Building Technology Reviewer

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

LAYOUT AND EXCAVATION

 SPIRIT LEVEL - INSTRUMENT OR TOOL CAPABLE OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINE CHECK.

 PLUMB BOB - IT’S USES FOR VERTICAL LINE CHECK.

 PLASTIC HOSE FILLED W/ WATER – A METHOD OF LEVELLING (HORIZONTAL) BATTERBOARDS WITHOUT TRANSIT.

 3-4-5 MULTIPLES W/ THE USE OF STEEL TAPE MEASURE – A MANUAL METHOD OF SQUARING THE CORNERS OF BUILDING LINES IN BUILDING LAYOUT.

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LAYOUT AND EXCAVATIONS

LAYOUT IS SOMETIMES CALLED “ STAKING OUT” WHICH MEANS THE PROCESS OF RELOCATING THE POINT OF BOUNDARIES AND PROPERTY LINE OF THE SITE WHERE THE BUILDING IS TO BE CONSTRUCTED.

IT INCLUDES CLEARING, STAKING, BATTER BOARDS AND ESTABLISHES THE EXACT LOCATION OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION AND WALL LINE ON THE GROUND.

 STAKE – ARE WOODEN STICKS USED AS POSTS SHARPENED AT ONE END DRIVEN INTO THE GROUND TO SERVE AS BOUNDARIES OR SUPPORTS OF THE BATTER BOARDS.

 BATTER BOARD – WOOD STICK OR BOARD NAILED HORIZONTALLY AT THE STAKE WHICH SERVE AS THE HORIZONTAL PLANE WHERE THE REFERENCE POINT OF THE BUILDING MEASUREMENTS ARE ESTABLISHED.

 STRING – IS EITHER PLASTIC CHORD OR GALVANIZED WIRE ACROSS THE BATTER BOARDS USED TO INDICATE THE OUTLINE OF THE BUILDING WALL AND FOUNDATION.

LAYOUT METHODS AND PROCEDURES

1. BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION BEGINS, SEE TO IT THAT A BUILDING PERMIT IS FIRST SECURED FROM THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES CONCERNED.

2. RELOCATE THE BOUDARIES OF THE CONSTRUCTION SITE. IT IS SUGGESTED THAT THE RELOCATION OF THE PROPERTY LINE SHALL BE DONE BY GEODETIC ENGINEER SPECIALLY FOR THOSE LOTS WITHOUT EXISTING REFERENCE POINTS OR ADJOINING STRUCTURES.

3. CLEAR THE SITE OF ANY EXISTING STRUCTURE, TREES, AND OTHER ELEMENTS THAT WILL OBSTRUCT THE CONSTRUCTION WORK.

4. CONSTRUCT AND ALLOCATE A SPACE FOR LABORERS’ QUARTERS, CONSTRUCTION OFFICE, BODEGA FOR THE MATERIALS AND WORKING TOOLS AND TEMPORARY WASTE DISPOSAL.

5. APPLY FOR A TEMPORARY CONNECTIONS OF ELECTRIC AND WATER SUPPLY. ELECTRIC CURRENT IS IMPORTANT FOR THE POWER NEEDS OF THE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT AND IS NECESSARY ON OVERTIME SCHEDULES ESPECIALLY IN THE TIME OF CONCRETING. WATER IS ALSO A PRIME NEED IN CONSTRUCTION.

6. CONSTRUCT A TEMPORARY FENCE AROUND THE CONSTRUCTION.

7. VERIFY THE MEASUREMENT IN THE PLAN IF THE DISTANCES INDICATED ARE FORM:

 CENTER TO CENTER

 OUTER TO CENTER

 OUTER TO OUTER

 INSIDE TO INSIDE

8. FIX THE BATTER BOARD TO ITS HORIZONTAL POSITION WITH THE AID OF LEVEL INSTRUMENT PREFERABLY PLASTIC HOSE WITH WATER.

9. AFTER ESTABLISHING THE REFERENCE POINT AND LINE OF THE FOOTING, TRANSFER THE INTERSECTING POINTS OF THE STRING ON THE GROUND BY THE AID OF PLUMB BOB AND INDICATE THE SIZE AND WIDTH TO BE EXCAVATED.

EXCAVATION

EXCAVATION WORK IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IS CATEGORIZED INTO TWO TYPES: THE MINOR AND MAJOR EXCAVATION DEPENDING UPON THE SIZE AND NATURE OF THE FOUNDATION TO BE CONSTRUCTED. EXCAVATION FOR A SMALL CONSTRUCTION WITH INDEPENDENT WALL, OR COMBINED FOOTING IS CLASSIFIED UNDER THE MINOR EXCAVATION, WHILE THE REST WHICH REQUIRES SIZEABLES OR TOTAL EXTRACTION OF THE EARTH FALL UNDER THE CATEGORY OF MAJOR CONSTRUCTION.

MINOR EXCAVATION

EXCAVATION UNDER THIS CATEGORY ARE THOSE CONSTRUCTION HAVING INDEPENDENT FOOTING AND HOLLOW BLOCK WALL FOOTING WHERE THE DIGGING OF THE SOIL FOR THE FOOTING EXTEND TO A DEPTH FROM 1.00 TO 1.50 METER AND ABOUT HALF A METER DEPTH FOR THE WALL FOOTING.

MAJOR EXCAVATION

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION THAT REQUIRES WIDE EXCAVATION OR TOTAL EXTRACTION OF THE SOIL ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO CATEGORIES DEPENDING UPON THE CONDITION OR LOCATION OF THE SITE. WHEN THE AREA OF THE CONSTRUCTION SITE IS BIG THAT THERE IS ENOUGH SPACE TO ACCOMMODATE WORKING ACTIVITIES, STORING OF MATERIALS AND DUMPING GROUND FOR THE EXCAVATED SOIL.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ON A BUSY COMMERCIAL CENTER WITH ADJACENT EXISTING STRUCTURE IS CONSIDERED TO THE MOST COMPLICATED AMONG THE VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION WORKS SINCE THIS REQUIRES CAREFUL STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF THE RIGHT APPROACH.

PROBLEMS MIGHT BE ENCOUNTER:

1. THE MANNER OF THE EXCAVATION TO BE EMPLOYED WHICH WILL NOT AFFECT OR DAMAGED THE ADJOINING STRUCTURE.

2. THE KIND OF EQUIPMENT TO BE USED IN THE DIGGING AND EXTRACTING THE GROUND MAY NOT BE A PROBLEM BUT THE PLACE WHERE TO STATION THE EQUIPMENT DURING THE OPERATION.

3. HOW AND WHERE TO DISPOSE THE EXTRACTED SOIL INVOLVES THE EFFECTIVE MANNER OF MANEUVERING THE PAYLOAD AND DRUMPTRUCKS IN HAULING WITHOUT OBSTRUCTING THE PEDESTRIAN AND VEHICULAR TRAFFIC FLOW.

4. WHERE TO DISPOSE THE UNDERGROUND WATER TO BE DRAINED BY THE WATER PUMP DURING THE PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION WHICH MIGHT CAUSE MUDDY ROAD AND CREATE INCONVENIENCE TO TRAFFIC.

5.

FOUNDATION AND FOOTING

THE FUNCTION OF A FOUNDATION IS TO TRANSFER THE STRUCTURAL LOADS FROM A BUILDING SAFELY INTO THE GROUND. ALL FOUNDATIONS SETTLE TO SOME EXTENT AS THE SOIL AROUND BENEATH THEM ADJUST ITSELF TO THESE LOADS.

UNIFORM SETTLEMENT IS USUALLY OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCES IN A BUILDING, BUT A DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT CAN CAUSE SEVERE STRUCTURAL DAMAGE.

3 MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING:

 SUPERSTRUCTURE – WHICH IS THE ABOVE GROUND PORTION OF THE BUILDING.

 SUBSTRUCTURE – WHICH IS THE HABITABLE BELOW-GROUND PORTION.

 FOUNDATION – WHICH ARE THE COMPONENTS OF THE BUILDING THAT TRANSFER ITS LOAD INTO THE SOIL. 3 TYPES OF SUBSTRUCTURES:

 SLAB ON FILL

 CRAWLSPACE

 BASEMENT

2 BASIC TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS:

 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ARE THOSE THAT TRANSFER THE LOAD TO THE EARTH AT THE BASE OF THE COLUMN OR WALL OF THE SUBSTRUCTURE.

FOUNDATION IS THAT PORTION OF THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS THAT CARRY OR SUPPORT THE SUPERSTRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING. FOOTING IS THAT PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION OF THE STRUCTURE WHICH DIRECTLY TRANSMIT THE COLUMN LOAD TO THE UNDERLYING SOIL OR ROCK, FOOTING IS THE LOWER PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION STRUCTURE.

FOUNDATION BED - REFERS TO THE SOIL OR ROCK DIRECTLY BENEATH THE FOOTING.

PILE FOUNDATION – WHEN A FOUNDATION BED IS TOO WEAK TO SUPPORT A RAFT FOOTING, THERE IS AN URGENT NEED TO PROVIDE A SUITABLE MATERIALS WHERE TO TRANSFER THE EXCESS LOAD TO A GREATER DEPTH WHEREIN PILES IS THE ANSWER.

PILE – IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER OF SMALL CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA WITH REASONABLE LENGTH DRIVEN DOWN THE GROUND BY MEANS OF HAMMERS OR VIBRATORY GENERATOR.

PILE IS DISTINGUISHED FROM A CAISSON BY BEING DRIVEN INTO PLACE RATHER THAN DRILED & POURED.

PILES ARE GENERALLY DRIVEN CLOSELY TOGETHER IN CLUSTERS CONTAINING FROM TWO TO TWENTY-FIVE PILES. EACH CLUSTER IS LATER JOINED AT THE TOP BY A REINFORCED CONCRETE PILE CAP.

PILE CAP – DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD OF THE COLUMN OR WALL EQUALLY AMONG THE PILES.

CAISSONS – IS SIMILAR TO A COLUMN FOOTING IN THAT IT SPREADS THE LOAD FROM A COLUMN OVER A LARGE ENOUGH AREA OF SOIL.

 FOUNDATION WALL – THAT PART OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH FORMS THE PERMANENT RETAINING WALL OF THE STRUCTURE BELOW GRADE.

 GRADE BEAM – THAT PART OF A FOUNDATION SYSTEM W/C SUPPORTS THE EXTERIOR WALL OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE AND BEARS DIRECTLY ON THE COLUMN FOOTING.

 RETAINING WALL – A WALL OR LATERALLY BRACED, THAT BEARS AGAINST AN EARTH OR OTHER FILL SURFACE AND RESISTS LATERAL AND OTHER FORCES.

 CANTILEVER WALL – A REINFORCED CONCRETE WALL WHICH RESIST OVERTURNING BY THE USE OF CANTILEVER FOOTING.

 GRAVITY WALL – A MASSIVE CONCRETE WALL THAT RESIST OVERTURNING BY VIRTUE OF IT’S OWN WEIGHT.

 BEARING WALL – A WALL CAPABLE OF SUPPORTING AN IMPOSED LOAD.

FOOTING ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:

WALL FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING – IS A STRIP OF REINFORCED CONCRETE WIDER THAN THE WALL WHICH DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD TO THE SOIL.

A STEEL PERCENTAGE EQUALS TO 0.2 TO 0.3% OF THE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF CONCRETE IS SAID TO BE ADEQUATE EXCEPT ON UNUSUAL CASES.

COLUMN FOOTING – IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:

1. ISOLATED OR INDEPENDENT FOOTING – IS A KIND OF FOOTING REPRESENTS THE SIMPLEST AND MOST ECONOMICAL TYPE, IN THE FORM OF:

 SQUARE BLOCK FOOTING

 SQUARE SLOPE FOOTING

 SQUARE STEPPED FOOTING

2. COMBINED FOOTING – IS USED WHEN TWO OR MORE COLUMNS ARE SPACED CLOSELY TO EACH OTHER THAT THEIR FOOTING WILL ALMOST OR COMPLETELY MERGE. IT’S EITHER :

 RECTANGULAR

 TRAPEZOIDAL

3. CONTINUOUS FOOTING – IS SOMETIMES CLASSIFIED AS WALL FOOTING WHICH SUPPORT SEVERAL COLUMNS IN A ROW. IT’S EITHER:

 INVERTED SLAB FOOTING

 INVERTED TEE FOOTING

4. RAFT OR MAT FOOTING – IT’S OCCUPIES THE ENTIRE AREA BENEATH THE STRUCTURE AND CARRY THE WALL AND THE COLUMN LOADS.

 UNIFORM SLAB

 THICKENED SLAB

 BEAM & GIRDER

CONCRETE

CONCRETE IS AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE OUT FROM THE MIXTURE OF CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL AND WATER. THIS IS KNOWN AS SOLID MASS OR PLAIN CONCRETE. CONCRETE IN WHICH REINFORCEMENT IS EMBEDDED IN SUCH A MANNER THAT THE TWO MATERIALS ACT TOGETHER IN RESISTING FORCES IS CALLED REINFORCED CONCRETE.

 SLUMP TEST – A READY MEANS OF DETERMINING THE CONSISTENCY OF FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE.

 DESIGNING OF CONCRETE MIXTURE IS BASED ON THE WATER-CEMENT RATIO.

 0.68 lb. OF WATER / lb. OF CEMENT WILL PRODUCE CONCRETE CAPABLE OF DEVELOPING 2,500 PSI IN 28 DAYS.

 LESS WATER PRODUCE STRONGER CONCRETE.

 MORE WATER PRODUCE LESSER STRENGTH.

 ADMIXTURE – ACCELERATES OR RETARDS CONCRETE SETTING.

 SIZES OF MEASURING BOX FOR :

 40 kg. CEMENT – 300mm X 300mm X 300mm

 CONCRETE MIXTURE:

CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg. SAND GRAVEL

“AA” 1:11/2: 3 12 9.5 0.5 cu.m. 1.0 cu.m.

“A” 1:2:4 9 7 0.5 1.0 “B” 1:21/2:5 7.5 6 0.5 1.0 “C” 1:3:6 6 5 0.5 1.0

 MORTAR MIXTURE:

CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg. SAND

“A” 1:2 18 14.5 1.0 cu.m. “B” 1:3 12 9.5 1.0 “C” 1:4 9 7 1.0 “D” 1:5 7.5 6 1.0

POST AND COLUMN

POST – REFERS TO A PIECE OF TIMBER OF EITHER CYLINDRICAL, SQUARE OR OTHER GEOMETRICAL CROSS SECTION PLACED VERTICALLY TO SUPPORT A BUILDING.

COLUMN – REFERS TO VERTICAL STRUCTURE USE TO SUPPORT A BUILDING MADE OF STONE, CONCRETE, STEEL OR COMBINATION OF THE ABOVE MATERIALS.

STOREY – IS THE SPACE IN A BUILDING BETWEEN FLOOR LEVELS OR BETWEEN A FLOOR AND A ROOF ABOVE. REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN ARE CLASSIFIED AS:

 SHORT COLUMN – WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS NOT GREATER THAN TEN TIMES THE SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF THE CROSS SECTION.

 LONG COLUMN – WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS MORE THAN TEN TIMES THE SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF THE CROSS SECTION.

TYPES OF COLUMNS ARE:

 TIED COLUMN – HAS REINFORCEMENT CONSISTING OF VERTICAL OR LONGITUDINAL BARS HELD IN POSITION BY LATERAL REINFORCEMENT CALLED LATERAL TIES.

 SPIRAL COLUMN – IS THE TERM GIVEN WHERE A CIRCULAR CONCRETE CORE IN ENCLOSED BY SPIRALS WITH VERTICAL OR LONGITUDINAL BARS. THE VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT IS PROVIDED WITH EVENLY SPACED CONTINUOUS SPIRAL HELD FIRMLY IN POSITION BY AT LEAST THREE VERTICAL BAR SPACERS.

 COMPOSITE COLUMN – WHERE STRUCTURAL STEEL COLUMN IS EMBEDDED INTO THE CONCRETE CORE OF A SPIRAL COLUMN.

 COMBINED COLUMN – WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL ENCASED IN CONCRETE OF AT LEAST 7 cm. THK. REINFORCED WITH WIRE MESS SURROUNDING THE COLUMN AT A DISTANCE OF 3 cm. INSIDE THE OUTER SURFACE OF THE CONCRETE COVERING.

 LALLY COLUMN – IS A FABRICATED STEEL PIPE PROVIDED WITH A FLAT STEEL BARS OR PLATE WHICH HOLD A GIRDER, GIRTS OR BEAM. THE STEEL PIPE IS SOMETIMES FILLED WITH GROUT OR CONCRETE FOR CORROSION.

METAL REINFORCEMENT

1. COMPRESSION STRESS 2. TENSION STRESS 3. SHEAR STRESS 4. TORSION STRESS

 REINFORCEMENT NEED TO PROVIDE ON BEAM TO RESPONSE TO POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE BENDING WHICH MAY CAUSE FAILURE OR COLLAPSE OF THE STRUCTURE.

 REINFORCED CONCRETE – IS A COMBINATION OF CONCRETE AND STEEL.

 CONCRETE – IS STRONG IN SUPPORTING COMPRESSION LOAD BUT WEAK IN RESISTING TENSION FORCES.

 STEEL – POSSESSES THE STRENGTH TO RESIST BOTH COMPRESSION AND TENSION.

 BALANCE BEAM – WHEN THE AREA OF THE CONCRETE AND STEEL ARE JUST ENOUGH TO CARRY THE COMPRESSION AND TENSION FORCES SIMULTANEOUSLY.

 INFLECTION POINTS – REFER TO THE PORTION OF A BEAM WHERE BENDING MOMENT CHANGES FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE.

 NO BENT BARS – WHEN BARS ARE NOT BENT, AN ADDITIONAL STRAIGHT REINFORCING BARS ARE PLACED ON THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE SUPPORTS EXTENDED TO THE REQUIRED LENGTH.

 BENT REINFORCING BARS – ARE BENT UP ON OR NEAR THE INFLECTION POINT AND ARE EXTENDED AT THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE SUPPORT TOWARDS THE ADJACENT SPAN.

 4cm. – ALLOWANCE PROTECTIVE COVERING OF STEEL BARS FROM THE OUTSIDE OF THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT.

 ADVANTAGE OF THE BEND BARS, ITS RESIST THE DIAGONAL TENSION.

 BUILDING CODE REQUIRED THAT A BALANCE BEAM SHALL PROVIDE, THAT THE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE EQUAL TO .005 TIMES THE CROSS SECTIONAL PRODUCT OF THE WIDTH AND THE DEPTH OF THE BEAM.

 USED LATERAL TIES –

10mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 32mm SMALLER 12mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 36mm BIGGER

 THREE FACTORS FOR SPACING OF THE LATERAL TIES:

 SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 16 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LONGITUDINAL OR MAIN REINFORCING BARS.

 SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 48 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LATERAL TIES.

 NOT MORE THAN THE SHORTEST DIMENSION OF THE COLUMN.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION

 SCAB – A SHORT FLAT PIECE OF LUMBER WHICH IS BOLTED, NAILED OR SCREWED TO TWO BUTTING PIECES IN ORDER TO SPLICE THEM TOGETHER.

 FISH PLATE – A WOOD OR METAL PIECE USED TO FASTEN TOGETHER THE ENDS OF TWO MEMBERS WITH NAILS OR BOLTS.

 SPLICE PLATE – A METAL PLATE USED FOR FASTENING TWO OR MORE MEMBER TOGETHER.

 COGGED JOINT – A CARPENTRY JOINT BY TWO UNEVEN TIMBERS, EACH OF WHICH IS NOTCHED AT THE PLACE WHERE THEY MEET.

 NOTCHING – JOINING OF TIMBERS, USUALLY MEETING OR CROSSING AT RIGHT ANGLES, BY CUTTING A DAP IN ONE OR BOTH PIECES.

 CROSSLAP JOINT – A JOINT CONNECTING TWO WOOD MEMBERS WHICH CROSS EACH OTHER, HALF THE THICKNESS OF EACH IS CUT SO THAT THE THICKNESS WILL THE SAME AS THAT OF EACH MEMBER.

 SQUARE SPLICE–A TYPE OF HALF LAPPED USED TO RESIST TENSION.

 BRIDLE JOINT – A JOINT IN WHICH TWO TONGUES PROJECT FROM THE SIDES OF THE TENONED MEMBER, THESE TONGUES FIT INTO CORRESPONDING SLOTS IN THE MORTISED MEMBER.

 TENON – THE PROJECTING END OF A PIECE OF WOOD, OR OTHER MATERIALS WHICH IS REDUCED IN CROSS SECTION, SO THAT IT MAY BE INSERTED IN A CORRESPONDING CAVITY IN ANOTHER PIECE IN ORDER TO FORM A SECURE JOINT.

 YACAL – LUMBER PREFFERED WHEN IN CONTACT WITH CONCRETE.

 BOARD FOOT – THE VOLUME OF A PIECE OF WOOD ONE INCH. THICK, ONE FOOT WIDE AND ONE FOOT LONG.

 BOLIDEN SALT – TREATMENT IN WOLMANIZED LUMBER.

 DAP – A NOTCH IN A TIMBER FOR RECEIVING ANOTHER TIMBER.

 DADO – A RECTANGULAR GROOVE CUT ACROSS THE FULL WIDTH OF A PIECE OF WOOD TO RECEIVE THE END OF ANOTHER PIECE.

 SOLIGNUM – TRADE NAME FOR ANTI-TERMITE SURFACE APPLICATION ON WOOD.

FLOOR STRUCTURE

FLOOR FRAMING IS THAT PLATFORM STRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING SUSPENDED BY POSTS, COLUMNS, WALLS AND BEAMS. THE DESIGN OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM DEPENDS UPON THE FOLLOWING CONSIDERATIONS:

1. LIVE LOAD – REFERS TO THOSE MOVABLE LOADS IMPOSED ON THE FLOOR.

2. DEAD LOAD – REFERS TO THE STATIC LOAD SUCH AS THE WEIGHT OF THE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS WHICH GENERALLY CARRY THE LIVE LOAD.

3. TYPES OF MATERIALS TO BE USED – THE CHOICE FROM THE VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS SUCH AS LUMBER, CONCRETE, AND STEEL.

4. THE SIZING AND SPACING OF THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS – DEPENDS UPON ITS STRENGTH AND CAPABILITY TO CARRY THE LOAD AT A CERTAIN SPACING.

5. SPAN OF THE SUPPORTS – PERTAINS TO THE DISTANCES BETWEEN THE POSTS, COLUMNS OR SUPPORTING WALLS. THE PLATFORM - FLOOR FRAMING STRUCTURE IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:

A. THE PLANK AND BEAM FLOOR TYPE B. THE PANELIZED-FLOOR SYSTEM

C. THE CONVENTIONAL FLOOR FRAMING SYSTEM

THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM ARE:

 GIRDER – IS A PRINCIPAL BEAM EXTENDING FROM WALL TO WALL OF A BUILDING SUPPORTING THE FLOOR JOISTS OF FLOOR BEAMS.

 SILL – THAT PART OF THE SIDE OF A HOUSE THAT RESTS HORIZONTALLY UPON THE FOUNDATION.

 FLOOR JOISTS – ARE THOSE PARTS OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM PLACED ON THE GIRDERS WHERE THE FLOOR BOARDS ARE FASTENED.

 HEADER AND TRIMMER – HEADER IS A SHORT TRANSVERSE JOISTS THAT SUPPORT THE END OF THE CUT-OFF JOIST AT A STAIR WELL HOLE. TRIMMER IS A SUPPORTING JOIST WHICH CARRIES AN END PORTION OF A HEADER.

 FLOORING – THE TONGUE AND GROOVE WHICH ARE POPULARLY KNOWN AS T & G IS GENERALLY SPECIFIED FOR WOOD FLOORING.

 TAIL BEAM OR TAIL PIECE – A SHORT BEAM, JOIST OR RAFTER WHICH IS SUPPORTED BY A HEADER JOIST AT ONE END AND A WALL AT THE OTHER.

 LEDGER STRIP – A STRIP OF LUMBER WHICH IS NAILED TO THE SIDE OF THE BEAM, FORMING A SEAT FOR THE JOISTS.

 DRAFTSTOP PLATE – IS A PIECE OF LUMBER USES TO DRESS UP THE EDGE OF THE JOISTS.

 SOLE PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER WHICH SERVES AS A BASE FOR THE STUDS IN A STUD PARTITION.

 SILL PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER, AT THE BOTTOM OF THE FRAME OF AWOOD STRUCTURE WHICH REST ON THE FOUNDATION.

 TOP PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER AT THE UPPER PORTION OF THE STUDS IN ASTUD PARTITION.

 CRIPPLE STUD – IN ABUILDING FRAME, A STRUCTURAL ELEMENT THAT IS SHORTER THAN USUAL, AS A STUD ABOVE AND BELOW OPENING.

 BLOCK OR SOLID BRIDGING – SHORT MEMBERS WHICH ARE FIXED VERTICALLY BETWEEN FLOOR JOISTS TO STIFFEN THE JOISTS.

 HANGER OR STIRRUP – A METAL SEAT, ATTACHED TO A GIRDER TO RECEIVE AND SUPPORT A JOIST.

 BALLOON FRAMING – CONSTRUCTION HAS STUDS CONTINOUS TO ROOF SUPPORTING SECOND FLOOR JOISTS.

 WESTERN FRAMING – THAT HAS SUBFLOOR EXTENDED TO THE OUTER EDGE OF THE FRAME AND PROVIDE A FLAT WORK SURFACE AT EACH FLOOR.

REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM

BEAM - IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER THAT SUPPORTS THE TRANSVERSE LOAD WHICH USUALLY REST ON SUPPORTS AT ITS END. GIRDER – IS THE TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT SUPPORTS ONE OR MORE SMALLER BEAM.

BEAM ARE CLASSIFIED AS : A) SIMPLE BEAM B) CONTINUOUS BEAM C) SEMI – CONTINUOUS

SIMPLE BEAM – REFERS TO THE BEAM HAVING A SINGLE SPAN SUPPORTED AT ITS END WITHOUT A RESTRAIN AT THE SUPPORT. SIMPLE BEAMS IS SOMETIMES CALLED AS SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM.

RESTRAINT MEANS A RIGID CONNECTION OR ANCHORAGE AT THE SUPPORT.

CONTINUOUS BEAM – IS A TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT REST ON MORE THAN TWO SUPPORTS.

SEMI-CONTINUOUS BEAM – REFERS TO A BEAM WITH TWO SPANS WITH OR WITHOUT RESTRAINT AT THE TWO EXTREME ENDS.

WEB REINFORCEMENT

WEB REINFORCEMENT IS THE SAME AS THEIR STIRRUPS USED IN THE BEAM TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT IN ITS DESIGNED POSITION. THE WEB REINFORCEMENT IS NOT ONLY INTENDED TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT AND PROVIDE LATERAL SUPPORT BUT ALSO SERVES TO RESIST DIAGONAL TENSION AND COUNTERACT THE SHEAR ACTION ON THE STRUCTURE. THE VERTICAL STIRRUPS SHOULD ENCIRCLE THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT AND HOOK BENT WITH A DIAMETER NOT LESS THAN 5 TIMES THE DIAMETER OF THE STIRRUPS AT ITS END AND SECURED PROPERLY TO PREVENT SLIPPING OF THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT IN THE CONCRETE.

REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB:

REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:

2. TWOWAY SOLID SLAB BEAM. 3. RIBBED FLOORS.

4. FLAT SLAB OR GIRDERLESS FLOORS SOLID OR RIBBED.

EACH TYPE OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM HAS ITS OWN ADVANTAGES IN APPLICATION DEPENDING UPON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS: 1. SPACING OF THE COLUMNS.

2. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE LOADS TO BE SUPPORTED 3. LENGTH OF THE SPAN

4. THE COST OF THE CONSTRUCTION

ONE WAY SLAB – ONE WAY SLAB IS THE COMMON TYPE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM WHICH THE REINFORCEMENTS RUNS ONLY IN ONE DIRECTION. MADE OF SOLID SLAB SUPPORTED BY TWO PARALLEL BEAMS. IT IS COMPARATIVELY ECONOMICAL FOR A MEDIUM AND HEAVY LIVE LOADS ON SHORT SPANS RANGING FROM 2.00 TO 3.50 METERS LONG. ALTHOUGH THE REINFORCEMENTS ARE ALSO PLACED IN THE SLAB PARALLEL WITH THE BEAMS PERPENDICULAR WITH THE MAIN REINFORCEMENTS CALLED “TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENTS”. USUALLY NO. 3 STEEL BAR IS USED TO COUNTERACT THE EFFECT OF SHRINKAGE AND CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE. IT ALSO DISTRIBUTES POSSIBLE CONCENTRATION OF LOADS OVER A LARGER AREA.

TWO WAY SLAB – SLAB WHICH ARE SUPPORTED ON FOUR SIDES WHERE THE FLOOR PANEL IS NEARLY SQUARE IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL TO EMPLOY THE TWO DIRECTIONS OF REINFORCING BARS PLACED AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH EACH OTHER.

THE CODE SPECIFIES THAT THICKNESS OF THE SLAB SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN 4 INCHES OR 10 CM. NOR LESS THAN THE PERIMETER OF THE SLAB DIVIDED BY 180. THE SPACING OF THE REINFORCEMENT SHALL NOT BE MORE THAN 3 TIMES THE SLAB THICKNESS.

RIBBED FLOOR SLAB – IS AN ECONOMICAL TYPE OF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION BUT IS APPLICABLE ONLY TO MEDIUM SPAN LENGTH WITH LIGHT OR MEDIUM LOAD.

A RIBBED FLOOR SLAB CONSISTS OF SMALL ADJACENT T-BEAM WHEREIN THE OPEN SPACES BETWEEN THE RIBS ARE FILLED BY CLAY TILES, GYPSUM TILES OR STEEL FORMS. THE TILES ARE GENERALLY 30 X 90 CM. WITH DEPTH OF 10 TO 40CM. O.C. PLACED @ 5CM. O.C. MAKING THE RIBS 10 CM. WIDE.

THE CONCRETE SURFACE LAYER PLACED ON TOP OF THE TILES RANGES FROM 5 TO 6.5 CM. THICK. THE REINFORCEMENT OF A RIBBED FLOOR SYSTEM CONSIST OF TWO BARS PLACED AT THE LOWER PART OF THE RIB WHERE ONE IS BENT AND THE OTHER REMAINED STRAIGHT, OR SOMETIMES, STRAIGHT BARS ARE PALCED AT THE TOP AND BOTTOM OF THE RIB. TEMPERATURE BARS ARE EITHER NO. 2 BARS OR 6 MM. OR WIRE MESH WHICH RUNS AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH THE RIBS.

FLAT SLAB – IS A RECTANGULAR SLAB DIRECTLY SUPPORTED BY COLUMNS WITHOUT BEAMS OR GIRDERS. THESLAB IS EITHER UNIFORM IN THICKNESS OR PROVIDED WITH SQUARE SYMMETRICAL AREA DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN REINFORCED WITH BARS RUNNING IN TWO DIRECTIONS. THE INCREASED AREA DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN CALLED DROP PANEL OR SIMPLY DROP. ON THE OTHER HAND, A FLARED HEAD IS EMPLOYED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF A FLAT-SLAB FLOOR MAKING A CAPITAL OF THE COLUMN.

WHEN THE COLUMN DESIGN IS NOT PROVIDED WITH CAPITAS, A STRAIGHT FLAT UNDERNEATH IS PROVIDED IN THE SLAB THROUGHOUT THE SYSTEM, WHICH IS CALLED FLAT PLATE CONSTRUCTION.

THIS FLOOR SYSTEM IS ECONOMICAL IN TERMS OF MATERIALS AND LABOR.

 CONTRACTION JOINT OR EXPANSION JOINT – A JOINT BETWEEN ADJACENT PARTS OF A STRUCTURE WHICH PERMITS MOVEMENT BETWEEN THEM.

 CONTROL JOINTS – EMPLOYED TO REDUCE RESTRAINT BY ACCOMODATING MOVEMENT OF MASONRY WALL.

 BLOCK OUT – IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES UNDER CONSTRUCTION, A SPACE WHERE CONCRETE IS NOT TO BE PLACED.

 COLD JOINT – A JOINT FORMED WHEN A CONCRETE SURFACE HARDEN BEFORE THE NEXT BATCH OF CONCRETE IS PLACED AGAINST.

 CREEP – PERMANENT DEFORMATION OF A MATERIAL UNDER A SUSTAIN LOAD.

 CAMBER – CONVEX CURVATURE IN BEAM OR TRUSS.

LAYING OUT OF STAIRS

THE METHOD OF LAYING OUT STAIRS ARE:

1. DETERMINE THE CLEAR HEIGHT OF THE RISE IN METER. ORDINARILY, THE RISE PER STEP IS 17 TO 18 CM AND THE MINIMUM TREAD WIDTH IS 25 CM.

2. DIVIDE THE RISE ( HEIGHT IN METER) BY .17 OR .18 TO DETERMINE THE NUMBER OF STEPS. 3. DIVIDE THE RUN DISTANCE IN METER BY .25 OR .30m.

4. IF THE RESULT, FOUND IN STEP THREE IS LESS THAN THE NUMBER FOUND IN STEP TWO, THE RUN LENGTH HAS TO BE EXTENDED. 5. THERE SHOULD BE NO FUNCTIONAL VALUE OF A RISER. SHOULD THERE BE FROM THE RESULT OF STEP TWO, ADJUST A

FUNCTIONAL VALUE IN EQUAL PROPORTION TO THE NUMBER OF RISER HEIGHT, BUT IN NO CASE SHALL THE RISE PER STEP BE GREATER THAN 19 CM OR LESS THAN 17 CM OTHERWISE, THE STAIRS WILL NOT BE AN IDEAL ONE.

IT IS IMPORTANT TO MAKE A CROSS SECTIONAL SKETCH OF A STAIR BEFORE MAKING THE FINAL PLAN LAYOUT INDICATING THE NUMBER OF STEPS TO AVOID ADJUSTMENTS OF THE RUN DURING THE ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION.

TYPE OF STRINGERS

THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF STRINGER CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE METHOD OF ATTACHIND THE RISERS AND THE TREADS.

1. CUT 2. CLEATED 3. BUILT-UP

 BALUSTER – ONE OF A NUMBER OF SHORT VERTICAL MEMBERS OFTEN CIRCULAR IN SECTION, USED TO SUPPORT A STAIR HANDRAIL.

 BALUSTRATE – AN ENTIRE RAILING SYSTEM INCLUDING A TOP RAIL, VERTICAL MEMBERS AND BOTTOM RAIL.

 BULL-NOSED STEP – A STEP USUALLY LOWEST IN AFLIGHT, HAVING ONE OR BOTH ENDS ROUNDED TO A SEMI-CIRCLE AND PROJECTION BEYOND THE FACE OF THE STAIR STRING/S.

 BANISTER – HANDRAIL FOR A STAIRCASE.

 RISER – A VERTICAL FACE OF ASTAIR.

 KICKER PLATE – STAIR ANCHOR TO CONCRETE.

TYPES OF ROOF

THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF ROOF AND NUMEROUS VARIETY OF SHAPES THAT ONE HAS TO BE FAMILIAR WITH:

SHED OR LEAN-TO ROOF- IS CONSIDERED AS THE SIMPLEST FORM OF ROOF CONSISTING OF ONE SINGLE SLOPE.

GABLE OR PITCH ROOF- THE MOST COMMON TYPE AND ECONOMICAL FORM OF ROOF MADE OF TRIANGULAR SECTIONS CONSISTING OF TWO SLOPES MEETING AT THE CENTER OF THE RIDGE FORMING A GABLE.

SAW TOOTH ROOF- IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHED MADE INTO A SERIES TO LEAN-TO ROOF COVERING ONE BUILDING. THIS IS COMMONLY USED ON FACTORIES WHERE EXTRA LIGHT IS REQUIRED THROUGH THE WINDOW ON A VERTICAL SIDE.

DOUBLE GABLE ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF A GABLE OR A HIP AND VALLEY ROOF.

HIP ROOF- IS ALSO A COMMON FORM USED IN MODERN HOUSES HAVING STRAIGHT SIDES ALL SLOPING TOWARD THE CENTER OF THE BUILDING TERMINATING AT THE RIDGE.

HIP AND VALLEY ROOF- IS A COMBINATION OF THE HIP ROOF AND AN INTERESTING GABLE ROOF FORMING A T OR L SHAPED BUILDING. THIS TYPE OF ROOF FORM HOWEVER, HAS A VARIETY OF MODIFICATION WHICH ARE NOT ILLUSTRATED.

PYRAMID ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE HIP ROOF WHEREIN THE FOUR STAIGHT SIDES ARE SLOPING TOWARDS THE CENTER TERMINATING AT A POINT.

GAMBREL ROOF- IS A MODIFICATIN OF THE GABLE ROOF WITH EACH SIDE HAVING TWO SLOPES. BUTTERFLY ROOF- IS A TWO SHED ROOF WHERE THE SLOPE MEET AT THE CENTER OF THE BUILDING.

MANSARD ROOF- WHERE THE SIDES OF THE ROOF SLOPE STEEPLY FROM EACH SIDE OF THE BUILDING TOWARDS THE CENTER FORMING A FLAT DECK ON TOP.

FRENCH OR CONCAVE MANSARD ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE MANZARD ROOF WHERE THE SIDES ARE CONCAVE. DOME- IS A HEMISPHERICAL FORM OF ROOF USUALLY USED ON OBNSERVATORIES.

CONICAL ROOF OR SPHIRE- IS A STEEP ROOF OF CIRCULAR SECTION THAT TAPERS UNIFORMLY FROM THE CIRCULAR BASE TO A CENTRAL POINT.

TYPES OF ROOF FRAME

THE THREE TYPES OF ROOF FRAME COMMONLY USED ARE: 1. RAFTERS TYPE

2. TRUSS TYPE 3. LAMINATED TYPE

THE VARIOUS KINDS OF RAFTERS FOR ROOF CONSTRUCTIONS ARE:

 COMMON RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS EXTENDED AT RIGHT ANGLES FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS T THE RIDGE.

 HIP RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS LAID DIAGONALLY FROM THE CORNER OF A PLATE OR GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.

 VALLEY RAFTERS- RAFTERS PLACED DIAGONALLY FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS AT THE INTERSECTION OF GABLE EXTENSION WITH THE MAIN ROOF.

 OCTAGONAL RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS PLACED ON AN OCTAGONAL SHAPED PLATE AT THE CENTRAL APEX OR RIDGE POLE.

 JACK RAFTERS- ANY RAFTER WHICH DOES NOT EXTEND FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.

JACK RAFTERS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO:

1. HIT JACKS 2. VALLEY JACKS 3. CRIPLE JACKS

JACK RAFTERS FRAMED BATWEEN HIP RAFTERS AND GITS ARE CALLED HIP JACKS. THE FRAME BETWEEN THE RIDGE AND VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED VALLEY JACKS, WHILE THOSE FRAMES BETWEEN THE HIP AND THE VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED CRIPPLE JACKS.

TRUSS – IS A BUILT-UP FRAME COMMONLY EMPLOYED ON A LONG SPAN ROOF UNSUPPORTED BY INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS OR PARTITIONS. TRUSS IS A DESIGN OF A SERIES OF TRIANGLES USED TO DISTRIBUTE LOAD, STIFFEN THE STRUCTURE AND FLEXIBILITY FOR THE INTERIOR SPACING AS WELL AS STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRUSSES ARE:

LIGHT TRUSSES:

PITCHED HOWE

SCISSORS RAISED CHORD

SAWTOOTH 1 ½ STORY FRAME

FLAT UTILITY

BOWSTRING

HEAVY TRUSSES:

HOWE TRUSS BELGIAN

FINK PRATT

SCISSORS CAMBERED FINK

WARREN FLAT HOWE

SAW TOOTH FLAT PRATT

PURLINS SIZE AND SPACING:

SPAN: 2.00 SIZE: 50mm X 75mm

3.00 50mm X 100mm 3.50 50mm X 150mm 4.50 50mm X 200mm

ROOF AND ROOFING MATERIALS

THE TERM ROOF USED HERE MEANS THE TOP COVERING OF A BUILDING THAT SERVES AS A PROTECTIVE COVERING FROM THE WEATHER.

ROOFING CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE MATERIALS USED:

 FIBER  WOOD  METAL  SLATE  TILES  REINFORCED CONCRETE  PLASTICS  FIBERGLASS

METAL ROOFING – IS THE MOST COMMON MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, THIS ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:

 GALVANIZED IRON

 ALUMINUM

 TIN

 TITANIUM COPPER ZINC

 COPPER

 LEAD

AMONG THE METAL ROOFING ENUMERATED, GALVANIZED IRON SHEET IS THE MOST COMMONLY SPECIFIED CONSIDERING THE ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFER.

GALVANIZED IRON ROOFING IS EITHER PLAIN OR CORRUGATED. THE THICKNESS ARE MEASURED IN TERMS OF “GAUGE” FROM ga. 14 TO ga. 30. Gauge 26 IS THE MOST COMMONLY USED FOR ROOFING.

THE STANDARD COMMERCIAL SIZE WIDTH IS 0.80 m. WITH LENGTH THAT RANGES FROM 1.50 TO 3.60 m.

PLAIN G.I. SHEET COMMERCIAL STANDARD SIZE IS 0.90m. X 2.40m. IT’S ALSO USED FOR ROOFING, GUTTERS,FLASHING,RIDGE,HIP AND VALLEY ROLLS, DOWNSPOUT, AND STRAP FOR RIVETING.

CORR. G.I.ROOFING FASTENERS:

 NAILING

 RIVETING

 PANTILE – A ROOFING TILE WHICH HAS THE SHAPE OF “S” LAID ON IT’S SIDE.

 MISSION TILE – A CLAY ROOFING TILE, APPROX. SEMI-CYLINDRICAL IN SHAPE LAID IN COURSES WITH THE UNIT HAVING THEIR CONVEX SIDE ALTERNATELY UP AND DOWN.

 ROMAN TILE – A CHANNEL SHAPED, TAPERED, SINGLE LAP ROOPING TILE.

 GALVANIZED – ZINC COATED MATERIALS.

 A FRAME – A 3-PIECE RIGID STRUCTURAL FRAME IN THE SHAPE OF THE UPRIGHT CAPITAL “A”.

 CHORD – A PRINCIPAL MEMBER OF A TRUSS.

 BATTEN – WOOD STRIPS TO SUPPORT ROOF TILES.

 SPLIT RING – CHORD SPLICE CONNECTORS FOR TRUSSES.

FORM, SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING

FORM IS A TEMPORARY BOARDING, SHEATING OR PANS USED TO PRODUCE THE DESIRED SHAPE AND SIZE OF CONCRETE. FORMS ARE USED IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF A BUILDING ARE BUILT-UP INTO ITS SPECIFIED DIMENSIONS BY THE USE OF FORMS THAT SERVES AS MOULD FOR THE MIXED CONCRETE.

FORMS SHOULD BE WATERTIGHT, RIGID AND STRONG ENOUGH TO SUSTAIN THE WEIGHT OF CONCRETE. IT SHOULD BE SIMPLE AND ECONOMICALLY DESIGNED TO BE REMOVE EASILY AND REASSEMBLED WITHOUT DAMAGE TO THEMSELVES OR TO THE CONCRETE.

FACTORS CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION OF FORMS ARE:

 THE CONSTRUCTION AND ASSEMBLING COST

 THE NUMBER OF TIMES IT COULD BE USED

 STRENGTH AND RESISTANCE TO PRESSURE AND THE TEAR & WEAR WOOD BOARD AND PLYWOOD FORMS

WOOD FORM IS THE MOST COMMON AND WIDELY USED FORMS IN MINOR OR MAJOR CONSTRUCTION.

 PLYWOOD AS FORM IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL BOTH IN LABOR AND MATERIALS.

 PLYWOOD HAS PLAIN EVEN SURFACE WITH UNIFORM THICKNESS.

 IT OFFERS FITTED JOINTS, ELIMINATE DRESSING, PLANING OF THE SURFACE WHICH IS NORMAL TO WOODEN BOARDS FORMS.

 THE LAMINATED CROSS-GRAINED OF PLYWOOD HAS MADE THE BOARD STRONGER AND FREE FROM WARPING.

 PLYWOOD IS LIGHT-WEIGHT, HANDY AND FAST TO WORK ON.

 PRODUCE SMOOTH FINISHES OF CONCRETE THAT SOMETIMES NEED LITTLE OR NO PLASTERING AT ALL.

METAL FORM ARE SELDOM USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION BECAUSE OF THE VARIED DESIGNS AND SHAPES OF THE STRUCTURES. ALTHOUGH METAL FORMS ARE EXTENSIVELY USED ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION. METAL FORMS ARE GENERALLY MADE OUT OF G.I. SHEET, OR BLACK IRON SHEET, SUPPORTED BY FLAT AND ANGLE BARS DESIGNED TO BE ASSEMBLED AND LOCKED BE MEANS OF CLAMP, BOLTS AND NUTS.

CONSTRUCTION OF FORMS

CONCRETE WEIGHS ABOUT 2,200 TO 2,400 kg./cu.m. FORMS SHALL BE GUARDED AGAINST BULGING AND SAGGING FAILURE THAT OCCUR DURING THE PROCESS OF POURING. THE THICKNESS OF THE FORM AND THE SIZES OF THE FRAME AND RIBS DEPENDS UPON THE NATURE OF THE STRUCTURE TO BE SUPPORTED CLASSIFIED AS SMALL, MEDIUM AND MASSIVE STRUCTURE.

 SMALL STRUCTURE CONSISTING OF SMALL FOOTINGS, COLUMNS AND BEAM FOR ONE OR TWO STOREY BUILDING WHEREIN 6mm. THK. PLYWOOOD IS SATIFACTORILY USED SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.

 MEDIUM STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING CONCRETE COLUMNS, BEAMS, AND CONCRETE FLOOR SLAB GENERALLY OF 2 TO 3 STOREY HIGH. WHEREIN 6mm OR 12mm THK. PLYWOOD IS USED AS FORM SUPPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm OR 50mm X 75mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.

 MASSIVE STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING HEAVY LOADS USES FORMS OF VARIOUS THICKNESS THAT RANGE FROM 6mm TO 19mm THK. PLYWOOD SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm TO 50mm X 100mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.

TWO TYPES OF FRAMING:

 LONGITUDINAL RIB TYPE

 PERPENDICULAR RIB TYPE TYPES OF COLUMN FORMS:

 RECTANGULAR

 CIRCULAR

BEAM FORMS CONSIST OF ONE BOTTOM FORM AND A PAIR OF SIDE FORMS.

TYPES OF WALL FORMS:

 CONTINUOUS

 FULL UNIT

 LAYER UNIT

GREASING OF FORMS

THE PURPOSE OF GREASING THE FORM IS TO MAKE THE WOOD WATER PROOF, THUS PREVENTING ABSORPTION OF WATER IN THE CONCRETE WHICH CAUSES SWELLING AND WARPING. IT’S ALSO PREVENTS ADHERENCE OF CONCRETE TO THE PORES OF THE WOOD.

YOKE – IS A HORIZONTAL FRAMEWORK AROUND THE FORMWORK FOR A COLUMN. SCAFFOLDING – WORKER’S PLATFORM

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION TERMS

ENGLISH VERNACULAR ENGLISH VERNACULAR

Adobe Anchor --- Liyabe Earth Fill--- Escombro Aligned --- Kaliniya Eave --- Alero,Barakilan, Sopo Alignment --- Asintada Electrician --- Elektrista

Alternate or staggered --- Uno Sinotra Engineer --- Inhenyero Anchor --- Liyabe Exterior Siding --- Tabike Architect --- Arkitekto Faucet --- Gripo

Astragal --- Batidura Fascia Board --- Senepa Balusters --- Balustre,Barandilla Feet --- Piye Beam --- Biga Fill --- Tambak Banisters --- Barandil Filler --- Tapal, Dagdag

Barrel Bolt --- Trankilya Floor Joist --- Soleras Baseboard --- Rodapis Fillet --- Batidura Bath tub --- Baniera Flooring --- Sahig, Suelo Bolt --- Pierno Floor sill --- Guililan Bottom Chord --- Tirante, Estunyo Flush --- Alahado Brace --- Pie de Gallo Foundation or Footings- Pundasyon Brick --- Landrillo Foreman --- Kapatas,

MaestroDe Obra Canopy --- Media Agua Framework --- Balangkas

Cabinet Hinge --- Espolon Gable Roof --- Dos Aguas Carpenter --- Karpintero Girder --- Guililan Carpentry --- Karpinteria Girts or Girder --- Sepo Cast Iron --- Pundido Gravel --- Graba Ceiling --- Kisame Good Grain --- Haspe Ceiling Board --- Groobe --- Canal Ceiling Joist --- Kostil Yahe Gutter --- Alulod, canal Cement --- Semento Hand rail --- Gabay Cement Brick --- Ladrilyo Head --- Sombrero Cement Tiles --- Baldosa Hinge --- Bisagra Chain bolt --- Baral de Kadena Hip roof --- Kuatro Aguas Collar --- Sinturon Horizontal Stud --- Trabe-Anzo Column --- Kolumna,Haligue Inch --- Pulgada Concrete --- Konkreto Jamb --- Hamba Concrete Slab --- Larga Masa Joist --- Suleras

Concrete Beam --- Biga Kingpost --- Pendolum Conductor --- Alulod Laborer --- Piyon Contractor --- Kontratista Landing --- Mesa Pahingahan Corr. G.I. sheets --- Yiero Canalado Lavatory --- Lababo Galbanisado

Closed Stringer --- Escalera Laying of CHB orAdobe Stone

--- Asinta Crushed Stone --- Eskombro Lean to roof --- Sibe

Diagonal Brace --- Sinturon Level --- Lebel

Door --- Pinto Machine Bolt --- Peirno Pasante Door Fillet --- Batidora Mason --- Kantero

Door Head --- Sombrero (Pintuan) Masonry --- Kanteria Door Jamb --- Hamba Pintuan Masonry Fill --- Lastilyas Drawbore Pin or Drawpin --- Punsol Meter --- Metro Mitre or Miter --- Canto Mesa Septic Tank --- Poso Negro Mixture of Sand & Gravel --- Lastilyas Shape --- Korte

Mortar --- Paupo Sheet --- Plantsa Mortar Joists --- Kostura Shower --- Dutsha Moulding --- Moldura Sidings --- Tabika Nailers --- Pamakuan Sink --- Prigadero Nail --- Pako Sketch Plan --- Krokis Nail Setter --- Punsol Slab (rough) --- Larga Masa Newel Post --- Tukod Slope --- Bahada Nut --- Tuerka Solder --- Hinang Nicolite Bar --- Estanyo Solder Bar --- Estaniyo Oakum --- Estopa Spacing --- Biento Open Stringer --- Hardinera Split Knob --- Poleya Over Hand or Projector --- Bolada Stairs --- Hagdanan Painter --- Pintor Stake --- Staka Panel --- Bandeha Stringer (open) --- Hardinera Panellee Door --- De Bandeha Stringer --- Madre, Madrina Pattern --- Plantilya Stucco --- Palitada Pea Gravel --- Grabita Stud (vertical)--- Pilarete Pendulum (King Post) --- Pendulon Stud (horizontal) --- Pabalagbag

Pickwork --- Piketa Temper (metal work)--- Suban, Subuhan Piglead --- Tingga, Estopa Thread --- Roskas

Plain G.I. sheet --- Yiero Liso Galbanisado Tinsmith --- Latero Plain G.I. Strap --- Lingueta Tinsmithing --- Lateria Plank Board --- Senepa Top Chord --- Kilo, Tahilan

Plaster --- Palitada Transom --- Espeho

Plastered Course --- Kusturada Tread --- Baytang, Perdano Plug --- Tapon Trellise --- Pergola

Plumb Bob --- Hulog Truss --- Truss, Kilo Plumber --- Tubero Varnished --- Varnisado Plumb Line --- Hulog Vertical Stud --- Pilarete Post --- Poste, Haligue Wainscoating Tiles --- Asolehos Projection --- Bolada Washer --- Pitsa, Tsapa Purlins --- Reostra Water Closet --- Inidoro Putty --- Masilya Window --- Bintana Quarter Round --- Mediacana Window Grille --- Rehas Rabbet --- Vaciada Window Head --- Sombrero

Bintana Rafters --- Kilo Window Jamb --- Hamba Bintana Reinforcing Bar --- Cabilla, Bakal Window Sill --- Pasamano

Ridgeroll --- Caballete W.I. Strap --- Planchuela Riser --- Senepa, Takip Wiring Knob --- Poleya Silipan

Rivets --- Rimatse Wood Grain --- Haspe Roof --- Atip, Bubong Wood Plank --- Tabla Sand --- Buhangin Wrought Iron Strap --- Plantsuela Scaffolding --- Andamiyo, Plancha

Scratch Coat --- Rebokada

Screw --- Turnilyo

PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION

THE INTRODUCTION OF PRECAST-CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION WAS BROUGHT ABOUT BY BUILDING COSTS THAT HAS CONSIDERABLY INCREASED FASTER THAT MOST INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS THAT ARE AFFECTED BY THE LARGE AMOUNT OF ON-SITE LABOR INVOLVED IN THE TRADITIONAL METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION.

THE DEMAND FOR SKILLED WORKERS ON ON-SITE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IS INCREASINGLY OUTRUNNING THE SUPPLY. THE ANSWER TO THERE PROBLEMS WERE BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF CONSTRUCITON AND SUBSTITUTION OF SITE LABOR BY FACTORY PRODUCED PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE WHICH HAS RAPIDLY DEVELOPED AND GAINED IMPORTANCE.

THE CONCRETE IS CAST IN PERMANENT FORMS OF STEEL, CONCRETE, GLASS-FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTIC.

THE WET CONCRETE IS VIBRATED MECHANICALLY IN THE FORMS TO ACHIEVE MAXIMUM DENSITY AND HIGHEST SURFACE QUALITY.

CONCRETE STRENGTH IN PRECAST IS USUALLY 5000 PSI, WHILE 270,000 PSI FOR STRENGTH OF STEEL.

PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS ARE USUALLY STEAM CURED WITH THE USE OF HIGH EARLY STRENGTH CEMENT TO ENABLE A PRECAST TO REMOVE IN FORM IN 24 HOURS.

FORMS ARE CALLED CASTING BEDS. THE CASTING BEDS AVERAGE 125 METERS TO EXTEND 250 METERS IN LENGTH.

TYPES OF PRECAST STRUCTURE

WALL PANELS – THIS TYPE OF PRECAST STRUCTURE HAS NUMEROUS DESIGNS DEPENDING UPON THE ARCHITECTURAL REQUIREMENTS. THE COMMON SHAPES PRODUCED FOR ONE TO FOUR STOREY HIGH STRUCTURES ARE SECTIONS HAVING A WIDTH UP TO 2.40 m. THEY ARE USED AS CURTAIN WALLS ATTACHED TO COLUMNS AND BEAMS OR SOMETIMES AS BEARING WALLS.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WALL PANELS ARE:

1. FLAT TYPE 2. DOUBLE TEE TYPE 3. RIBBED TYPE

4. WINDOW OR MULLION TYPE

TO IMPROVE THE THERMAL INSULATION OF THE PANEL, FOAM GLASS, GLASS FIBER OR EXPANDED PLASTIC IS INSERTED BETWEEN TWO LAYERS OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE ADEQUATELY BONDED INTERCONNECTING THE TWO LAYERS TO ACT AS ONE UNIT. STRESSES IN HANDLING AND ERECTION OF THE MEMBER IS MORE THAN THAT OF THE FINISHED FILLED STRUCTURE, HENCE, CONTROL OF CRACKING IS OF GREAT IMPORTANCE.

PRECAST COLUMN SIZES ARE FROM .30 x .30m. to .60 x .60m. IN A MULTI-STOREY CONSTRUCTION, THE COLUMNS ARE MADE CONTINUOUS UP TO FOUR STORIES WHEREIN CORBELS ARE USED TO PROVIDE BEARING FOR THE BEAM. TEE COLUMN IS SOMETIMES USED TO SUPPORT DIRECTLY DOUBLE TEE FLOOR MEMBERS WITHOUT THE USE OF INTERMEDIATE MEMBERS.

PRECAST BEAMS

THE SHAPE OF PRECAST BEAMS DEPENDS UPON THE MANNER OF FRAMING. THE VARIOUS SHAPES ARE:

 RECTANGULAR BEAM

 INVERTED TEE BEAM

 L –SHAPED BEAM

 AASHTO BRIDGE GIRDER – AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS.

ROOF AND FLOOR MEMBERS

 SOLID FLAT SLAB – WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.

 HOLLOW CORE SLAB – WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.

 DOUBLE TEE – WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.

 SINGLE TEE – WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A PECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE

 ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF A PRECAST SOLID SLAB AT 1/40 OF ITS SPAN. DEPTH TYPICALLY RANGE FROM 90-200mm.

 AN 200mm PRECAST HOLLOW-CORE SLAB CAN SPAN APPROXIMATELY 7.60M., 250mm SLAB APPROX. 9.80M., AND A 300mm SLAB APPROX. 12.0M. SPAN.

 ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE DOUBLE TEES AT 1/28 OF THEIR SPAN. THE MOST COMMON DEPTHS OF DOUBLE TEES ARE 300,350,400,450,510,610, AND815mm.

 A PRECAST CONCRETE SINGLE TEE 928mm DEEP SPANS APPROXIMATELY 26.0M. AND 1142mm TEE FOR 32.0M. SPAN.

 ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE BEAMS AND GIRDERS AT 1/16 OF THEIR SPAN FOR LIGHT LOADINGS AND 1/12 OF THEIR SPAN FOR HEAVY LOADINGS. THESE RATIOS APPLY TO RECTANGULAR, INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS. THE WIDTH OF A BEAM OR GIRDER IS USUALLY ABOUT ½ ITS DEPTH. THE PROJECTING LEDGERS ON INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS ARE USUALLY 150mm WIDE AND 300mm DEEP.

 TO ESTIMATE THE SIZE OF A PRECAST CONCRETE COLUMN. ADD UP THE TOTAL ROOF AND FLOOR AREA SUPPORTED BY THE COLUMN. A 250mm. COLUMN CAN SUPPORT UP TO ABOUT 185 sq.m. OF AREA. A 300mm. COLUMN FOR 240 sq.m. AREA. A 400mm. COLUMN FOR 370 sq.m. AREA. A 500mm. COLUMN FOR 560 sq.m. AREA. A 600MM. COLUMN FOR 740 sq.m. AREA.

JOINING PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

BOLTING, WELDING, AND GROUTING ARE ALL COMMONLY EMPLOYED IN THESE CONNECTIONS. EXPOSED METAL CONNECTORS NOT COVERED BY TOPPING ARE USUALLY DRY PACKED WITH STIFF GROUT AFTER BEING JOINED, TO PROTECT THEM FROM FIRE AND CORROSION.

THE SIMPLEST JOINTS IN PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION ARE THOSE THAT RELY UPON GRAVITY BY PLACING ONE ELEMENT ON TOP OF ANOTHER, AS IS DONE WHERE SLAB ELEMENTS REST ON A BEARING WALL OR BEAM, OR WHERE A BEAM RESTS ON THE CORBEL OF A COLUMN. BEARING PADS ARE USUALLY INSERTED BETWEEN THE CONCRETE MEMBERS AT BEARING POINTS TO AVOID THE CONCRETE-TO-CONCRETE CONTACT THAT MIGHT CREATE POINTS OF HIGH STRESS. BEARING PADS ALSO ALLOW FOR EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN THE MEMBERS. FOR SOLID AND HOLLOW-CORE SLABS THESE PADS ARE STRIPS OF HIGH-DENSITY PLASTIC. UNDER ELEMENTS WITH HIGHER POINT LOADING SUCH AS TEES AND BEAMS, PADS OF SYNTHETIC RUBBER AREUSED.

PRESTRESSING OF CONCRETE

THERE ARE SEVERAL METHODS EMPLOYED IN APPLYING PRESTRESSED FORCE TO A CONCRETE BEAM:

 PRECOMPRESSING METHOD – IS A PROCESS OF USING JACKS REACTING AGAINST ABUTMENT.

 SELF-CONTAINED METHOD – THE PROCESS IS DONE BY TYING THE JACK BASE TOGETHER WITH WIRES OR CABLES LOCATED ON EACH SIDE OF THE BEAM. USUALLY THE WIRES AND CABLES ARE PRESSED THROUGH A HOLLOW CONDUIT EMBEDDED IN THE CONCRETE BEAM. ONE END OF THE TENDON IS ANCHORED AND FORCES ARE APPLIED AT THE OTHER END. AFTER ATTAINING THE DESIRED PRESTRESS FORCE, THE TENDON IS THEN WEDGED AGAINST THE CONCRETE, REMOVING THE JACK EQUIPMENT.

 BOND FRICTION – THE PRESTRESSING STRANDS ARE STRETCHED BETWEEN MASSIVE ABUTMENT PRIOR TO CASTING OF CONCRETE IN THE BEAM FORMS. AFTER THE CONCRETE HAS GAINED SUFFICIENT STRENGTH, THE JACKS ARE THEN RELEASED TRANSFERRING THE PRESTRESSED FORCE TO THE CONCRETE BY BOND AND FRICTION ALONG THE STRANDS.

THE SELF CONTAINED AND THE BOND AND FRICTION METHODS CAN GENERALLY BE CLASSIFIED AS PRE-TENSIONING OR POST-TENSIONING SYSTEM. THESE METHODS CAN BE APPLIED TO MASS PRODUCTION OF CASTING SEVERAL METERS LONG OF STRUCTURE AND CUTTING THE INDIVIDUAL BEAM OR POST TO THE DESIRED LENGTH OUT FROM THE LONG CASTING.

 THERMAL PRESTRESSING – THE STEEL IS PREHEATED BY MEANS OF ELECTRIC POWER WHICH ARE ANCHORED AGAINST THE OPPOSITE END OF THE CONCRETE BEAM. THE COOLING PROCESS PRODUCES PRESTRESS FORCE THROUGH RESTRAINED CONTRACTION.

THE CAUSES OF PRESTRESS LOSSES ARE:

1. SLIP AT ANCHORAGE

2. ELASTIC SHORTENING OF CONCRETE 3. CREEP OF CONCRETE

4. SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE 5. RELAXATION OF STEEL STRESS

6. FRICTIONAL LOSS DUE TO INTENDED OR UNINTENDED CURVATURE IN THE TENDONS.

CONCRETE FOR PRESTRESSING

CONCRETE OF HIGHER COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IS USED FOR PRESTRESSED STRUCTURES. MOST OF THE PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION SPECIFY A COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BETWEEN (4,000 to 6,000 psi) 280-422 kg/cm2 BECAUSE OF THE FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFERS.

A) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE HAS A HIGHER MODULUS OF ELASTICITY. IT MINIMIZE THE REDUCTION OF PRESTRESS LOSS.

B) INCREASING THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF THE CONCRETE MEETS THE PROBLEM OF HIGH BEARING STRESSES AT THE ENDS OF POST AND BEAM WHERE THE PRESTRESSING FORCE IS TRANSFERRED FROM THE TENDON TO THE ANCHORAGE DOWELS WHICH DIRECTLY BEARS AGAINST THE CONCRETE.

C) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE DEVELOPS STRONGER BOND PRESTRESSES TO PRETENSIONING CONSTRUCTION. D) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE GIVES HIGHER STRENGTH TO PRECAST CONSTRUCTION WHEN CURING IS CAREFULLY

CONTROLLED.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESTRESSING FORCE

PRESTRESSING FORCE COULD BE DETERMINED BY:

1. MEASURING THE TENDON ELONGATION.

2. EITHER BY CHECKING JACK PRESSURE ON A CALIBRATED GAGE OR LOAD CELL OR BY THE USED OF CALIBRATED DYNAMOMETER.

 POST TENSIONING – THE STRESSING OF UNBONDED TENDONS AFTER CONCRETE HAS CURED.

BUILDING MATERIALS

WOOD MATERIALS

WOOD HAS DURABILITY AND BEAUTY. IT HAS GREAT ABILITY TO ABSORB SHOCKS FROM SUDDEN LOAD AND LIGHT IN WEIGHT WHICH ADAPTABLE IN A COUNTLESS VARIETY OF PURPOSES.

TWO MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD:

 HARDWOOD – THESE ARE USED FOR FLOORING, STAIRS, PANELLING, FURNITURES AND INTERIOR TRIM.

PROPERTIES OF WOOD:

 HARDNESS – MEASURED BY THE COMPRESSION, WHICH A PIECE UNDERGOES WHEN A WEIGHT IS APPLIED.

 FLEXIBILITY – THE AMOUNT A PIECE WILL BEND BEFORE BREAKING.

 STRENGTH – TO THE GRAIN.

 DURABILITY – THE RELATIVE VALUE / LIFESPAN OF WOOD.

DEFECTS OF LUMBER:

 DECAY – CAUSED BY THE ATTACKED OF FUNGI.

 CHECKS – CRACKS OR LENGTH WISE SEPARATION ACROSS THE ANNUAL RINGS OF GROWTH.

 KNOTS – IRREGULAR GROWTHS IN THE BODY WHICH INTERRUPS SMOOTH CURVE.

 PITCH POCKETS – WELL REFINED OPENINGS BETWEEN ANNUAL RINGS CONTAINING SOLID OR LIQUID PITCH.

 WANE – IS THE LACK OF WOOD ON THE EDGE OR CORNER OF A PIECE.

TYPES OF WARPING:

 CUPPING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS CONVEX/CONCAVE ACROSS THE BOARD.

 BOWING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS CONVEX/CONCAVE LONGITUDINALLY.

 TWISTING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH ONE CORNER IS RAISED.

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

 STRIPS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN 8” WIDE.

 BOARDS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND AT LEAST 8” WIDE.

 DIMENSION LUMBER – PIECES MORE THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN 5” IN ANY DIMENSION.

 TIMBER – PIECES 4” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.

THREE CATEGORIES OF LUMBER:

 YARD LUMBER – USED FOR ORDINARY LIGHT CONSTRUCTION AND FINISHING WORK. COMMONLY USED FOR FLOORING, PLANK SIDING, TRIM AND MOULDING.

 SHOP LUMBER – IT IS INTENDED FOR USE IN SHOPS OR IN MILLS MAKING SASH, DOORS, AND CABINETS.

 STRUCTURAL LUMBER – IS INTENDED FOR USE IN HEAVY CONSTRUCTION FOR LOAD-BEARING PURPOSES AND IS CUT INTO TIMBERS OF LARGER SIZE.

WOOD GRAIN:

 EDGE GRAIN – ANNUAL RINGS RUN APPROX. AT RIGHT ANGLE TO THE FACE.

 FLAT GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS RUN MORE OR LESS PARALLEL TO THE SURFACE.

 ANGLE GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS ARE AT ABOUT 45 DEG. TO THE FACE.

SEASONING OF LUMBER:

 AIR DRYING – LUMBER IS STRIP-PILED AT ASLOPE ON ASOLID FOUNDATION. THIS ALLOWS AIR TO CIRCULATE AROUND EVERY PIECE WHILE THE SLOPING ALOOWS WATER TO RUN OFF QUICKLY.

 KILN-DRYING – MORE EXPENSIVE LUMBER WHICH IS REQUIRED FOR MORE REFINED USES SO AS WOOD WILL NOT MOVE. IT MUST BE DRIED TO A MOISTURE CONTENT OF NOT MORE THAN 5 TO 10 PERCENT. THIS IS DONE IN AN AIRTIGHT STRUCTURE SCIENTIFICALLY HEATED BY STEAM PIPES IN WHICH THE LUMBER IS ARTIFICIALLY DRIED TO THE CORRECT MOISTURE CONTENT.

MANUFACTURE BOARDS:

MANUFACTURED BOARDS ARE MADE OF WOOD BUT DOES NOT APPEAR IN THEIR NATURAL STATE. THIS TYPE OF

BUILDING MATERIALS CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS A TYPE OF LUMBER AS THEY ARE THE BY-PRODUCT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF LUMBER. THE COMPLETE UTILIZATION OF WOOD HAS LEAD TO AN EXPANDED FIELD OF MANUFACTURED BOARDS.

TYPES OF BOARDS:

 PLYWOOD – IS MADE OF AN ODD NUMBER VENEER SHEETS GLUED TOGETHER WITH THE GRAINS RUNNING AT RIGHT ANGLE TO EACH OTHER. IT IS LIGHT IN WEIGHT AND STRONG THAT SCREW OR NAIL CAN BE DRIVEN CLOSE TO THE EDGES WITHOUT DANGER OF SPLITTING.

THE DIFF. TYPES OF PLYWOOD:

 SOFT PLYWOOD - THE MOST COMMON FOR STRUCTURAL USE

 HARDWOOD PLYWOOD – ARE USED FOR PANELLING AND FINSHING WHERE USUALLY ON ONE FACE IS HARD FINISHED.

 EXTERIOR OR MARINE PLYWOOD – IS MADE FOR EXTERNAL USE.

 HARDBOARD – IS MADE FROM WOOD CHIPS WHICH ARE EXPLODED INTO FIBERS UNDER STREAM OF HIGH PRESSURE. THE LINING IN THE WOOD ITSELF BINDS PRESSED WOOD TOGETHER WITH NO FILLERS OR ARTIFICIAL ADHESIVES APPLIED. PRESSED WOOD IS EQUALLY STRONG IN ALL DIRECTIONS BUT VERY BRITTLE. ITS COLOR VARIES FROM LIGHT TO DARK BROWN.

 PARTICLE BOARD – IS MANUFACTURES FROM WOOD CHIPS, CURLS, FIBERS, FLAKES, STRANDS, SHAVING, SLIVERS ETC. BOUND TOGETHER AND PRESSED INTO SHEETS AND OTHER MOLDED SHAPED. PARTICLE BOARD HAS EQUAL STRENGTH IN ALL DIRECTION OF A GIVEN CROSS SECTIONAL AREA, IT IS NOT BRITTLE AND CAN RESIST WARPING.

MASONRY

MASONRY REFERS TO A MAN-MADE UNITS WHICH ARE FORMED AND HARDENED INTO MODULAR BUILDING UNITS.

BASIC BRICKWORK TERMINOLOGY:

 COURSE – IS A HORIZONTAL LAYER OF BRICKS OR OTHER MASONRY UNITS.

 BED JOINT – IS THE HORIZONTAL MORTAR IN EVERY COURSE.

 HEAD JOINT – IS THE VERTICAL MORTAR IN EVERY MASONRY UNIT.

 STRETCHER IS A BRICK LAID WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL AND ITS LONG DIMENSION HORIZONTAL.

 HEADER – IS A BRICK LAID SO AS TO BOND TWO WYTHES TOGETHER.

 WYTHE – IS A VERTICAL LAYER OF MASONRY UNITS, ONE UNIT THICK.

 SOLDIER – IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS END WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL.

 ROWLOCK – IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS FACE WITH ITS END VISIBLE IN THE WALL FACE. STRUCTURAL BONDS FOR BRICKWORK:

 RUNNING BOND CONSISTS ENTIRELY OF STRETCHERS.

 COMMON BOND HAS A HEADER COURSE EVERY SIXTH COURSE

 ENGLISH BOND ALTERNATES COURSES OF HEADERS AND STRETCHERS.

 FLEMISH BOND ALTERNATES HEADERS AND STRETCHERS IN EACH COURSE.

JOINT TOOLING PROFILES FOR BRICKWORK:

WEATHERED JOINT CONCAVE JOINT VEE JOINT

FLUCH JOINT RAKED JOINT STRIPPED JOINT

REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY

A REINFORCED BRICK WALL IS CREATED BY CONSTRUCTING TWO WYTHES OF BRICK 50 –100mm APART, PLACING THE REINFORCING STEEL IN THE CAVITY, AND FILLING CAVITY WITH GROUT. GROUT IS A MIXTURE OF CEMENT, AGGREGATES, AND WATER.

BRICK BOUNDS

 THE METHOD OF LAYING BRICKS IN A WALL IN ORDER TO FORM SOME DISTINCTIVE PATTERN OR DESIGN IS REFERRED TO AS THE PATTERN BOND.

 THE METHOD BY WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL UNITS IN A BRICK STRUCTURE ARE TIED TOGETHER EITHER BY OVERLAPPING OR BY METAL TIES IS KNOWN AS THE STRUCTURAL BOND.

 THE ADHESION OF MORTAR TO BRICKS OR TO STEEL REINFORCEMENT USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THEM IS CALLED THE MORTAR BOND.

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS:

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS ARE CLASSIFIED AS BEARING AND NON-BEARING BLOCKS. LOAD BEARING BLOCKS ARE THOSE WHOSE THICKNESS RANGES FROM 15 CM. TO 20 CM. AND ARE USED TO CARRY LOAD ASIDE FROM ITS OWN WEIGHT. NON-BEARING BLOCKS ON THE OTHER HAND, ARE BLOCKS WHICH ARE INTENDED FOR WALLS, PARTITIONS, FENCES OR DIVIDERS CARRYING ITS OWN WEIGHT WHOSE THICKNESS RANGES FROM 7.5 CM. TO 10 CM.

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS HAS THREE CELLS AND TWO ONE HALF CELLS AT BOTH ENDS HAVING A TOTAL OF FOUR.

CONCRETE

PORTLAND CEMENT

MADE FROM MATERIALS WHICH MUST CONTAIN IN THE PROPER PROPORTIONS OF LIME, SILICA, ALUMINA AND IRON COMPONENTS. FOUR PARTS OF LIMESTONE TO ONE PART CLAY ARE BASIC INGREDIENTS. THESE ARE MIXED, BURNED THEN PULVERIZED. PORTLAND CEMENT IS SOLD EITHER IN CEMENT BAGS OF 40 & 50 KILOS WEIGHT OR IN BULK INTO CEMENT TRUCKS.

SPECIAL CEMENTS

 WHITE PORTLAND CEMENT – SAME MATERIALS AS NORMAL PORTLAND EXCEPT IN COLOR. THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS IS CONTROLLED TO PRODUCE A PURE WHITE, NON-STAINING CEMENT. IT IS USED PRIMARILY FOR ARCHITECTURAL PURPOSES SUCH AS CURTAIN WALL AND FACING PANELS, DECORATIVE CONCRETE STUCCO AND TILE GROUT, OR WHEREVER WHITE OR COLORED CONCRETE OR MORTAR IS SPECIFIED.

 MASONRY CEMENT OR TILE ADHESIVES – HAS BEEN SPECIALLY DESIGNED TO PRODUCE BETTER MORTAR THAN THAT MADE WITH NORMAL PORTLAND CEMENT OR WITH A LIME-CEMENT HAS PARTICULARLY GOOD PLASTICITY AND WORKABILITY, GOOD ADHESION AND BOND.

 WATERPROOFED PORTLAND CEMENT – NORMALLY PRODUCED BY ADDING A SMALL AMOUNT OF STEARATE, USUALLY CALCIUM OR ALUMINUM TO THE CEMENT CLINKER DURING THE FINAL GRINDING.

TYPES OF AGGREGATES USED IN CONCRETE

CONCRETE CAN BE CONSIDERED TO BE AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE BY BINDING TOGETHER PARTICLES OF SOME INERT MATERIAL WITH A PASTE MADE OF CEMENT AND WATER. THESE INERT MATERIAL ARE THE AGGREGATE. AGGREGATES USED ARE SAND, GRAVEL CRUSHED STONE, CINDER. CRUSHED FURNACE SLAG, BURNED CLAY, EXPANDED VERMICULITE, AND PERLITE.

SAND - FOUND IN RIVERBEDS, FREE OF SALT AND MUST BE WASHED.

FINE AGGREGATE - ¼” AND SMALLER DIAMETER STONES. COARSE AGGREGATE - BIGGER THAN ¼” DIAMETER STONES.

CONCRETE MIXES

CLASS “AA” - 1: 1 ½: 3 - CONCRETE UNDER WATER, RETAINING WALLS

CLASS A - 1:2:4 - FOOTINGS, COLUMNS BEAMS, R.C. SLABS

CLASS B - 1: 2 1/ 2:5- SLAB ON FILL, NON BEARING WALLS CLASS C - 1: 3: 6 - CONCRETE PLANT BOXES, ETC.

CONTROL OF CONCRETE MIXES

SLUMP TEST- WHEN FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE IS CHECKED TO ENSURE THAT THE SPECIFIED SLUMP IS BEING ATTAINED CONSISTENTLY. A STANDARD SLUMP CONE IS 12 INCHES HIGH (0.30) AND 8 INCHES (O.20) IN DIAMETER AT THE BOTTOM AND 4 INCHES (O.10) ON TOP WHICH IS OPEN ON BOTH ENDS.

THE CONE IS FILLED IN THREE EQUAL LAYERS, EACH BEING TAMPED OR RODDED 25 TIMES WITH A STANDARD 5/8” BULLET NOSED ROD. WHEN THE CONE HAS BEEN FILLED AND LEVELED OFF, IT IS LIFTED CAREFULLY AND THE AMOUNT OF SLUMP IS MEASURED.

ALLOWABLE DEFLECTION ‘X’

BEAMS AND COLUMNS 7.5 cm. (.075) 3”

SLABS AND TUNNEL INVERTS 5.0 cm. (.50) 2” TOPS AND WALL, PIERS, PARAPET & CURBS 5.0 cm. (.50) 2” SIDE WALLS AND ARCH IN TUNNEL LINING 10.0 cm. (.10) 4”

CANAL LINING 7.5 cm. (.075) 3” HEAVY MASS CONSTRUCTION 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST- COMMON QUALITY-CONTROL TEST OF CONCRETE, BASED ON 7 AND 28 DAYS CURING PERIODS. SPECIMENS ARE USUALLY CYLINDRICAL WITH A LENGHT EQUAL TO TWICE THE DIAMETER. STANDARD SIZE IS 12 INCH. HIGH AND 6 INCH. DIAMETER. FILLING IS DONE THE SAME WAY AS THE SLUMP TEST BUT TAKEN OUT FROM THE MOLD IN 24 HOURS. IT IS THEN SENT TO A COMPRESSION TESTING LABORATORY, BY MAKING THE CYLINDER WHILE STILL WET. SOME COMPRESSIVE STRESSES ARE 2,000 psi, 2,500 psi, 3,000 psi.

SOME OF THE BRANDS OF PORTLAND CEMENT

 ISLAND CEMENT  CONTINENTAL CEMENT  HI- CEMENT  UNION CEMENT  RIZAL CEMENT  FILIPINAS CEMENT  PACIFIC CEMENT  FORTUNE CEMENT  REPUBLIC CEMENT  NORTHERN CEMENT

BRANDS OF WHITE CEMENT

 PRIME WHITE CEMENT

 KEENE

 SNOWCRETE

 MORTAR – CEMENT, SAND & WATER.

 GROUT – CEMENT AND WATER MIXTURE.

 CONCRETE – CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL & WATER.

 TYROLEAN FINISH – ROUGH PLASTER FINISH OBTAINED BY FLINGING PLASTER ON A WALL W/ A HAND OPERATED MACHINE.

 EFFLORESCENCE – AN ENCRUSTATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS CAUSED BY FREE ALKALIES LEACHED FROM MORTAR OR ADJACENT CONCRETE AS MOISTURE MOVE THROUGH IT.

 ADIABATIC CURING - THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR W/O THE GAIN OR LOSS OF HEAT DURING THE CURING PERIOD.

 WHEATHERED – MOST WATERPROOFED TYPE OF MORTAR JOINTS FOR WALLS.

 ADOBE BRICK – LARGE ROUGHLY MOULDED SUN DRIED CLAY BRICKS OF VARYING SIZES.

 ASHLAR BRICK – A BRICK WHOSE FACE HAS BEEN HACKED TO RESEMBLE ROUGHLY HACKED STONE.

 RETARDER – AN ADMIXTURE WHICH DELAY THE SETTING OF CEMENT PASTE OR MIXTURES/ AN ADDITIVE MIXED WITH PLASTER TO CONTROL THE RATE OF HARDENING.

 STEAM CURING – THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR IN WATER VAPOR AT AN ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AT EITHER ATMOSPHERIC OR HIGH PRESSURE.

 QUOIN / COIN – IN MASONRY, A HARD STONE OR BRICK USED TO REINFORCE AN EXTERNAL CORNER OF A WALL.

 ZOCALO – LOW WALL AROUND A CHALET-TYPE HOUSE.

 FORTIFICATION – THA WALL OF INTRAMUROS.

 SCRATCH COAT – INITIAL SCORED LAYER OF PLASTER WORK.

 CINDER BLOCK – A LIGHT WEIGHT MASONRY UNIT MADE OF CINDER CONCRETE.

 MORTAR FOR BLOCK LAYING IS 0.0125 m.

 PLASTERING THICKNESS IS 0.016 m.

 MORTAR FILLER FOR HOLLOW CELL 0.05 X 0.075 X 0.20 = 0.00075 cu.m. FOR 4 CELL/BLOCK = 0.00075 X 4 = 0.003 cu.m. FOR 4” CHB.

FERROUS AND NONFERROUS METALS

FERROUS- METAL IN WHICH IRON IS THE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT. NONFERROUS- CONTAINING NO, OR VERY LITTLE IRON.

STEEL- A MALLEABLE ALLOY OF IRON AND CARBON PRODUCED BY MELTING AND REFINING PIG IRON AND/ OR SCRAP STEEL, GRADED ACCORDING TO THE CARBON CONTENT.

PRODUCE BY THREE BASIC RAW MATERIALS, IRON ORE, AND LIMESTONE. FIVE PARTICLES OF ALL THREE BASIC INGREDIENTS OF STEEL, WHICH OTHERWISE WOULD BE WASTE, ARE BLENDED AND BURNED ON A MOVING GATE TO CAUSE THE FORMATION OF CLINKERS. THESE ARE CALLED SINTER, A HIGH- GRADE BLAST-FURNANCE CHARGE MATERIAL.

FROM THESE, RAW MATERIALS WHICH IS MELTED INTO INGOTS PLACE IN MOLDS, A GRAT VARIETY OF PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION ARE MADE. THEY INCLUDED:

 COLD-ROLLED SHEETS ARE GALVANIZED (GIVEN A ZINC COATING). PIG IRON IS USED TO MAKE CAST IRON WHICH IS HIGH IN COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT BUT LOW IN TENSILE STRENGHT, AND HAS LITTLE USE FOR CONSTRUCTION. HOWEVER SINCE IT IS CHEAP AND EASY TO CAST, IT IS USED FOR PUMPS, MOTORS, ENGINES AND BECAUSE OF ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE IT IS USED FOR PIPES TO SOME EXTENT.

 WROUGHT IRON IS PRODUCED WHEN PIG IRON IS MELTED IN SUCH A WAY AS TO REMOVE NEARLY ALL OF THE CARBON AND OTHER IMPURITIES. IT IS EASILY WORKED AND IS TOUGH AND DUCTILE. IT’S MAIN USES ARE FOR WIRE AND METAL ORNAMENTS.

 STAINLESS STEELS ARE MADE WITH CHROMIUM OR A COMBINATION OF NICKEL AND CHROMIUM USED IN BUILDINGS OF EXTERIOR WALLS PANELS, FRAMES FOR DOORS EXPANSION JOINTS, FLASHING, COPINGS, FASCIA AND GRAVEL STOPS.

 COPPER- BEARING STEEL HAS HIGH RESISTANCE TO CORROSION AND IS USED FOR MAKING SHEET STEEL AND METAL LATH.

STEEL PRODUCTS

 ROLLED STRUCTURAL SHAPES

 SHEET PILING- SECTIONS ARE MADE TO INTERLOCK AND ARE AVAILABLE IN SEVERAL SHAPE.

 STEEL PIPE- SEAMLESS OR WELDED SMALL DIAMETER PIPE AND ELECTRICALLY WELDED LARGE DIAMETER PIPE.

 REINFORCING STEEL- MADE FROM NEW STEEL OR FROM DISCARDED RAILWAY- CAR AXLES OR RAILS.

REINFORCING STEEL COMES IN PLAIN OR DEFORMED BARS, THAT IS, BARS WHICH HAVE LUGS OR DEFORMATIONS ROLLED ON THE SURFACE TO PROVIDE ARCHORAGE IN CONCRETE.

SIZES-START WITH NO.2 OR ¼ in. (DIVIDE A NUMBER OF BAR BY 8 TO GET THE EQUIVALENT IN inch DIAMETER)

No. 2= ¼ “ = 6 mm. No. 3= 3/8” = 10 mm. No. 4= ½” = 12mm. No. 5= 5/8” = 16mm.

No. 6= ¾” = 20mm. No. 7= 7/8” = 22mm. No. 8= 1” = 25mm. No. 9= 1 1/8 = 30mm.

 WELDED WIRE FABRIC- ANOTHER TYPE OF REINFORCING MATERIAL. IT CONSISTS OF PARALLEL, LONGITUDINAL WIRES WELDED TO TRANSVERSE WIRES AT REGULAR INTERVALS.

 STEEL WIRE – OVER 150,000 USES FOR WIRE INCLUDING PINS, NEEDLES, NAILS, BOLTS, CABLES, PIANO WIRE, FENCES.

 BOLTS AND NUTS – (EITHER HOT FORGED OR COLD-FORMED FROM WIRE OF THE APPROPRIATE DIAMETER). FOR BOLTS, WIRE IS FED INTO AN AUTOMATIC BOLT-MAKING MACHINE WHICH CUTS TO LENGTH HEADS, TRIMS, POINTS, AND IN MANY ROLLS THE THREAD.

 STEEL STRAPPING – MADE FROM HIGH-TENSILE FLAT WIRE IN A NUMBER OF SIZES. USED FOR BANDING COLUMN FORMS TO KEEP THEM FROM BULGING UNDER THE PRESSURE OF FRESHLY POURED CONCRETE. A TIGHTERNER TIGHTENS IT AND THE TWO LAPPED ENDS IS SEALED.

 OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS – LIGHTWEIGHT WARREN-TYPE TRUSSES MADE IN SEVERAL DIFFERENT STYLES.

 SHEET STEEL – BLACK AND GALVANIZED, CAN BE USED TO MANUFACTURE CORRUGATED ROOFING AND SIDING AND FORMED STEEL DECKING.

 STEEL STUDS – LIGHTWEIGHT, REQUIRING MINIMUM STORAGE SPACE AND DOES NOT WARP OR SHRINK. FASTENERS DO NOT POP, AND JOINTS STAY CLOSED. MUCH FASTER TO INSTALL THAN WOOD STUD INSTALLATION. AVAILABLE IN 1 5/8, 2 ½ AND 3 5/8 INCHES. PLUMBING STACKS AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS FIT EASILY INTO A STEEL-FRAMEWALL.

 PANS AND DONES – MANUFACTURED FOR USE IN FORMING ONE-WAY AND TWO-WAY RIBBED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS.

NONFERROUS METALS:

ALUMINUM – ITS ORE, BAUXITE, REQUIRES 10 KILOWATT HOURS FOR EACH POUND OF METAL ALUMINUM EXTRACTED. THE REDDISH BROWN ORE IS WASHED AND TREATED IN A SODA SOLUTION TO YIELD A CHALKY-WHITE POWDER CALLED ALUMNA, CONTAINING A HIGH CONCENTRATION OF ALUMINUM.

ALUMINUM FOIL – USED AS A VAPOR BARRIER ON WALLS AND CEILINGS AND AS REFLECTIVE INSULATION.

COPPER – A LUSTROUS REDDISH METAL, HIGHLY DUCTILE AND MALLEABLE; HAS HIGH TENSILE STRENGTH, IS AN EXCELLENT ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL CONDUCTOR, IS AVAILABLE IN A WIDE VARIETY OF SHAPES; WIDELY USED FOR DOWNSPOUTS, ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS, FLASHINGS GUTTERS, ROOFING, ETC.

COPPER ALLOYS ARE BRASSES, AND BRONZES WHICH CONTAIN PRIMARILY ZINC AND TIN, RESPECTIVELY, AND THE ALLOYS CONTAINING NICKEL.

BRASSES ARE USED IN ARCHITECTURAL AND HARDWARE APPLICTIONS. BRONZES ARE USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF SPRINGS.

LEAD – A SOFT, MALLEABLE, HEAVY METAL; HAS LOW MELTING POINT AND A HIGH COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION. VERY EASY TO CUT AND WORK, ENABLING IT TO BE FITTED OVER UNEVEN SURFACES. USED FOR ROOFING, FLASHING AND SPANDREL WALL PANELS.

TIN – A LUSTROUS WHITE, SOFT AND MALLEABLE METAL HAVING A LOW MELTING POINT; RELATIVELY UNAFFECTED BY EXPOSURE TO AIR; USED FOR MAKING ALLOYS AND SOLDER AND IN COATING SHEET METAL.

STRUCTURAL SHAPES

THE MOST COMMON SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ARE THE AMERICAN STANDARD FORMS SUCH AS:

1. SQUARE BARS 6. I-BEAM 2. ROUND BARS 7. TEE BEAM 3. PLATE BARS 8. H-COLUMN 4. ANGLE BARS 9. WIDE FLANGES 5. CHANNELS 10. ZEE

STANDARD CHANNEL

THE STANDARD CHANNEL HAS THE SHAPE OF UNSYMMETRICAL BALANCE CONSISTING OF TWO FLANGES ON ONE SIDE. IT THEREFORE REQUIRES LATERAL SUPPORT TO PREVENT ITS TENDENCY TO BUCKLE. THE STANDARD CHANNELS ARE GENERALLY USED AS ELEMENTS OF BUILT-UP SECTIONS FOR COLUMNS AND ARE ALSO SUITABLE FOR FRAMING AROUND FLOOR OPENINGS, SPANDRELS, AND LINTELS ATTRIBUTED TO THE ABSENCE OF FLANGE ON THE OTHER SIDE. THE CHANNEL SECTION IS IDENTIFIRD AS C 15 x 20 WHICH MEANS THAT THE CHANNEL HAS A DEPTH OF 20 cm. AND WEIGHTS 15 kg. PER METER LENGTH.

WIDE FLANGE

WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE DESIGNATED AS W 12 x 24 WHICH MEANS THAT THE FLANGE HAS A DEPTH OF 24 cm. AND IT WEIGHS 12 kg. PER METER LENGTH. ALL WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE GENERALLY WITH PARALLEL FACE FLANGE EXCEPT THOSE WITH 5% SLOPE INSIDE FACE PRODUCED BY BETLEHEM STEEL COMPANY. COMPARATIVELY, WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE MORE EFFICIENT THAN STANDARD I BEAM WITH RESPECT TO BENDING RESISTANCE.

STANDARD I-BEAM

THE USE OF I-BEAM AS A COLUMN IS UNECONOMICAL, BECAUSE THE WHIRL OR REVOLVING ACTION OF THE STRUCTURE ABOUT AN AXIS THROUGH THE CENTROID PARALLEL TO THE WAB OF THE I-BEAM IS COMPARATIVELY SMALL.

H-BEARING PILES

H-BEARING PILES ALTHOUGH SUITABLE FOR PILE DRIVING ON DEEP EXCAVATIONS IS MUCH MORE SUITABLE THAN THE I-BEAM FOR COLUMNS.