tender years – the time of the occurrence to be testified to should also taken into account
Note: According to Judge B (different view from other authors) – You must consider the qualifications of the witness BOTH at the time of the occurrence to be testified to and at the time the witness is offered to determine his/her competency.
Instances When a Witness is NOT Disqualified from Being a Witness: - Interest of a Witness in the Subject Matter of the Action or its
Outcome
o GR: Does NOT disqualify a witness from testifying. It affects only his credibility but NOT his competency
o EXC: He will be disqualified under those covered by the rule on surviving parties, also known as the “Dead Man Statute” or the “Survivorship Disqualification Rule” (Sec 23)
- A Co-defendant Being Declared in Default
o GR: A defendant is NOT disqualified from testifying for his non-defaulting co-defendant although he has an interest in the case
o Ratio: He may still testify because he is not considered as taking part in trial as understood in the rule on default. - A Witness Being Convicted of a Crime
o GR: A person convicted is NOT disqualified from being a witness (it only affects his credibility) BUT:
He must answer to the fact of a previous final conviction (sec 3(5), Rule 132) or
Such fact may be shown by his examination or the record of the judgment (sec 11)
o EXC: When otherwise provided by law (ex. Those guilty of perjury, falsification or false testimony are disqualified from being witnesses to a will)
- A Lawyer Being a Witness for his Own Client
o GR: In such instance, the lawyer must leave the trial of the case to other counsel
o EXC. When it concerns merely formal matters When Objection to a Witness be Made:
- GR: Objection to the qualification of the witness must be made before he has given any testimony
- EXC: IF the incompetency appears during the trial, the objection must be made as soon as it becomes apparent.
Note: If not made w/in the said time: right to object is deemed WAIVED 2 Kinds of Incompetency to Testify
1. Absolute: Forbidden to testify in any matter
o By reason of mental incapacity or immaturity (sec 21) o By reason of marriage (sec 22)
2. Relative: Forbidden only on certain matters
o By reason of death or insanity of adverse party (Dead Man’s Statute) sec 23
o By reason of Privileged Communication (Sec 24)
Sec. 21. Disqualification by reason of mental incapacity or immaturity . The ff persons cannot be witnesses:
(a) Those whose mental condition:
- at the time of their production for examination,
- is such that they are incapable of intelligently making known their perception to others;
(b) Children whose mental maturity is such as to render them incapable: - of perceiving the facts respecting which they are examined and - of relating them truthfully. (19a)
Notes:
Unsound Mind, defined: That which affects the competency of the witness which includes any mental aberration, whether organic or functional, or induced by drugs or hypnosis.
Rules on the Qualification of Soundness of Mind
- GR: Unsoundness of mind does not per se render a witness incompetent, one may be medically insane but in law capable of giving competent testimony.
Note: As long as the witness can convey ideas by words or signs and give sufficiently intelligent answers to questions propounded, she is competent as a witness EVEN if one is feeble-minded, a mental retardate, or is schizophrenic.
When Should a Witness be of Sound Mind?
- ONLY at the time of their production for examination
- Mental unsoundness of the witness at the time the fact to be testified occurred – Affects ONLY his credibility.
When are Deaf-mutes Competent Witnesses?
- When they: (1) Can understand and appreciate the sanctity of an oath; (2) Can comprehend facts they are going to testify to and; (3) Can communicate their ideas through a qualified interpreter.
Presumption of Soundness of Mind
- GR: Every person is presumed to be of sound mind and the person challenging such has the burden of proving otherwise
- EXC: Prima Facie Presumption of Incompetency when:
o The person has been recently found to be of unsound mind by a court of competent jurisdiction
o One is an inmate of an asylum for the insane In the Case of a Child Witness, the Court in Determining his Competency Must Consider his Capacity:
- At the time the fact to be testified to occurred, such that he could receive correct impressions thereof;
- To comprehend the obligation of an oath; and
- To relate those facts truthfully at the time he is offered as a witness. Hence, the court should take into account his capacity for observation, recollection and communication.
When is a Child Considered a Competent Witness
- GR: A child is competent if he can perceive and make known his perception
- EXC: IF the child’s testimony is punctured w/ serious inconsistencies as to lead one to believe that the child was coached. An Intelligent Boy is Undoubtedly the Best Observer
- A child is little influenced by the suggestions of others and describes objects and occurrence as he has really seen them
- Children of sound mind are likely to be more observant of incidents which take place within their view than older people.
Child Witness Ordinary Witness
Only the judge is allowed to ask questions to the child during preliminary examination
Opposing counsels are allowed to ask
Leading questions are allowed They are generally not allowed Testimony in a narrative from is
allowed
It is NOT allowed The child witness is assisted by a
facilitator
An ordinary witness is not assisted Sec. 22. Disqualification by reason of marriage .
During their marriage, neither the husband nor the wife may testify for or against the other:
- without the consent of the affected spouse, EXCEPT:
- in a civil case by one against the other, or
- in a criminal case for a crime committed by one against the other or the latter's direct descendants or ascendants. (20a)
Notes:
Rule on Marital Disqualification (Spousal Immunity):
- GR: During the marriage, neither the husband nor the wife may testify for or against the other w/o the consent of the affected spouse EXCEPTIONS: Rule on Disqualification does NOT Apply When:
1. When the testimony was made outside the marriage 2. In a civil case by one spouse against another
3. In a criminal case for a crime committed by one spouse against the other or the latter’s direct descendants or ascendants
o Reason: The crime may be considered as having been committed against the spouse and hence, the conjugal harmony sought to be protected no longer exists)
o Limited only to direct ascendants and descendants + spouse 4. People v. Castañeda: A complaint filed by a wife against her
husband for falsification of her signature in a deed of sale involving their conjugal property.
5. Ordonio v. Daquigan: When the marital relations are so strained, there is no more consideration for applying the said rule. To apply the exception there must be an offense that directly attacks, or directly and vitally impairs, the conjugal relations.
6. When there is imputation of a crime by one spouse against the other Note: “Direct Ascendants and Descendants” = Parents and Children ONLY Nature of Prohibition: Absolute disqualification or prohibition against the spouse’s testifying to any fact affecting the other spouse however the fact may have acquired
Requisites in Order for Marital Disqualification Rule to Apply: 1. The marriage is valid and existing at the time of the offer of
testimony; and
2. The other spouse is a party to the action.
Who may Object: Only the other spouse who is a party to the case.
- Note: Objections to the competency of the witness-spouse may also be waived. (Ex. Testimony against a spouse is a waiver of a
testimony in rebuttal) Rationale For Having Such Rule
- Considering the identity of interest between the spouses, there is consequent danger of committing perjury
- Also, the rule is in order to guard marital confidence and to prevent domestic disunion
This should NOT be confused w/ “Marital Privilege” (see sec 24 notes)
Sec. 23. Disqualification by reason of death or insanity of adverse party . Parties or assignor of parties to a case, OR persons in whose behalf a case is prosecuted:
- against an executor or administrator or other representative of a deceased person, or
- against a person of unsound mind, upon a claim or demand against the estate of:
- such deceased person or against - such person of unsound mind,
cannot testify as to any matter of fact OCCURRING: - before the death of such deceased person or - before such person became of unsound mind. (20a) Notes:
Survivorship Disqualification Rule or Dead Man Statute
- Constitutes only a partial disqualification: A witness is not completely disqualified BUT is only prohibited from testifying in certain matters specified
- Disqualification ONLY applies to: A civil case or special proceeding over the estate of a deceased or insane person
- Incompetency to Testify Applies: w/n the deceased died before or after the commencement of the action against him provided he is dead at the time of the testimony
Requirements for the Dead Man Statute to Apply:
1. The witness offered for examination is a party plaintiff, or the assignor of said party, or a person in whose behalf a case is prosecuted;
2. The case is against the executor or administrator or other representative of a person deceased or of unsound mind;
3. The case is upon a claim or demand against the estate of such person who is deceased or of unsound mind
4. The testimony to be given is on matter of fact occurring before the death, of such deceased person or before such person became of unsound mind.
Requirement No. 1: The witness offered for examination is a party plaintiff, or the assignor of said party, or a person in whose behalf a case is
prosecuted
- Such plaintiff must be the real party in interest and not a mere nominal party.
- The disqualification does NOT apply:
o when the counterclaim has been interposed by the defendant as the plaintiff would thereby be testifying in his defense o when the deceased contracted with the plaintiff through an
agent and said agent is alive and can testify, but the
testimony of the plaintiff should be limited to acts performed by the agent.
- Assignor, defined: Assignor of a cause of action which has arisen, and not the assignor of a right assigned before any cause of action has arisen
- Interest in the outcome of the suit, per se, does not disqualify a witness from testifying
Requirement No. 2: The case is against the executor or administrator or other representative of a person deceased or of unsound mind;
- It is necessary that the said defendant is being sued and defends in such representative capacity and not in his individual capacity - Even if the property has been judicially adjudicated to the heirs, they
are still protected under the rule
- The protection would extend to the heirs of the deceased and the guardians of persons of unsound mind
Requirement No. 3: The case is upon a claim or demand against the estate of such person who is deceased or of unsound mind
- The rule does not apply where it is the administrator who brings an action to recover property allegedly belonging to the estate or the action is by the heirs of a deceased who represented the latter
- This is restricted to debts or demands enforceable by personal actions upon which money judgments can be rendered.
- An action for damages for breach of agreement to devise property for services rendered is a claim against an estate
Requirement No. 4: The testimony to be given is on matter of fact occurring before the death, of such deceased person or before such person became of unsound mind.
- Negative testimony (testimony that a fact did not occur during the lifetime of the deceased) is NOT covered by the prohibition – as such fact exists even after the decedent’s demise
The Rule Does NOT Apply:
1. Land registration cases instituted by the decedent’s representatives (since the oppositors are considered defendants and may therefore testify against the petitioner)
2. It does not apply in cadastral cases – since there is no plaintiff or defendant
3. When the testimony is offered to prove a claim less than what is established under a written document or is intended to prove a fraudulent transaction against the deceased
o Provided such fraud is first established by evidence aliunde o To apply the rule, the testimony must be against the estate 4. When the disqualification is waived - when the defendant:
o does not timely object to the admission of such evidence or o testifies on the prohibited matters or cross examines thereon o or offers evidence to rebut such prohibited testimony
Reason for the Rule: 1. To prevent perjury
2. To protect the estate from fictitious claims
3. To give the parties an equal opportunity to present evidence
Sec. 24. Disqualification by reason of privileged communication .
The ff. persons cannot testify as to matters learned in confidence in the ff. cases:
(a) The husband or the wife, during or after the marriage: - cannot be examined w/out the consent of the other
- as to any communication received in confidence by one from the other during the marriage
EXCEPT:
- in a civil case by one against the other, or
- in a criminal case for a crime committed by one against the other or the latter's direct descendants or ascendants;
(b) An attorney cannot:
- without the consent of his client,
be examined as to:
- any communication made by the client to him, or his advice
- given thereon in the course of, or with a view to, professional employment,
NOR can an attorney's secretary, stenographer, or clerk be examined: - without the consent of the client AND his employer,
- concerning any fact the knowledge of which has been acquired in such capacity;
(c) A person authorized to practice medicine, surgery or obstetrics cannot in a civil case :
- without the consent of the patient, be examined as to:
- any advice or treatment given by him or any information
- which he may have acquired in attending such patient in a professional capacity
which information:
- was necessary to enable him to act in such capacity, and - which would blacken the reputation of the patient; d) A minister or priest cannot:
- without the consent of the person making the confession, be examined as to:
- any confession made to or any advice
- given by him in his professional character in the course of discipline enjoined by the church to which the minister or priest belongs; (e) A public officer cannot be examined:
- during his term of office OR afterwards,
- as to communications made to him in official confidence,
- when the court finds that the public interest would suffer by the disclosure. (21a)
Notes:
Basis of the Privilege: The confidential nature of the communication
Who May Object Under the Disqualification Rules – ONLY by the persons protected thereunder (upon whom the testimony is directed). They may also waive the right to object.
