Slow fashion : a case study on the design praxis of South African fashion designers

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(1)COPYRIGHT AND CITATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION. o Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. o NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes.. o ShareAlike — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original.. How to cite this thesis Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/vital/access/manager/Index?site_name=Research%20Output (Accessed: Date)..

(2) SLOW FASHION: A CASE STUDY ON THE DESIGN PRAXIS OF SOUTH AFRICAN FASHION DESIGNERS By TALITA HARMSE 200801865. Submitted in fulfilment for the requirement of the degree MA(Design) Department of Fashion Design. At the DEPARTMENT OF FASHION DESIGN FACULTY OF ART DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG. SUPERVISOR: DR D SMAL CO-SUPERVISOR: MRS N HARVEY. 2018.

(3) DECLARATION I, Talita Harmse, hereby declare that the dissertation submitted for the MA (Design) Department of Fashion Design degree to the University of Johannesburg, apart from the help recognised, is my own work and has not previously been submitted to another university or institution of higher education for a degree.. __________________________ SIGNATURE. _____________________________ DATE. i.

(4) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank the following professionals and institutions for their ongoing support that guided this study: . My supervisors, Dr Desiree Smal (primary supervisor) and Neshane Harvey (cosupervisor) for their continuous guidance, feedback, support and encouragement throughout the study.. . The University of Johannesburg for providing financial support and access to CAQDAS software and research workshops.. . Carol Lavelle for reviewing my data analysis and providing valuable feedback.. . My colleagues at the Department of Fashion Design for their continuous encouragement, support and insight.. . DESIS lab for providing the opportunities to present my work and valuable feedback.. I would also like to thank the following individuals: •. My life partner Johan, for the big and small things and your unwavering love, faith and support throughout this study.. •. My parents, Prof Tertius and Ria Harmse for developing my curiosity from a young age and supporting my passion for learning, both emotionally and financially. To Mum I owe my empathy and creativity, and to Dad my inquisitive nature. You are my heroes.. •. My dear friend Henni De Kock for keeping me grounded, yet always encouraging me to fly. Thank you for our reflective and intellectual conversations, your practical advice, and providing realistic insights into the local fashion design industry.. •. My chosen family, Riëtte and Jeremy Phillips, Danika Bester, Johann and Jurgen van Vuuren, Danelle and Megan Varoy and Jonathan De Kock for your encouragement and faith in my abilities, especially when I found it lacking in myself.. •. All my fellow students and UJ colleagues for your encouragement and advice.. •. My participants, for your willingness to participate and providing your time and reflections on slow fashion and design praxis.. ii.

(5) ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to explore and describe how and where the slow fashion design praxis of selected South African fashion designers is positioned within design scholar Hazel Clark’s (2008) framework of lines of reflection for slow fashion. Slow fashion presents an alternative model to the currently dominant fast fashion system, by designing, producing and consuming fashion and clothing that respects the earth and its inhabitants whilst encouraging economic growth and skills development within local communities. Existing literature suggests that slow fashion may be present in some South African fashion designers’ praxis; however, it is unclear how their activities, products and approaches reflect slow fashion. The value of this study lies in the potential for developing creative strategies for promoting the local fashion design sector and sustainability in the South African fashion industry. The study follows a qualitative approach to research and employs an intrinsic case study research design. The case study consists of five purposively selected respondents owning their own local fashion labels and noting slow fashion concepts within their company descriptions. Using data from collected interview transcripts for qualitative content analysis, the respondents’ approaches, activities and products are located within the relevant line of reflection of Clark’s framework indicating slow fashion. The findings offer insights and rich descriptions of how local slow fashion designers’ praxis reflect slow fashion. Although the findings of the research are limited to a sample size of five respondents, a holistic examination suggests several notable findings. Slow fashion design praxis in South Africa focuses on supporting the local economy, particularly the fashion design sector, and ensuring ethical practices throughout the production value chain. It also emphasises interaction between designers and stakeholders including producers, manufacturing staff and the end-user. Local slow fashion designers aim to provide sensorial and durable products that satisfy user needs, tastes and preferences in order to extend the product-use stage and, ultimately, reduce overconsumption. Discussed emerging findings reveal several opportunities for the development of slow fashion in South Africa as well as further avenues of research for future research relating to slow fashion design. iii.

(6) LIST OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ......................................................................................... I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................... II ABSTRACT ............................................................................................ III LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................... VIII LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................1 1.1. BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................ 1 1.2. RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ............................................................................ 3 1.2.1 Research question .............................................................................................. 4 1.2.2 Research aim .................................................................................................... 4 1.2.3 Research objectives............................................................................................ 4 1.3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...................................................................................... 4 1.4. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY.................................................................... 7 1.4.1 Research approach ............................................................................................. 8 1.4.2 Research design ................................................................................................ 8 1.4.3 Sampling .......................................................................................................... 8 1.4.4 Data collection methods ...................................................................................... 8 1.4.5 Data analysis .................................................................................................... 9 1.4.6 Ethical considerations ......................................................................................... 9 1.4.7 Delimitations of the study ................................................................................. 10 1.5. RESEARCHER POSITION ......................................................................................... 11 1.6. CHAPTER OUTLINE ................................................................................................ 11 1.7. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 13. CHAPTER 2: DESIGN PRAXIS .................................................................15 2.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 2.2. CONCEPTUALISING DESIGN ................................................................................... 2.2.1 Defining design ................................................................................................ 2.2.2 Framing what designers do ................................................................................ 2.2.3 Framing design process as activity...................................................................... 2.2.4 Design as wicked problem ................................................................................. 2.2.5 Design as product ............................................................................................. 15 15 15 16 16 17 18. 2.3. PRAXIS IN DESIGN................................................................................................ 2.3.1 Design as praxis .............................................................................................. 2.3.2 Framing design-as-practice ............................................................................... 2.3.3 Designers’ intentions as manifest in practice and products ..................................... 2.3.4 Design process models ...................................................................................... 19 19 20 21 21. 2.4. DESIGN FOR SUSTAINABILITY ................................................................................ 23 2.4.1 Issue-led design approaches .............................................................................. 24 2.4.2 Introducing slow design as an issue-led approach ................................................. 26 2.5. FASHION DESIGN PRAXIS AND SUSTAINABILITY ....................................................... 27 2.5.1 Framing design praxis in fashion ........................................................................ 28 2.5.2 Framing sustainability in fashion design praxis ..................................................... 29 2.6. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 30. iv.

(7) CHAPTER 3: SLOW FASHION .................................................................31 3.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 3.2. SPEED ................................................................................................................. 3.3. THE SLOW MOVEMENT........................................................................................... 3.3.1 Slow food ....................................................................................................... 3.3.2 Slow culture .................................................................................................... 3.3.3 Slow design ..................................................................................................... 31 31 33 33 34 36. 3.4. CONCEPTUALISING SLOW FASHION ........................................................................ 3.4.1 Fast fashion .................................................................................................... 3.4.2 What is slow fashion? ....................................................................................... 3.4.3 Differing views regarding slow fashion................................................................. 3.4.4 Slow fashion design .......................................................................................... 3.4.5 International slow fashion designers ................................................................... 3.4.6 Slow fashion in the South African fashion industry ................................................. 37 37 40 41 43 45 47. 3.5. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................................... 3.5.1 Local resources and distributed economies........................................................... 3.5.2 Transparency and user interaction ...................................................................... 3.5.3 Sustainable and sensorial products ...................................................................... 49 51 52 54. 3.5.3.1. Physical durability ..................................................................................... 55 3.5.3.2. Emotional durability .................................................................................. 56 3.6. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 58. CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ...........................60 4.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 4.2. RESEARCH PARADIGM AND APPROACH .................................................................... 4.3. CASE STUDY RESEARCH DESIGN ............................................................................ 4.4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 4.4.1 Sampling method ............................................................................................. 4.4.2 Data collection method ..................................................................................... 4.4.3 Data analysis .................................................................................................. 4.4.4 Ethical considerations ....................................................................................... 4.4.5 Assuring quality in research ................................................................................ 60 61 63 65 65 67 69 74 76. 4.4.5.1. Credibility ................................................................................................ 77 4.4.5.2. Transferability .......................................................................................... 78 4.4.5.3. Reliability ................................................................................................. 79 4.5. APPLIED RESEARCH STRATEGY ............................................................................... 4.5.1 Sampling ........................................................................................................ 4.5.2 Data Collection ................................................................................................ 4.5.3 Data Analysis .................................................................................................. 4.5.4 Ethical considerations ....................................................................................... 4.5.5 Assuring quality in research ................................................................................ 79 80 82 83 87 88. 4.6. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 90. CHAPTER 5: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ...........................................91 5.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 5.2. FINDINGS: DESIGN PRAXIS ................................................................................... 5.3. RESPONDENT 1 .................................................................................................... 5.3.1 Approaches ..................................................................................................... 5.3.2 Activities.......................................................................................................... v. 91 92 93 94 96.

(8) 5.3.3 Product .......................................................................................................... 99 5.4. RESPONDENT 2 ................................................................................................... 100 5.4.1 Approach ....................................................................................................... 101 5.4.2 Activities........................................................................................................ 102 5.4.3 Product ......................................................................................................... 103 5.5. RESPONDENT 3 ................................................................................................... 104 5.5.1 Approach ....................................................................................................... 105 5.5.2 Activities........................................................................................................ 107 5.5.3 Products ........................................................................................................ 110 5.6. RESPONDENT 4 ................................................................................................... 110 5.6.1 Approach ....................................................................................................... 111 5.6.2 Activities........................................................................................................ 112 5.6.3 Products ........................................................................................................ 114 5.7. RESPONDENT 5 ................................................................................................... 116 5.7.1 Approach ....................................................................................................... 117 5.7.2 Activities........................................................................................................ 118 5.7.3 Product ......................................................................................................... 120 5.8. SUMMARY OF RESPONDENTS’ DESIGN PRAXIS ......................................................... 121. CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ............................................. 124 6.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 124 6.2. PERCEIVED DEFINITION OF SLOW FASHION ............................................................ 127 6.3. VALUING LOCAL RESOURCES AND DISTRIBUTED ECONOMIES ................................... 129 6.3.1 Local resources ............................................................................................... 129 6.3.2 Distributed economies ..................................................................................... 130 6.4. TRANSPARENT PRODUCTION SYSTEMS AND USER INTERACTION................................ 133 6.4.1 Transparent production systems........................................................................ 134 6.4.2 User interaction .............................................................................................. 136 6.5. SENSORIAL AND SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTS ............................................................. 140 6.5.1 Sensorial products .......................................................................................... 141 6.5.2 Sustainable products ....................................................................................... 143 6.5.3 Durability....................................................................................................... 144 6.6. CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 145. CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION ................................................................... 147 7.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 147 7.2. ADDRESSING THE RESEARCH QUESTION ................................................................ 147 7.2.1 Overview of the literature reviews ..................................................................... 148 7.2.2 Overview of research design and methodology .................................................... 149 7.2.3 Key findings of the study .................................................................................. 151 7.2.3.1. Valuing of local resources and distributed economies ..................................... 152 7.2.3.2. Transparent production systems and user interaction .................................... 153 7.2.3.3. Sustainable and sensorial products ............................................................. 154 7.2.4 Slow fashion design praxis in South Africa .......................................................... 155 7.3. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY ............................................................. 157 7.3.1 Recommendations for similar studies ................................................................. 157 7.3.2 Recommendations for the development of local slow fashion ................................. 158 7.3.3 Recommendations for future research ................................................................ 160. vi.

(9) 7.4. CONCLUDING THOUGHTS ..................................................................................... 163. LIST OF CONSULTED SOURCES ............................................................ 165 APPENDIX A: INVITATION LETTER...................................................... 176 APPENDIX B: CONSENT LETTER .......................................................... 179 APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW GUIDE ........................................................ 181. vii.

(10) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Comparing Manzini and Ceppi’s (2006) framework with that of Clark (2008) (adapted by author).......................................................................................................................... 5 Figure 1.2 Theoretical framework for the study (developed by author). .................................... 6 Figure 1.3 Chapter outline representation of the study (developed by author). ........................ 11 Figure 2.1 United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (Sustainable Development Goals communications materials 2018:1). .................................................................................. . 24 Figure 3.1 Theoretical framework for the study (adapted by author). ..................................... 50 Figure 4.1 Chapter 4 outline (developed by author). ............................................................ 61 Figure 4.2 Structure of a coding frame in relation to the study (developed by author). ............. 72 Figure 4.3 Research strategy for study (developed by author). .............................................. 80 Figure 4.4 Abbreviated version of line of enquiry in Appendix C (developed by author). ........... 83 Figure 4.5 Example of coded data segment from Atlas.ti (adapted by author). ........................ 84 Figure 4.6 Example of coding applied to data segments in Atlas.ti (adapted by author). ........... 85 Figure 4.7 Coding framework of the study (developed by author). ......................................... 86 Figure 5.1 Chapter 5 outline (developed by author). ............................................................ 91 Figure 5.2 Design praxis as part of theoretical framework (developed by author). ................... 93 Figure 6.1 Second round of coding sorting respondents’ design praxis into the framework (developed by author). .................................................................................................... 125 Figure 6.2 Chapter 6 outline (developed by author). .......................................................... 126 Figure 7.1 Research objectives of the study reflecting the three aspects of design praxis located within Clark’s (2008) framework of the three lines of reflection for slow fashion (developed by author). ......................................................................................................................... 148 Figure 7.2 Theoretical framework for the study (developed by author). ................................ 152 Figure 7.3 Suggested considerations for slow fashion design praxis in South Africa (compiled by author). ......................................................................................................................... 156. viii.

(11) LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1 Sampling criteria to determine population and tentative list of possible participants (developed by author). 81 Table 5.1 Example of citation methods used in Chapters 5 and 6. 92 Table 5.2 Case 1 attributes (compiled by author). 93 Table 5.3 Case 2 attributes (compiled by author). 100 Table 5.4 Case 3 attributes (compiled by author). 104 Table 5.5 Case 4 attributes (compiled by author). 111 Table 5.6 Case 5 attributes (compiled by author). 116. ix.

(12) CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1. BACKGROUND The ‘fast fashion’ system currently dominates the global fashion industry. In the Routledge Handbook of Sustainability and Fashion, Strauss (2015:82) addresses the issue of speed within the fashion industry. She states that although fast fashion has resulted in beneficial progress, it has also been responsible for its fair share of destruction (Strauss 2015:82). The primary aim of fast fashion is to accelerate the rate of consumption trends and clothing whilst maximising the economic profits of a small number of global fashion labels (Cataldi, Dickson & Grover 2013:27). Time, capital, labour and resources within the industry value model are squeezed and manoeuvred in order to maximise product throughput at the expense of socio-environmental conditions (Fletcher 2008:162). The fast fashion system has become a growing cause for concern due to the significant impact it has on a global scale with little consideration for its stakeholder or the environment. In response to fast fashion, an alternative view – ‘slow fashion’ – has emerged. This view calls for the fashion industry to slow down and embrace levels of speed that respect the earth and its inhabitants (Strauss 2015:88). Clark (2008:428) suggests that the slow approach, which repositions the strategies of design, production, consumption, use, and re-use, poses a potential alternative to fast fashion. The slow approach allows for design and production to emerge in a way that is focused on quality, displays a high regard for the garment-making process, and takes cognizance of the product’s relationship with local social communities and natural resources (Cataldi et al 2013:53-54). Slow fashion proposes an alternative approach to fast fashion through holistic thinking that is mindful of socio-environmental issues within the fashion industry. Slow fashion was influenced by the rise of slow culture. Slow fashion’s key focus lies in designing better, consuming less and rediscovering pleasure in using clothing (Clark 2008:428; Pookulangara & Shephard 2013:201). It represents an alternate worldview in which fashion activity promotes pleasure in seeking variety, multiplicity and cultural significance (Fletcher & Grose 2012:128). Followers of slow fashion choose to reject mass produced products in favour of locally 1.

(13) produced, high quality and sensorial items that reflect a deeper connection with the user (Jung & Jin 2016:417-418). Slow fashion thus moves beyond the literal notion of slow speed and instead follows a philosophy of mindfulness and reflection. Ultimately, slow fashion presents an alternative model for designing, producing and consuming fashion and clothing that respects the earth and its inhabitants whilst encouraging economic growth and skills development within local communities. Slow fashion businesses incorporate slow thinking in their practices. The slow fashion business model involves a holistic approach, collaborative teamwork and long-term partnerships between producer and consumer in order to produce ethically and socially responsible products (Minney 2016:7). Slow fashion designer communities are emerging on a global scale, with many showing growth in cities such as New York, Toronto and London (Clark 2008:9-11; Leslie, Brail & Hunt 2013:246). In a study on the independent fashion sector within the city of Toronto in Canada (Leslie et al 2013: 236), 1 it was found that some fashion designers have resorted to slow design not only due to personal motivation, but also as a strategy to compete against larger fast fashion brands. Slow fashion designers have consequently captured a niche market allowing them to combine personal fulfilment and economic success within their praxis. Although there is existing literature on slow fashion, there is limited research contextualising it within the area of fashion design. Prior studies examine the fashion consumer’s perspective through their purchasing behaviour (Joy, Sherry, Venkatest, Wang & Chan 2012; Niinimäki 2010; Jung & Jin 2016) and/or post-use behaviour (Fletcher 2016; 2010; 2008). Studies that address the slow design praxis of their local fashion designers are limited (Clark 2008; Leslie et al 2013), as is literature on slow fashion in a South African context. Consequently, a research gap exists concerning South African fashion designers who may be engaging in slow fashion praxis; also, it is unclear how and where their activities, products and approaches reflect slow fashion.. Burke (2012:81) defines ‘independent designers’ as fashion designers that “typically work in a small team, or might be a fashion designer/entrepreneur working on their own”.. 1. 2.

(14) Slow fashion is an emerging concept in South Africa, with perhaps only a few designers claiming to be slow fashion designers, including labels such as The Joinery, Jane Sews and Monastry (Gambade 2013:1). However, there are fashion designers who design with the aim of creating goods that are locally and ethically produced in order to empower stakeholders and “incorporate elements of South African traditional culture and design”, such as the label I Scream & Red (Hoskins 2015:1). Some local designers infuse local crafts, heritage and skills into their designs: for example, Laduma Ngxokolo’s Xhosa-inspired knitwear (Zeeman 2016:1). Other designers use their high level of quality and craftsmanship as a means to distinguish themselves from larger retail chains (Gambade 2013:1), such as the fashion label Lunar (Lunar 2016:1). These activities resemble practices of American slow fashion designers who participated in a case study conducted by Clark (2008:431-436), as well as those described in the study by Leslie et al (2013: 229-235). Subsequently, it is evident that slow fashion is present in the design praxis of some South African fashion designers. However, further investigation is needed to understand how their practices reflect slow fashion. This study aims to address this research gap by exploring the slow fashion praxis of selected South African fashion designers using Clark’s (2008) framework of slow fashion lines of reflection. The value of such a study lies in the potential for developing creative strategies for promoting the local fashion design sector, encouraging economic contribution in terms of local production, skills development and job creation as well as promoting sustainability in the South African fashion industry.. 1.2. RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES In this study, Clark’s (2008) framework of the lines of reflection of slow fashion is used to formulate the following research question, aims and objectives for the study.. 3.

(15) 1.2.1 Research question How and where in Clark’s (2008) framework of lines of reflection within slow fashion is the fashion design praxis of selected South African fashion designers positioned?. 1.2.2 Research aim The aim of the study is to explore and describe how and where the slow fashion design praxis of selected South African fashion designers is positioned within Clark’s framework of lines of reflection for slow fashion.. 1.2.3 Research objectives The objectives of the study are as follows: 1. To understand, explore and describe how the selected fashion designers’ approach slow fashion and where it reflects in Clark’s framework. 2. To explore and describe the selected fashion designers’ activities relating to slow fashion and locate these activities within Clark’s framework. 3. To explore and describe the selected fashion designers’ products representing slow fashion and locate where these are reflected in Clark’s framework.. 1.3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The theoretical position of this study is the slow fashion lines of reflection framework developed by Clark (2008:427-446). Manzini and Ceppi (2006:20) presented their Slow Design framework at the Slow + Design symposium, which aimed to connect slow philosophy to the field of design as shown in Figure 1.1 below. The authors’ developed this framework using the principles of the slow food movement (Manzini & Ceppi 2006:20). Clark (2008) later presented her own adaption of this framework by aligning the slow design lines of reflections to a fashion design context. Clark’s framework is therefore clearly framed within the slow design approach in line with other slow fashion scholars such as Fuad-Luke (2009:224), Strauss (2015:82) and Fletcher (2008:163; 2010:259-260).. 4.

(16) Figure 1.1 Comparing Manzini and Ceppi’s (2006) framework with that of Clark (2008) (adapted by author).. The framework for the study, depicted in Figure 1.2 below, is based on three lines of reflection related to the activities, motivations and goals that slow fashion strives to promote. These three lines of reflection are: valuing of local resources and distributed economies; transparent production systems and user interaction; and sustainable and sensorial products that have a longer useable life and are more highly valued than typical “consumables” (Clark 2008:427). The framework consequently enables the location of slow fashion designers’ approaches, activities and products within the relevant line of reflection. This consequently allows for rich descriptions of how local slow fashion designers’ praxis reflect slow fashion.. 5.

(17) Figure 1.2 Theoretical framework for the study (developed by author).. The first line of reflection refers to the valuing of local resources and distributed economies. This line of reflection draws on an emerging creative strategy that promotes local designing and making of fashionable clothes thus establishing a strong sense of urban localism and a design signature that reflect the locality’s socio-cultural heritage (Clark 2008:430). Examples of this line of reflection include implementing local or in-house production, strengthening local communities with skills development, job creation and designing products with locally sourced materials. The second line of reflection refers to transparent production systems and user interaction. Although Clark (2008) uses the term “disintermediation between user and producer”, this study uses the term user interaction to include users’ interactions with all relevant stakeholders in the fashion value chain, such as the designer, producers and retailer. This line of reflection addresses practices that do not conceal the origins of the products, but can also refer to “smaller scale enterprises where the line between consumption and production… blends and morphs” (Clark 2008:435). Examples of this line of reflection include in-house. 6.

(18) production. systems,. collaboration. with. producers. and. designers,. and. communicating slow fashion concepts to the user. The third line of reflection refers to sustainable and sensorial products that have a longer useable life and are more highly valued than typical “consumables” (Clark 2008:427). 2 For this study, longer usable life was attributed to the concept of durability. This line of reflection refers to products designed and manufactured with the aim of promoting sustainability and establishing a personal connection with the wearer. Slow fashion scholars such as Fletcher (2012:227), Niinimäki (2012:63). and. Thorpe. (2010:11). cite. Chapman’s. (2009). seminal. work. Emotionally Durable Design to explain the user experience and relationship to products and how designers can influence these factors during the design process. Examples of considerations can be environmental and social impacts of the product, the intended life-span of the product (post-purchase) and the ability to extend engagement with the products on the part of users beyond that of a typical product (Chapman 2015:63-86). This study is based on Clark’s framework to understand selected South African designer’s fashion design praxis in order to explore and describe how and where these praxis reflect slow fashion. Chapter 3 further conceptualises the framework by including literature from other authors. The framework also influenced the selection of an appropriate research strategy.. 1.4. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY This section provides a brief overview of the research strategy employed in this study. This includes the selected research approach, design and methods. Methods for consideration included sampling, data collection, data analysis, ethical considerations and delimitations. The selection and implementation of the research strategy is discussed further in Chapter 4.. Manzini & Ceppi (2006:20) describe sustainable sensoriality as “the way of understanding a product from the knowledge of how it is made, through its raw material to the end product, rather than just through (the exaltation of the experience of) consumption”. 2. 7.

(19) 1.4.1 Research approach This study followed an interpretivist research paradigm and a qualitative approach to research. By employing a qualitative approach, the research was able to describe how selected South African fashion designers interpret and give meaning to slow fashion, in what way it informed their practices and to position their praxis within Clark’s framework. A qualitative approach was suitable to this study as it sought to explore, describe and understand slow fashion design praxis as a phenomena experienced by selected South African fashion designers.. 1.4.2 Research design The design frame for this study was an intrinsic case study on selected South African slow fashion designers. Case studies are ideal when dealing with a particular. phenomenon. within. a. real-life. context. that. requires. in-depth. understanding or description. Within the context of this study, an intrinsic case study allowed for the application of Clark’s framework within a ‘real-life’ context in order to gain an in-depth understanding and provide thick descriptions of the slow fashion design praxis of selected South African fashion.. 1.4.3 Sampling The population for this study was South African slow fashion designers who were selected using purposive sampling. Sampled designers needed to be slow fashion designers located within South Africa who owned their own clothing label. Moreover, possible candidates had to have either claimed to be, or shown to be, slow designers or to have described slow fashion concepts in their company description. A tentative list of possible candidates amounted to twenty slow fashion designers. From this list of possible participants, a minimum of four designers were selected, but five were interviewed until data saturation was achieved.. 1.4.4 Data collection methods Data collection for this study was primarily undertaken by conducting semistructured interviews. Four of the five participants were interviewed face-to-face, and one participant was interviewed using Skype software. The interviews were conducted at a location selected by the participants, such as their studios, home or at preparations for a trade event. 8.

(20) The interviews were guided by a line of enquiry (see Appendix C) based on Clark’s framework. The data was collected in order to gather descriptions and situated understandings of the participants’ life world in the form of their slow fashion design praxis. The data was captured via a voice-recording device and transcribed verbatim using Inqscribe software. During the transcribing process, the audiorecorded data was imported into word-processing software (Microsoft Word) in order to prepare it for analysis.. 1.4.5 Data analysis This study employed qualitative content analysis using the three lines of reflection from Clark’s framework as main themes for the study. Atlas.ti, a Computer-Aided Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) package was used to code the data. First, the data was pre-coded by repeatedly reading through the transcripts. The first round of coding involved using value, process and attribute coding in order to identify and categorise the respondents’ design praxis. Following this, a second round of coding was applied to sort the respondents’ design praxis into the three lines of reflection from the framework thus creating themes. Interesting findings relating to key concepts were also coded forming emerging. findings,. such. as. slow. fashion. definitions,. challenges. and. recommendations from the respondents. Ultimately, the results of the study related to the first round of coding and the discussion of findings linked to the second round of coding in order to address the research question.. 1.4.6 Ethical considerations This study adhered to the ethical rules of conduct of the University of Johannesburg and was cleared by the Faculty Higher Degrees Committee (FHDC). As the participants provided information regarding their fashion design praxis, ethical considerations within the study included informed consent, 3 confidentiality and preserving the privacy of the participants as far as the law allows.. The aim of informed consent is to “allow the participant … to make an ‘autonomous’ decision … with enough relevant information, enough understanding… and no pressure to participate” (Farrimond 2013:109). 3. 9.

(21) Participants in the study were provided with a letter of information (see Appendix A) prior to the data collection phase, detailing the aim and objectives of the study, the expectations of the participants, as well as their rights to voluntary participation and anonymity. Following the invitation letter, both parties signed a consent form in which the participant gave voluntary consent to being interviewed, recorded, and for the collected data to be used for the purposes of the research only. Participants were granted the opportunity to verify their provided information before it was committed to the dissertation, as well as to view the results of the study before publication. The researcher was responsible for protecting the data, as well as the identity of the participants, by using pseudonyms. The only individuals who had access to the identities of the participants were the researcher and supervisors of the study. The study also conformed to the ethical code set out by the University of Johannesburg and conducted all aspects of the study in an honest and objective manner of integrity. All consulted sources were honestly acknowledged and cited within the dissertation using the reference guide set out by the Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture of the University of Johannesburg.. 1.4.7 Delimitations of the study This study focuses on slow fashion through the exploration of the design praxis of local fashion designers. This focus excluded concepts such as haute couture, bespoke, experimental or avant-garde fashion design as slow fashion follows a distinct design for sustainability philosophy. This study included descriptions of the respondents’ approaches, activities and products in relation to the theoretical framework. Although discussions include the role of users and producers, they are only viewed within the context of slow fashion design. The study is consequently limited to the perspectives and practices of fashion designers and excludes investigation regarding other stakeholders such as consumers, producers or manufacturers and fashion week institutions. The study is also limited to independent fashion labels, and does not include slow fashion design praxis in larger fashion retail chains. The study includes discussion of certain concepts such as sustainability in fashion, ethical practices in fashion production and socio-environmental sustainability. 10.

(22) However, the study only explores these concepts in relation to slow fashion design praxis. The study consequently does not include investigations into the carbon footprint of local fashion production, nor of ethical labour practices in factories. The study explores and describes the respondents’ design praxis in relation to the framework, but does not set out to analyse their design process in comparison with existing theoretical models. Recommendations were drawn from the findings, but are limited within the scope of a case study research design. Therefore, the study does not presume to provide a prescribed list of local slow fashion design praxis, but rather rich descriptions to provide unique perspectives on the phenomenon.. 1.5. RESEARCHER POSITION The researcher is a masters student and part-time lecturer at the University of Johannesburg. She has prior experience working for independent fashion designers as a design assistant and studio manager. She is already familiar with many aspects of running small independent fashion labels including product development, manufacture and sourcing. She thus already has prior tacit knowledge of design practice before commencing with the study.. 1.6. CHAPTER OUTLINE The study consists of seven chapters, each of which is outlined below with regard to purpose and content. Figure 1.3 below summarises the chapters of this study.. Figure 1.3 Chapter outline representation of the study (developed by author).. 11.

(23) Chapter 1 has provided an introduction to the study. Background to the research has been provided and the research aims and objectives stated. The theoretical framework was introduced and explained within the context of the study. This was followed by a brief overview of the research strategy including the research design and methods, ethical considerations and delimitations of the study. The researcher’s position was also stated and a chapter outline of the study provided. In order to fulfil the objectives of the study, review of existing literature is required to understand the key concepts of the study, namely design praxis and slow fashion. The purpose of chapters two and three is to discuss these key concepts using relevant scholarly work. Chapter 2 conceptualises design praxis by defining design,. and. framing. design. praxis. and. practice.. Finally,. that. chapter. contextualises sustainable design and introduce slow design as an issue-led design approach in preparation for the next chapter. The purpose of Chapter 3 is to conceptualise slow fashion as a philosophy of speed that informs design praxis. The chapter defines slow fashion by tracing its origins from the slow movement to slow culture to slow design using relevant literature. Slow fashion is defined in contrast to fast fashion and contextualised within design praxis. Slow fashion in a local context is explored and, in doing so, the research gap is identified. Following this, the theoretical framework is unpacked using Clark’s (2008) work in addition to other authors work on the topic in order to justify the use of the framework. From this framework, a research strategy was designed to fulfil the aim of the study. Chapter 4 explains the research design and methodology used in the study. This chapter is divided into two parts in which the first part justifies the selection using relevant literature, and the second explains the application of the research strategy within the study. The chapter explains the use of a case study research design following a qualitative approach. The methodology is discussed including the use of purposive sampling to select appropriate participants and semistructured interviews to collect rich and relevant data. The use of qualitative content analysis is justified and the process of coding and categorising are 12.

(24) explained. Ethical considerations are discussed as well as the process of ensuring quality research. Chapters 5 and 6 present and discuss the findings of the research. Chapter 5 presents the results of the study by explaining the design praxis of each respondent. The results presented align with the first round of coding during data analysis and explains each respondent’s approaches, activities and products. The data is presented in preparation for the discussion of findings in the following chapter. Chapter 6 discusses the findings of the study. These findings relate to the second round of coding which sought to position the respondents’ design praxis within the slow fashion lines of reflections derived from Clark’s framework. This chapter provides rich descriptions by cross analysing the respondents’ design praxis in order to determine similarities and differences. This chapter consequently follows the structure of the theoretical framework. In doing so, the aim of the study is achieved and the research question answered. Chapter 7 concludes the study by providing an overview of the research and reviewing key findings. This is followed by recommendations for similar and future research and concluding personal reflections.. 1.7. CONCLUSION This chapter laid out the foundation for this study by providing a background and rationale in which the research gap was identified. The research aim and objectives were framed and the theoretical framework introduced. The theoretical framework was derived from Clark’s (2008) work on three lines of reflection of slow fashion, which in turn was developed from the Slow Design framework presented by Manzini and Ceppi (2006:20) at the Slow + Design symposium. These sections outlined the purpose of the study and introduced key concepts for the research. The research design and methodology of the study was briefly outlined, namely the use of a qualitative approach, case study research design, sampling methods, and data collection and analysis. Ethical considerations were listed as well as the 13.

(25) delimitations of the study. The researcher’s position was stated in order to increase the reliability of the research. The chapters of the study were outlined. The following chapter provides a review of relevant literature in order to conceptualise the notion of design praxis.. 14.

(26) CHAPTER 2: DESIGN PRAXIS 2.1. INTRODUCTION The previous chapter introduced the present study by providing an overview and explaining the research aims and objectives. This chapter reviews relevant literature pertaining to the concept of design praxis in order to inform each of the objectives pertaining to design approach, activity and product. Design is contextualized in Section 2.2 including its definition, and framing design activities. This section also presents design as wicked problem and product. The concept of design praxis and practice is discussed in Section 2.3. This section includes discussion about the role of designer intentions and values, design process models and products. Section 2.4 explores the concept of design for sustainability and issue-led design in order to locate slow design as a design approach. Finally, Section 2.5 contextualises design praxis within the fashion field and locate slow fashion as a fashion issue-led design approach.. 2.2. CONCEPTUALISING DESIGN In order to achieve the aims of the study, it is necessary to conceptualise the term design. The purpose of this section is to explore relevant academic perspectives in order to situate the study within the appropriate design context. This section defines design, frames what designers do as well as their design process, and subsequently explains design as wicked problem and product.. 2.2.1 Defining design Design is a complex concept to define. Oxford University Press (2018a:1) defines design as “[a] plan or drawing produced to show the look and function or workings of a building, garment or other object before it is made”. However, design can also be referred to as “[the p]urpose or planning that exists behind an action, fact or object” (Oxford University Press 2018a:1). This simplified dictionary definition already indicates the complexities in defining design as it can refer to an artefact, an activity or a process of planning. This in part is due to the multifaceted nature of design in which there is not one perspective that captures its essence without overlooking some other aspect (Lawson & Dorst 2009). It is therefore necessary 15.

(27) to review core design literature in order to obtain a holistic understanding of the term. 4. 2.2.2 Framing what designers do Design scholars agree that design requires the re-imagining of an existing condition as an ideal one. Nelson and Stolterman (2012:14) explain design as the “ability to imagine that-which-does-not-yet-exist” as well as bringing it into being as a purposeful contribution to the world. They add that the motivation to design stems from finding conditions that are unsatisfying or lacking in fulfilment thus forming a means to enlighten, order and provide meaning to our lives (Nelson & Stolterman 2012:14). In his seminal work Design Methods: Seeds of Human Futures, Jones (1992:4) states that to design is to “initiate change in man-made things”. Designers are thus people who envision improved futures and make it happen (Koskinen, Zimmerman, Binder, Redström & Wensveen 2011:42). This suggests that design refers to the understanding of existing conditions, imagining improved ones as well as the process of making it a reality. There has been increasing acceptance of design as a research field with its own intellectual culture (Cross 2001:7). Design is by its very nature integrative and interdisciplinary spanning multiple domains, fields and disciplines such as the humanities and liberal arts, technology, engineering, services, and the creative and applied arts (Friedman 2003:508). The expansion of design beyond pure aesthetic requires a suitable process of design activity to achieve the necessary goals. Hence, as Friedman (2003:514) states, the design process has evolved from a practice of art and craft into a social and technical science of how to plan and implement actions in order to achieve predetermined goals. The design process should consequently be framed as an activity.. 2.2.3 Framing design process as activity The design process encompasses all planned and enacted activity that encompass achieving a desired goal (Papanek 2009:3). According to Friedman (2003:507-. Holistic refers to something as a whole in that it is a “complex ensemble of relations, connections, and an underlying unifying force or principle… [and] when taken together results in emergent qualities (Nelson & Stolterman 2012:93).. 4. 16.

(28) 508), most scholarly definitions for design share three aspects. The first aspect is that design is a process and the second is that design is goal-oriented (Friedman 2003:508). The third aspect is that design’s goal is to solve problems, improve existing situations, meet the needs of a group or to create something that is both new and useful (Friedman 2003:508). Dorst (2003:14) states that designers focus their creativity and analytical skills on generating solutions, analysing them and evaluating them. Design can consequently be understood as planned and enacted activities that generate solutions to meet a predetermined goal. The generation of solutions is a key aspect of design activity. Brannon (2011:3) suggests that designing includes conceiving, constructing and creating which requires imagination and initiative. Frankel and Racine (2010) define design as activities for the planning and implementation of new products and refer to models, plans, drawings and produced objects as the by-product of this process. Designers generate and use these plans, drawings and models as instruments to communicate with stakeholders involved in the design and production of the design (Dorst 2003:31). The design process consequently includes innovative solution-generating activities using tools, such as drawings, plans and models.. 2.2.4 Design as wicked problem Design has the ability to deal with complex, or wicked, problems by generating innovative solutions (Papanek 1985:26). The term wicked problem was formulated by Horst Rittel and Melvin Webber (1973:155-162) and refers to unique problems that are difficult to formulate and which are usually a symptom of other problems. A wicked problem can be defined as a “problem that is highly resilient to any kind of solution and is contrasted to the idea of the ‘tame’ problem… that can readily be defined” (Crouch & Pearce 2012:24). Consequently, due to the complexity of wicked problems, it is difficult to pinpoint the source of the problem and determine a solution making it unique, complex and unpredictable (Nelson & Stolterman 2012:16). An example of a wicked problem is that of socio-environmental sustainability. The designer’s ability to deal with complexity and generate solutions highlights their role as agents of change. The Design Council of London (2002:19) stated, in their annual review, that up to eighty percent of the impact on the environment 17.

(29) from products, infrastructures and services can be traced to choices made at the design stage. Hence, in dealing with wicked problems, designers are increasingly evolving from being creators of objects to being “facilitators of change amongst large groups of people” (Thackara 2005:7). Designers are therefore instrumental stakeholders in envisioning and planning products that contribute towards socially and environmentally sustainable futures.. 2.2.5 Design as product Designed products could take many forms. Products could be in physical form such as an object (Krippendorff 2005:v). However, the traditional concept of product has evolved to include social products such as interfaces, environments, systems and services (Bürdek 2015:9). These new type of products also require good design if they are to fulfil their goals and become acceptable to users (Bürdek 2015:9). Similarly, Krippendorff (2005:v) states that artefacts, whether physical or social, should be designed to “make sense… have meanings and social significance”. Cross (2001:32) states that designers are very knowledgeable about the world of man-made artefacts, the effects of products on user environments and experiences, and the production thereof. The design of products moves beyond considerations of form or aesthetics and includes the effects of the design in how it is used, experienced, related to and its impact on surrounding environments (Cross 2001:55). Hence, designed products can refer to either physical. or. social. objects. and. considerations. should. include. aesthetics,. functionallity and its effects on the user and their environments. In light of the discussed definitions, design therefore encompasses the entire process of analysing problems, and planning and generating solutions that improve existing conditions or provide purposeful contributions or products to the world. Cross (1999:6) states that overall design knowledge encompasses the nature of the ability to design, the processes of designing and the designed products. At the turn of the 21st century, scholars (Nelson & Stolterman 2012:11; Dorst 2003:17; Buchanan & Margolin 1995:17) recognized the relationship between design approaches, design processes and designed products, stating that one cannot be adequately understood without the other. This relationship is explored in the following section.. 18.

(30) 2.3. PRAXIS IN DESIGN Following the previous section, it is clear that design is a broad field with many areas of study. Friedman (2003:508) states that the design field can in one dimension be a field of thinking whereas in another it could be a field of practice. This study focuses on the practice dimension hence design as praxis and practice. This section defines design as praxis, frames design-as-practice, explains designers’ intentions that manifest in practice and products, and introduces design process models.. 2.3.1 Design as praxis Praxis is a concept that is frequently encountered in readings about practice (Crouch & Pearce 2012:40). 5 Praxis recognizes the ever-shifting relationship between theory and practice, and between thought and action (Nolan 2012:2). A key principle of praxis is reflective action guided by a respect for society’s needs as well as the autonomy and experience of all stakeholders (Mulcahy, Mulcahy & Mulcahy 2015:177). Praxiology subsequently includes the study of practice and the reflective thinking that precedes it. Design praxis forms part of the research area of design praxiology. Design praxiology relates to the study of design practices and processes (Cross 1999:6). In a contemporary context, design praxiology involves the study of the “practice and processes of design, including its organisation and apparatus and design activity” (Burns, Ingram & Annable 2016:307). This includes research pertaining to design processes, case studies, design management and reflective practice (Burns et al 2016:307). This study falls in the area of design praxiology as it studies the reflective design practices and activities of selected local fashion designers, with specific reference to slow fashion.. Reflection forms a key part of design praxis. Nelson and Stolterman (2012:214) explain design praxis as “being a designer” stating that all designers practice “in. 5 Practice derives from the field of sociology referring to the “customary, habitual, or expected procedure or way of doing something” (Oxford University Press 2018b:1). Another definition for practice is the “actual application or use of an idea, belief or method, as opposed to theories relating to it” (Oxford University Press 2018b:1).. 19.

(31) a manner that is reflective of who they are as individuals and professionals”. Crouch and Pearce (2012:42) state that praxis reinforces the idea that practice is more than just the habitual enactment and exercise of technical skills. Rather, it is the dynamic relationship between thinking and doing that reflects on the consequences and end goal that should be achieved (Crouch and Pearce 2012:42). Smal (2016:14) states that praxis engages with three aspects of doing namely approaches, activities and products. This suggests that praxis expands on the concept of practice to include the relationship between reflective thinking or approaches, activities and the end result. In doing so, practice can be improved upon reflection (Buchanan & Margolin 1995:ix). To study design praxis therefore not only involves noting a designer’s practices, but also the reflective thinking and theory that informs their activities. Furthermore, design praxis also includes the product or consequence of these practices.. 2.3.2 Framing design-as-practice To explore design praxis, it is also necessary to study design practice. Crouch and Pearce (2012:34) suggest that practice does not necessarily indicate how things ought to be or refer to activities that seem to be common-sense, but rather it is a constantly changing body of knowledge that responds to new ways of thinking. Kimbell (2009a:10) suggests design-as-practice as a means to understand what happens during design activities and how these relate to organisational outcomes. She defines design-as-practice as an outlook on design activities acknowledging that practices are “habitual, possibly rule-governed, often shared, routinized, conscious or unconscious, and that they are embodied and situated” (Kimbell 2009a:10). Moreover, this outlook sees design as an activity that may involve multiple stakeholders (Kimbell 2009a:10). Kimbell’s view is similar to that of Nelson and Stolterman (2012). They state that design-related research mostly comes from a desire to “make explicit the tacit knowledge that is embedded in design practice and the outcomes of that practice” (Nelson and Stolterman 2012:317). To study design practices and processes thus requires the noting of design activities as well as the tracing of relationships and activities with their outcomes, other stakeholders and surrounding environments. 20.

(32) This includes describing the thinking and intentions that manifest in actual design activities and products.. 2.3.3 Designers’ intentions as manifest in practice and products Noting design activities also requires capturing the designers’ thinking which drove the action. The goals and methods of all practice are influenced by the designer’s own values and intentions (Margolin 1989:6). Initial intentions, which directly relate to the designer’s character and perceived role in a larger context, influences every activity in the design process (Nelson & Stolterman 2012:249). Schön (1984:viii) states that practitioners reveal their reflective abilities in their ability to cope with unique and uncertain situations. This “knowing-in-practice” is mostly tacit, enacted upon instinct but informed by prior knowledge and experiences (Schön 1984:viii). Various intentions consequently inform design practice including personal views regarding cultural matters, prior experience, personal values and intentions, as well as the designer’s own reflections during the design process.. 2.3.4 Design process models Designers’ activities constitute the design process that accompanies each project. Rather than a series of predefined steps, the design process is best explained as a system of metaphorical spaces (Cross 2016:173). These metaphorical spaces divide different types of linked activities that together drive innovation (Cross 2016:173). Design processes differ according to the field or discipline in which they take place as well as the types of problem that require solving. Cross (2016:173) argues that all design projects pass through three spaces, namely inspiration, ideation and implementation. Inspiration can be an identified problem, a brief or an opportunity that drives the search for solutions whereas ideation refers to the process of generating, developing and testing ideas that may lead to solutions (Cross 2016:173). Implementation charts the path of manufacturing and bringing the product to the market. This process is iterative, cycling between the first two in particular as ideas are refined and new directions taken (Cross 2016:173). Cross’ model for the design process is one of many which may be applied depending on the designer’s discipline and the nature of the problem.. 21.

(33) Another design process model is that of Aspelund (2010), a design scholar hailing from the fashion discipline. Aspelund’s (2010:xiv) model includes seven stages of the. design. process. namely. inspiration,. identification,. conceptualisation,. exploration, definition or modelling, communication, and production. Inspiration involves examining sources of inspiration in order to identify constraints and concerns (Aspelund 2010:xiv). Identification is followed by conceptualisation and exploration, which involves outlining concepts through sketching, writing or experimentation in order to refine the design idea (Aspelund 2010:xiv). The design is then defined by committing to decisions, modelling the idea and determining how to provide clear communication to other stakeholders such as production staff, consumers and colleagues (Aspelund 2010:xiv). The process ends with the production of a final product. Aspelund’s design process is more extensive than Cross’, showing a detailed and extensive set of activities that lead to the design of a product. As stated earlier, 6 designed products can take many forms. Schön (2015:109) states that design knowledge is evident not only in a designer’s ideas and activities, but also in their interaction with objects. Kimbell (2009b:12) argues that the process of design cannot be understood without considering the products themselves and how they are used. A key part of the practice of designers trained in the arts tradition, such as fashion, is consideration of the visual appearance of objects (Julier 2006). Moreover, prototypes and drawings also form a product of design activity as these act as important communication tools when defining and solving problems and during collaborative activities (Kimbell 2009a:3). Products consequently refer not only to material objects but also to the consequences and effects of activities. By using the concept of design praxis within this study, the focus is not only on the design practices (activities and processes) of South African slow fashion designers, but also on their design approaches and products.. 6. For a discussion of the definition of design as product, refer to Subsection 2.2.5, p18. 22.

(34) 2.4. DESIGN FOR SUSTAINABILITY The previous section conceptualized the study of design practices within the area of design praxiology. This section explores the moral implications of design, defines design for sustainability and introduces issue-led design. Following the Industrial Revolution in the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the economic model of capitalism has become the universal mantra endorsed by a vast majority of the world’s nations (Fuad-Luke 2009:xix). Although this economic model has brought vast amounts of progress in terms of technology, industry and consumption, it has also wreaked havoc on the natural world and the distribution of wealth in developing countries (Strauss 2015:82). Capitalism also has an impact on the design profession, and influences the sustainability considerations of designers. According to Dorst (2003:152), the profession of design is a moral one, due to the inevitable side effects of the design process and product. As stated by Nelson and Stolterman (2002:12), design activities have the potential to greatly service humanity, and has historically done so. However, it has also done great harm. This harm arises due to underestimation of the complexity of design problems and a lack of understanding of the dynamics surrounding the introduction of a new set of variables into a complex environment (Nelson & Stolterman 2012:185). Within this socio-cultural space, there are countless needs and problems that can (and should) be addressed by designers, with a key focus on the possible consequences of their solutions. Sustainability is seen as the pre-eminent challenge of the twenty-first century, and is grounded in ecological praxis and systems thinking (Fuad-Luke 2009:2324). In 2015, the United Nations presented their Sustainable Development Goals (or SDGs) as shown in Figure 2.1 below. Of particular relevance to this study are SDG #11 and SDG #12. SDG #11 Sustainable cities and communities refers to the goal of making cities and communities safe, sustainable and resilient (Sustainable Development Knowledge Platforms 2018:1). SDG #12 Responsible consumption and production aims to ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns (Sustainable Development Knowledge Platforms 2018:1). Within the context of this study, the concept of sustainability thus focuses on the 23.

(35) development of sustainable cities and communities and ensuring responsible consumption and production patterns through design.. Figure 2.1 United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (Sustainable Development Goals communications materials 2018:1). Designers play a key role in creating sustainable futures. Both Fuad-Luke (2009:87) and Fry (2009:42) argue that in order to address these issues, designers are the first group that need to change their behaviour in the way that they approach design. Fry (2009:46) further states that in order for this change to occur design thinking, process and practice need to be redirected towards a balanced focus between what is known as the triple bottom-line: planet, profit and people. Sustainability consequently presents new challenges and goals for designers in order to improve and enhance existing conditions. Furthermore, it is an envisioned ideal strived for by sustainable designers through their approaches to certain issues.. 2.4.1 Issue-led design approaches Papanek was amongst the first design scholars to note the moral responsibility of the. design. community. towards. addressing. socio-environmental. concerns. (Papanek 1985:ix). He argues that contemporary design only satisfies superficial desires. and. wants. whilst. neglecting. genuine. human. needs. (Papanek. 1985:15;1995:142). Papanek (1995:48) suggested the need for increased ecological considerations in both design education and practice. Design thus 24.

(36) becomes a “bridge between human needs, culture and ecology” (Papanek 1995:29). Papanek’s work inspired further research into the development of issueled. approaches. to. design. that. takes. socio-environmental. concerns. into. consideration. Due to the complexity of sustainability, Fuad-Luke (2009:20) explains that different design approaches enable designers to deal with specific issues. These issue-led approaches fall under the field of design but seek to address certain issues and differ in terms of the approaches that designers adopt. In this sense, the field of design is already constructed to deal with the meta-challenge of sustainability, hence relevant examples of these issue-led approaches include ecoand green design, human-centred design, design for social innovation and slow design. Eco- and green design deals with issues related to the environmental impact of design (Fuad-Luke 2008:21-22). Eco-design considers both the efficient use of environmental resources during the design process as well as the impact of the artefact on the environment itself (Smal 2013:43; Bhamra & Lofthouse 2007:39). Green design considers “ecologically sound products and therefore includes consumer awareness and consumption patterns” (Smal 2013:43). These design approaches are often used interchangeably but refer to the considered use of environmental resources in the design as well as in the effects of its use. The considerations of the user are extended further in a human-centred design approach. In his book The Design of Everyday Things, Norman (2002) explains the humancentred design approach, which is often used interchangeably with the term usercentred design. This approach considers “human needs, capabilities, and behaviour first” and designs for these considerations (Norman 2002:9). Moreover, this approach requires starting with an understanding of users and the needs that the design should ultimately meet (Norman 2002:9). Krippendorff (2005:87) states that human-centred design places emphasis on the importance of all stakeholders in design, including users. This includes the effects of design including. the. social,. cultural. and. technological. consequences. on. these. stakeholders (Krippendorff 2005:87). Human-centred design thus shifts design 25.

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