SQL Server Notes

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SQL Server

SQL Tutorial

SQL stands for Structured Query Language.

SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.

In this tutorial you will learn how to use SQL to access and manipulate data in MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL, Oracle, Sybase, DB2, and other database systems.

Start learning SQL now!

SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.

What is SQL?

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SQL stands for Structured Query Language

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SQL lets you access and manipulate databases

•

SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard

What Can SQL do?

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SQL can execute queries against a database

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SQL can retrieve data from a database

•

SQL can insert records in a database

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SQL can update records in a database

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SQL can delete records from a database

•

SQL can create new databases

•

SQL can create new tables in a database

•

SQL can create stored procedures in a database

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SQL can create views in a database

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SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

SQL is a Standard - BUT....

Although SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard, there are many different versions of the SQL language.

However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the major commands (such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE) in a similar manner.

Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary extensions in addition to the SQL standard!

Using SQL in Your Web Site

To build a web site that shows some data from a database, you will need the following:

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A database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)

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A server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP

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HTML / CSS

Try it Yourself

To see how SQL works, you can copy the SQL statements below and paste them into the text area, or you can make your own SQL statements.

SELECT * FROM customers

SELECT CompanyName, ContactName

FROM customers

SELECT * FROM customers

WHERE companyname LIKE 'a%'

SELECT CompanyName, ContactName

FROM customers

WHERE CompanyName > 'a'

When using SQL on text data, "alfred" is greater than "a" (like in a dictionary).

SELECT CompanyName, ContactName

FROM customers

WHERE CompanyName > 'g'

AND ContactName > 'g'

SQL Quick Reference

An SQL Quick Reference. Print it, fold it, and put it in your pocket.

SQL Syntax

Statement Syntax

AND / OR SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name WHERE condition AND|OR condition

ALTER TABLE (add column) ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype ALTER TABLE (drop column) ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name

AS (alias for column) SELECT column_name AS column_alias FROM table_name

AS (alias for table) SELECT column_name

FROM table_name AS table_alias

BETWEEN SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2 CREATE DATABASE CREATE DATABASE database_name CREATE INDEX CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name) CREATE TABLE CREATE TABLE table_name

(

column_name1 data_type, column_name2 data_type, ...

)

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name)

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CREATE VIEW CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition

DELETE FROM DELETE FROM table_name (Note: Deletes the entire table!!) or

DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition

DROP DATABASE DROP DATABASE database_name DROP INDEX DROP INDEX table_name.index_name DROP TABLE DROP TABLE table_name

GROUP BY SELECT column_name1,SUM(column_name2) FROM table_name

GROUP BY column_name1

HAVING SELECT column_name1,SUM(column_name2) FROM table_name

GROUP BY column_name1

HAVING SUM(column_name2) condition value

IN SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,..) INSERT INTO INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2,....) or

INSERT INTO table_name

(column_name1, column_name2,...) VALUES (value1, value2,....)

LIKE SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name WHERE column_name LIKE pattern

ORDER BY SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name

ORDER BY column_name [ASC|DESC]

SELECT SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name

SELECT * SELECT *

FROM table_name

SELECT DISTINCT SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s) FROM table_name

SELECT INTO

(used to create backup copies of tables) SELECT * INTO new_table_name FROM original_table_name or SELECT column_name(s) INTO new_table_name FROM original_table_name TRUNCATE TABLE

(deletes only the data inside the table)

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name

UPDATE UPDATE table_name

SET column_name=new_value [, column_name=new_value]

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WHERE column_name=some_value

WHERE SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name WHERE condition

SQL Data Types

Data types and ranges for Microsoft Access, MySQL and SQL Server.

Microsoft Access Data Types

Data type Description Storage

Text Use for text or combinations of text and numbers. 255 characters maximum

Memo Memo is used for larger amounts of text. Stores up to 65,536 characters. Note: You cannot sort a memo field. However, they are searchable

Byte Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1 byte

Integer Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 2 bytes Long Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 4 bytes Single Single precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals 4 bytes Double Double precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals 8 bytes Currency Use for currency. Holds up to 15 digits of whole dollars, plus 4

decimal places. Tip: You can choose which country's currency to use

8 bytes

AutoNumber AutoNumber fields automatically give each record its own number, usually starting at 1

4 bytes

Date/Time Use for dates and times 8 bytes

Yes/No A logical field can be displayed as Yes/No, True/False, or On/Off. In code, use the constants True and False (equivalent to -1 and 0). Note: Null values are not allowed in Yes/No fields

1 bit

Ole Object Can store pictures, audio, video, or other BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects)

up to 1GB Hyperlink Contain links to other files, including web pages

Lookup Wizard Let you type a list of options, which can then be chosen from a

drop-down list 4 bytes

MySQL Data Types

In MySQL there are three main types : text, number, and Date/Time types. Text types:

Data type Description

CHAR(size) Holds a fixed length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters). The fixed size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters

VARCHAR(size) Holds a variable length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters). The maximum size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters. Note: If you put a greater value than 255 it will be converted to a TEXT type

TINYTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters TEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535 characters

BLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 65,535 bytes of data MEDIUMTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 characters

MEDIUMBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 16,777,215 bytes of data LONGTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295 characters

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ENUM(x,y,z,etc.) Let you enter a list of possible values. You can list up to 65535 values in an ENUM list. If a value is inserted that is not in the list, a blank value will be inserted.

Note: The values are sorted in the order you enter them. You enter the possible values in this format: ENUM('X','Y','Z')

SET Similar to ENUM except that SET may contain up to 64 list items and can store more than one choice

Number types:

TINYINT(size) -128 to 127 normal. 0 to 255 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis

SMALLINT(size) -32768 to 32767 normal. 0 to 65535 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis

MEDIUMINT(size) -8388608 to 8388607 normal. 0 to 16777215 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis

INT(size) -2147483648 to 2147483647 normal. 0 to 4294967295 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis

BIGINT(size) -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807 normal. 0 to

18446744073709551615 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis

FLOAT(size,d) A small number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter

DOUBLE(size,d) A large number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter

DECIMAL(size,d) A DOUBLE stored as a string , allowing for a fixed decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter

*The integer types have an extra option called UNSIGNED. Normally, the integer goes from an negative to positive value. Adding the UNSIGNED attribute will move that range up so it starts at zero instead of a negative number.

Date types:

DATE() A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD

Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01' to '9999-12-31' DATETIME() *A date and time combination. Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS

Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01 00:00:00' to '9999-12-31 23:59:59'

TIMESTAMP() *A timestamp. TIMESTAMP values are stored as the number of seconds since the Unix epoch ('1970-01-01 00:00:00' UTC). Format: YYYY-MM-DD

HH:MM:SS

Note: The supported range is from '1970-01-01 00:00:01' UTC to '2038-01-09 03:14:07' UTC

TIME() A time. Format: HH:MM:SS

Note: The supported range is from '-838:59:59' to '838:59:59' YEAR() A year in two-digit or four-digit format.

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Note: Values allowed in four-digit format: 1901 to 2155. Values allowed in two-digit format: 70 to 69, representing years from 1970 to 2069

*Even if DATETIME and TIMESTAMP return the same format, they work very differently. In an INSERT or UPDATE query, the TIMESTAMP automatically set itself to the current date and time. TIMESTAMP also accepts various formats, like YYYYMMDDHHMMSS, YYMMDDHHMMSS,

YYYYMMDD, or YYMMDD.

SQL Server Data Types

Character strings:

char(n) Fixed-length character string. Maximum 8,000 characters n varchar(n) Variable-length character string. Maximum 8,000 characters

varchar(max) Variable-length character string. Maximum 1,073,741,824 characters

text Variable-length character string. Maximum 2GB of text data Unicode strings:

nchar(n) Fixed-length Unicode data. Maximum 4,000 characters nvarchar(n) Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 4,000 characters nvarchar(max) Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 536,870,912 characters ntext Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 2GB of text data Binary types:

bit Allows 0, 1, or NULL

binary(n) Fixed-length binary data. Maximum 8,000 bytes varbinary(n) Variable-length binary data. Maximum 8,000 bytes varbinary(max) Variable-length binary data. Maximum 2GB image Variable-length binary data. Maximum 2GB Number types:

tinyint Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1 byte

smallint Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 2 bytes int Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 4 bytes bigint Allows whole numbers between -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 and

9,223,372,036,854,775,807

8 bytes decimal(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers.

Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1.

The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that can be stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p must be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.

The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0

5-17 bytes

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numeric(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers.

Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1.

The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that can be stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p must be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.

The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0

5-17 bytes

smallmoney Monetary data from -214,748.3648 to 214,748.3647 4 bytes money Monetary data from -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to

922,337,203,685,477.5807

8 bytes float(n) Floating precision number data from -1.79E + 308 to 1.79E + 308.

The n parameter indicates whether the field should hold 4 or 8 bytes. float(24) holds a 4-byte field and float(53) holds an 8-byte field. Default value of n is 53.

4 or 8 bytes

real Floating precision number data from -3.40E + 38 to 3.40E + 38 4 bytes Date types:

datetime From January 1, 1753 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 3.33 milliseconds

8 bytes datetime2 From January 1, 0001 and December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of

100 nanoseconds

6-8 bytes smalldatetime From January 1, 1900 to June 6, 2079 with an accuracy of 1

minute

4 bytes date Store a date only. From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 3 bytes time Store a time only to an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds 3-5 bytes datetimeoffset The same as datetime2 with the addition of a time zone offset 8-10

bytes timestamp Stores a unique number that gets updated every time a row gets

created or modified. The timestamp value is based upon an internal clock and does not correspond to real time. Each table may have only one timestamp variable

Other data types:

sql_variant Stores up to 8,000 bytes of data of various data types, except text, ntext, and timestamp

uniqueidentifier Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID) xml Stores XML formatted data. Maximum 2GB

cursor Stores a reference to a cursor used for database operations table Stores a result-set for later processing

SQL Syntax

Database Tables

A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g. "Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data.

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P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

The table above contains three records (one for each person) and five columns (P_Id, LastName, FirstName, Address, and City).

SQL Statements

Most of the actions you need to perform on a database are done with SQL statements. The following SQL statement will select all the records in the "Persons" table:

SELECT * FROM Persons

In this tutorial we will teach you all about the different SQL statements.

Keep in Mind That...

•

SQL is not case sensitive

Semicolon after SQL Statements?

Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.

Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database systems that allow more than one SQL statement to be executed in the same call to the server.

We are using MS Access and SQL Server 2000 and we do not have to put a semicolon after each SQL statement, but some database programs force you to use it.

SQL DML and DLL

SQL can be divided into two parts: The Data Manipulation Language (DML) and the Data Definition Language (DDL).

The query and update commands form the DML part of SQL:

•

SELECT - extracts data from a database

•

UPDATE - updates data in a database

•

DELETE - deletes data from a database

•

INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database

The DDL part of SQL permits database tables to be created or deleted. It also define indexes (keys), specify links between tables, and impose constraints between tables. The most important DDL statements in SQL are:

•

CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database

•

ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database

•

CREATE TABLE - creates a new table

•

ALTER TABLE - modifies a table

•

DROP TABLE - deletes a table

•

CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)

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The SQL SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a table. The result is stored in a result table, called the result-set.

SQL SELECT Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name

and

SELECT * FROM table_name

Note: SQL is not case sensitive. SELECT is the same as select.

An SQL SELECT Example

The "Persons" table:

Now we want to select the content of the columns named "LastName" and "FirstName" from the table above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT LastName,FirstName FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this:

LastName FirstName

Hansen Ola

Svendson Tove

Pettersen Kari

**SELECT * Example**

Now we want to select all the columns from the "Persons" table. We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

Tip: The asterisk (*) is a quick way of selecting all columns! The result-set will look like this:

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The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

In a table, some of the columns may contain duplicate values. This is not a problem, however, sometimes you will want to list only the different (distinct) values in a table.

The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct (different) values.

SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)

FROM table_name

SELECT DISTINCT Example

Now we want to select only the distinct values from the column named "City" from the table above.

SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Persons

City Sandnes Stavanger

The WHERE Clause

The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified criteria.

SQL WHERE Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name

WHERE column_name operator value

WHERE Clause Example

Now we want to select only the persons living in the city "Sandnes" from the table above. We use the following SELECT statement:

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SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE City='Sandnes'

Quotes Around Text Fields

SQL uses single quotes around text values (most database systems will also accept double quotes).

Although, numeric values should not be enclosed in quotes. For text values:

This is correct:

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove'

This is wrong:

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=Tove

For numeric values:

This is correct:

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year=1965

This is wrong:

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year='1965'

Operators Allowed in the WHERE Clause

With the WHERE clause, the following operators can be used: Operator Description

= Equal

<> Not equal > Greater than < Less than

>= Greater than or equal <= Less than or equal

BETWEEN Between an inclusive range LIKE Search for a pattern

IN If you know the exact value you want to return for at least one of the columns

Note: In some versions of SQL the <> operator may be written as !=

SQL AND & OR Operators

The AND & OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition.

The AND & OR Operators

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The OR operator displays a record if either the first condition or the second condition is true.

AND Operator Example

Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove" AND the last name equal to "Svendson":

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE FirstName='Tove'

AND LastName='Svendson'

OR Operator Example

Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove" OR the first name equal to "Ola":

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE FirstName='Tove'

OR FirstName='Ola'

Combining AND & OR

You can also combine AND and OR (use parenthesis to form complex expressions).

Now we want to select only the persons with the last name equal to "Svendson" AND the first name equal to "Tove" OR to "Ola":

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE

LastName='Svendson'

AND (FirstName='Tove' OR FirstName='Ola')

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The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set.

The ORDER BY Keyword

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set by a specified column. The ORDER BY keyword sort the records in ascending order by default.

If you want to sort the records in a descending order, you can use the DESC keyword.

SQL ORDER BY Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name

ORDER BY column_name(s) ASC|DESC

ORDER BY Example

4 Nilsen Tom Vingvn 23 Stavanger

Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we want to sort the persons by their last name.

SELECT * FROM Persons

ORDER BY LastName

ORDER BY DESC Example

Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we want to sort the persons descending by their last name.

SELECT * FROM Persons

ORDER BY LastName DESC

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The TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.

The TOP Clause

The TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.

The TOP clause can be very useful on large tables with thousands of records. Returning a large number of records can impact on performance.

Note: Not all database systems support the TOP clause.

SQL SELECT TOP Syntax

SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)

FROM table_name

SQL TOP Example

Now we want to select only the two first records in the table above. We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT TOP 2 * FROM Persons

SQL TOP PERCENT Example

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SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM Persons

SQL Advanced

SQL LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.

The LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used to search for a specified pattern in a column.

SQL LIKE Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name

WHERE column_name LIKE pattern

LIKE Operator Example

Now we want to select the persons living in a city that starts with "s" from the table above. We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE City LIKE 's%'

The "%" sign can be used to define wildcards (missing letters in the pattern) both before and after the pattern.

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Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that ends with an "s" from the "Persons" table.

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE City LIKE '%s'

Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that contains the pattern "tav" from the "Persons" table.

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE City LIKE '%tav%'

SQL IN Operator

The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.

The IN Operator

The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.

SQL IN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name

WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...)

IN Operator Example

Now we want to select the persons with a last name equal to "Hansen" or "Pettersen" from the table above.

SELECT * FROM Persons

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WHERE LastName IN ('Hansen','Pettersen')

SQL BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator is used in a WHERE clause to select records in a range.

The BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator selects a range of data between two values. These values can be numbers, text, or dates.

SQL IN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name

WHERE column_name

BETWEEN value1 AND value2

Original Table (used in the examples)

LastName FirstName Address City

Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

Nordmann Anna Neset 18 Sandnes

Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

Example 1

To display the persons alphabetically between (and including) "Hansen" and exclusive "Pettersen", use the following SQL:

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE LastName

BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'

Result:

Nordmann Anna Neset 18 Sandnes

IMPORTANT! The BETWEEN...AND operator is treated differently in different databases. With some databases a person with the LastName of "Hansen" or "Pettersen" will not be listed (BETWEEN..AND only selects fields that are between and excluding the test values). With some databases a person with the last name of "Hansen" or "Pettersen" will be listed (BETWEEN..AND selects fields that are between and including the test values). With other databases a person with the last name of "Hansen" will be listed, but "Pettersen" will not be listed (BETWEEN..AND selects fields between the test values, including the first test value and excluding the last test value). Therefore: Check how your database treats the BETWEEN....AND operator!

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To display the persons outside the range used in the previous example, use the NOT operator:

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE LastName

NOT BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'

Result:

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SQL Alias

With SQL, aliases can be used for column names and table names.

Column Name Alias

The syntax is:

SELECT column AS column_alias FROM table

Table Name Alias

The syntax is:

SELECT column FROM table AS table_alias

Example: Using a Column Alias

This table (Persons):

And this SQL:

SELECT LastName AS Family, FirstName AS Name

FROM Persons

Returns this result:

Family Name

Hansen Ola

Svendson Tove

Pettersen Kari

Example: Using a Table Alias

This table (Persons):

And this SQL:

SELECT LastName, FirstName

FROM Persons AS Employees

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Table Employees: LastName FirstName Hansen Ola Svendson Tove Pettersen Kari

SQL JOIN

Joins and Keys

Sometimes we have to select data from two or more tables to make our result complete. We have to perform a join.

Tables in a database can be related to each other with keys. A primary key is a column with a unique value for each row. Each primary key value must be unique within the table. The purpose is to bind data together, across tables, without repeating all of the data in every table. In the "Employees" table below, the "Employee_ID" column is the primary key, meaning that no two rows can have the same Employee_ID. The Employee_ID distinguishes two persons even if they have the same name.

When you look at the example tables below, notice that:

•

The "Employee_ID" column is the primary key of the "Employees" table

•

The "Prod_ID" column is the primary key of the "Orders" table

•

The "Employee_ID" column in the "Orders" table is used to refer to the persons in the "Employees" table without using their names

Employees: Employee_ID Name 01 Hansen, Ola 02 Svendson, Tove 03 Svendson, Stephen 04 Pettersen, Kari Orders:

Prod_ID Product Employee_ID

234 Printer 01

657 Table 03

865 Chair 03

Referring to Two Tables

We can select data from two tables by referring to two tables, like this:

Example

Who has ordered a product, and what did they order?

SELECT Employees.Name, Orders.Product

FROM Employees, Orders

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Result

Name Product

Hansen, Ola Printer

Svendson, Stephen Table Svendson, Stephen Chair

Example

Who ordered a printer?

SELECT Employees.Name

FROM Employees, Orders

WHERE Employees.Employee_ID=Orders.Employee_ID

AND Orders.Product='Printer'

Result Name Hansen, Ola

Using Joins

OR we can select data from two tables with the JOIN keyword, like this:

Example INNER JOIN

Syntax

SELECT field1, field2, field3

FROM first_table

INNER JOIN second_table

ON first_table.keyfield = second_table.foreign_keyfield

Who has ordered a product, and what did they order?

SELECT Employees.Name, Orders.Product

FROM Employees

INNER JOIN Orders

ON Employees.Employee_ID=Orders.Employee_ID

The INNER JOIN returns all rows from both tables where there is a match. If there are rows in Employees that do not have matches in Orders, those rows will not be listed.

Result

Hansen, Ola Printer

Example LEFT JOIN

Syntax

SELECT field1, field2, field3

FROM first_table

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LEFT JOIN second_table

ON first_table.keyfield = second_table.foreign_keyfield

List all employees, and their orders - if any.

SELECT Employees.Name, Orders.Product

FROM Employees

LEFT JOIN Orders

ON Employees.Employee_ID=Orders.Employee_ID

The LEFT JOIN returns all the rows from the first table (Employees), even if there are no matches in the second table (Orders). If there are rows in Employees that do not have matches in Orders, those rows also will be listed.

Result

Hansen, Ola Printer

Svendson, Tove

Svendson, Stephen Table Svendson, Stephen Chair Pettersen, Kari

Example RIGHT JOIN

Syntax

SELECT field1, field2, field3

FROM first_table

RIGHT JOIN second_table

ON first_table.keyfield = second_table.foreign_keyfield

List all orders, and who has ordered - if any.

SELECT Employees.Name, Orders.Product

FROM Employees

RIGHT JOIN Orders

ON Employees.Employee_ID=Orders.Employee_ID

The RIGHT JOIN returns all the rows from the second table (Orders), even if there are no matches in the first table (Employees). If there had been any rows in Orders that did not have matches in Employees, those rows also would have been listed.

Result

Hansen, Ola Printer

Example

Who ordered a printer?

SELECT Employees.Name

FROM Employees

INNER JOIN Orders

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WHERE Orders.Product = 'Printer'

Result

Name Hansen, Ola

SQL UNION and UNION ALL

UNION

The UNION command is used to select related information from two tables, much like the JOIN command. However, when using the UNION command all selected columns need to be of the same data type.

Note: With UNION, only distinct values are selected.

SQL Statement 1

UNION

SQL Statement 2

Employees_Norway: E_ID E_Name 01 Hansen, Ola 02 Svendson, Tove 03 Svendson, Stephen 04 Pettersen, Kari Employees_USA: E_ID E_Name 01 Turner, Sally 02 Kent, Clark 03 Svendson, Stephen 04 Scott, Stephen

Using the UNION Command

Example

List all different employee names in Norway and USA:

SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_Norway

UNION

SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA

Result E_Name Hansen, Ola Svendson, Tove Svendson, Stephen Pettersen, Kari Turner, Sally

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Kent, Clark Scott, Stephen

Note: This command cannot be used to list all employees in Norway and USA. In the example above we have two employees with equal names, and only one of them is listed. The UNION command only selects distinct values.

UNION ALL

The UNION ALL command is equal to the UNION command, except that UNION ALL selects all values.

SQL Statement 1

UNION ALL

SQL Statement 2

Using the UNION ALL Command

Example

List all employees in Norway and USA:

SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_Norway

UNION ALL

SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA

Result E_Name Hansen, Ola Svendson, Tove Svendson, Stephen Pettersen, Kari Turner, Sally Kent, Clark Svendson, Stephen Scott, Stephen

SQL INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new rows into a table.

Syntax

INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2,....)

You can also specify the columns for which you want to insert data:

INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2,...)

VALUES (value1, value2,....)

Insert a New Row

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This "Persons" table:

And this SQL statement:

INSERT INTO Persons

VALUES ('Hetland', 'Camilla', 'Hagabakka 24', 'Sandnes')

Will give this result:

Hetland Camilla Hagabakka 24 Sandnes

Insert Data in Specified Columns

This "Persons" table:

And This SQL statement:

INSERT INTO Persons (LastName, Address)

VALUES ('Rasmussen', 'Storgt 67')

Will give this result:

Rasmussen Storgt 67

SQL UPDATE Statement

The Update Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to modify the data in a table.

Syntax

UPDATE table_name

SET column_name = new_value

WHERE column_name = some_value

Person:

Nilsen Fred Kirkegt 56 Stavanger

Rasmussen Storgt 67

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We want to add a first name to the person with a last name of "Rasmussen":

UPDATE Person SET FirstName = 'Nina'

WHERE LastName = 'Rasmussen'

Result:

Rasmussen Nina Storgt 67

Update several Columns in a Row

We want to change the address and add the name of the city:

UPDATE Person

SET Address = 'Stien 12', City = 'Stavanger'

WHERE LastName = 'Rasmussen'

Result:

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SQL DELETE Statement

The DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.

Syntax

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE column_name = some_value

Person:

Rasmussen Nina Stien 12 Stavanger

Delete a Row

"Nina Rasmussen" is going to be deleted:

DELETE FROM Person WHERE LastName = 'Rasmussen'

Result

Delete All Rows

It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the table structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:

DELETE FROM table_name

or

DELETE * FROM table_name

SQL Create Database, Table, and Index

Create a Database

To create a database:

CREATE DATABASE database_name

Create a Table

To create a table in a database:

CREATE TABLE table_name

(

column_name1 data_type,

column_name2 data_type,

...

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)

Example

This example demonstrates how you can create a table named "Person", with four columns. The column names will be "LastName", "FirstName", "Address", and "Age":

CREATE TABLE Person

(

LastName varchar,

FirstName varchar,

Address varchar,

Age int

)

This example demonstrates how you can specify a maximum length for some columns:

CREATE TABLE Person

(

LastName varchar(30),

FirstName varchar,

Address varchar,

Age int(3)

)

The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold. For a complete reference of all the data types available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL Server, go to our complete Data Types reference.

Create Index

Indices are created in an existing table to locate rows more quickly and efficiently. It is possible to create an index on one or more columns of a table, and each index is given a name. The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used to speed up queries.

Note: Updating a table containing indexes takes more time than updating a table without, this is because the indexes also need an update. So, it is a good idea to create indexes only on columns that are often used for a search.

A Unique Index

Creates a unique index on a table. A unique index means that two rows cannot have the same index value.

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name)

The "column_name" specifies the column you want indexed. A Simple Index

Creates a simple index on a table. When the UNIQUE keyword is omitted, duplicate values are allowed.

CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name)

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Example

This example creates a simple index, named "PersonIndex", on the LastName field of the Person table:

CREATE INDEX PersonIndex

ON Person (LastName)

If you want to index the values in a column in descending order, you can add the reserved word DESC after the column name:

CREATE INDEX PersonIndex

ON Person (LastName DESC)

If you want to index more than one column you can list the column names within the parentheses, separated by commas:

CREATE INDEX PersonIndex

ON Person (LastName, FirstName)

SQL Drop Index, Table and Database

Drop Index

You can delete an existing index in a table with the DROP INDEX statement. Syntax for Microsoft SQLJet (and Microsoft Access):

DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name

Syntax for MS SQL Server:

DROP INDEX table_name.index_name

Syntax for IBM DB2 and Oracle:

DROP INDEX index_name

Syntax for MySQL:

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP INDEX index_name

Delete a Table or Database

To delete a table (the table structure, attributes, and indexes will also be deleted):

DROP TABLE table_name

To delete a database:

DROP DATABASE database_name

Truncate a Table

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What if we only want to get rid of the data inside a table, and not the table itself? Use the TRUNCATE TABLE command (deletes only the data inside the table):

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name

SQL ALTER TABLE

ALTER TABLE

The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add or drop columns in an existing table.

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name

Note: Some database systems don't allow the dropping of a column in a database table (DROP COLUMN column_name).

Person:

LastName FirstName Address

Pettersen Kari Storgt 20

Example

To add a column named "City" in the "Person" table:

ALTER TABLE Person ADD City varchar(30)

Result:

Pettersen Kari Storgt 20

Example

To drop the "Address" column in the "Person" table:

ALTER TABLE Person DROP COLUMN Address

Result:

LastName FirstName City

Pettersen Kari

SQL Functions

SQL has a lot of built-in functions for counting and calculations.

Function Syntax

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SELECT function(column) FROM table

Types of Functions

There are several basic types and categories of functions in SQL. The basic types of functions are:

•

Aggregate Functions

•

Scalar functions

Aggregate functions

Aggregate functions operate against a collection of values, but return a single value. Note: If used among many other expressions in the item list of a SELECT statement, the SELECT must have a GROUP BY clause!!

"Persons" table (used in most examples)

Name Age

Hansen, Ola 34

Svendson, Tove 45

Pettersen, Kari 19

Aggregate functions in MS Access

Function Description

AVG(column) Returns the average value of a column

COUNT(column) Returns the number of rows (without a NULL value) of a column

COUNT(*) Returns the number of selected rows

FIRST(column) Returns the value of the first record in a specified field LAST(column) Returns the value of the last record in a specified field MAX(column) Returns the highest value of a column

MIN(column) Returns the lowest value of a column STDEV(column)

STDEVP(column)

SUM(column) Returns the total sum of a column VAR(column)

VARP(column)

Aggregate functions in SQL Server

AVG(column) Returns the average value of a column BINARY_CHECKSUM

CHECKSUM CHECKSUM_AGG

COUNT(column) Returns the number of rows (without a NULL value) of a column

COUNT(*) Returns the number of selected rows

COUNT(DISTINCT column) Returns the number of distinct results

FIRST(column) Returns the value of the first record in a specified field (not supported in SQLServer2K)

LAST(column) Returns the value of the last record in a specified field (not supported in SQLServer2K)

MAX(column) Returns the highest value of a column MIN(column) Returns the lowest value of a column

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STDEV(column) STDEVP(column)

SUM(column) Returns the total sum of a column VAR(column)

VARP(column)

Scalar functions

Scalar functions operate against a single value, and return a single value based on the input value.

Useful Scalar Functions in MS Access

UCASE(c) Converts a field to upper case LCASE(c) Converts a field to lower case MID(c,start[,end]) Extract characters from a text field LEN(c) Returns the length of a text field

INSTR(c,char) Returns the numeric position of a named character within a text field

LEFT(c,number_of_char) Return the left part of a text field requested RIGHT(c,number_of_char) Return the right part of a text field requested

ROUND(c,decimals) Rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals specified MOD(x,y) Returns the remainder of a division operation

NOW() Returns the current system date FORMAT(c,format) Changes the way a field is displayed DATEDIFF(d,date1,date2) Used to perform date calculations

SQL GROUP BY and HAVING

Aggregate functions (like SUM) often need an added GROUP BY functionality.

GROUP BY...

GROUP BY... was added to SQL because aggregate functions (like SUM) return the aggregate of all column values every time they are called, and without the GROUP BY function it was

impossible to find the sum for each individual group of column values. The syntax for the GROUP BY function is:

SELECT column,SUM(column) FROM table GROUP BY column

GROUP BY Example

This "Sales" Table:

Company Amount

W3Schools 5500

IBM 4500

W3Schools 7100

And This SQL:

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Company SUM(Amount)

W3Schools 17100

IBM 17100

W3Schools 17100

The above code is invalid because the column returned is not part of an aggregate. A GROUP BY clause will solve this problem:

SELECT Company,SUM(Amount) FROM Sales

GROUP BY Company

W3Schools 12600

IBM 4500

HAVING...

HAVING... was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used against aggregate functions (like SUM), and without HAVING... it would be impossible to test for result conditions. The syntax for the HAVING function is:

SELECT column,SUM(column) FROM table

GROUP BY column

HAVING SUM(column) condition value

This "Sales" Table:

Company Amount

W3Schools 5500

IBM 4500

W3Schools 7100

This SQL:

SELECT Company,SUM(Amount) FROM Sales

GROUP BY Company

HAVING SUM(Amount)>10000

Returns this result

W3Schools 12600

SQL SELECT INTO Statement

The SELECT INTO Statement

The SELECT INTO statement is most often used to create backup copies of tables or for archiving records.

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Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) INTO newtable [IN externaldatabase]

FROM source

Make a Backup Copy

The following example makes a backup copy of the "Persons" table:

SELECT * INTO Persons_backup

FROM Persons

The IN clause can be used to copy tables into another database:

SELECT Persons.* INTO Persons IN 'Backup.mdb'

FROM Persons

If you only want to copy a few fields, you can do so by listing them after the SELECT statement:

SELECT LastName,FirstName INTO Persons_backup

FROM Persons

You can also add a WHERE clause. The following example creates a "Persons_backup" table with two columns (FirstName and LastName) by extracting the persons who lives in "Sandnes" from the "Persons" table:

SELECT LastName,Firstname INTO Persons_backup

FROM Persons

WHERE City='Sandnes'

Selecting data from more than one table is also possible. The following example creates a new table "Empl_Ord_backup" that contains data from the two tables Employees and Orders:

SELECT Employees.Name,Orders.Product

INTO Empl_Ord_backup

FROM Employees

INNER JOIN Orders

ON Employees.Employee_ID=Orders.Employee_ID

SQL CREATE VIEW Statement

A view is a virtual table based on the result-set of a SELECT statement.

What is a View?

In SQL, a VIEW is a virtual table based on the result-set of a SELECT statement.

A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or more real tables in the database. You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as if the data were coming from a single table.

Note: The database design and structure will NOT be affected by the functions, where, or join statements in a view.

Syntax

CREATE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT column_name(s)

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FROM table_name

WHERE condition

Note: The database does not store the view data! The database engine recreates the data, using the view's SELECT statement, every time a user queries a view.

Using Views

A view could be used from inside a query, a stored procedure, or from inside another view. By adding functions, joins, etc., to a view, it allows you to present exactly the data you want to the user.

The sample database Northwind has some views installed by default. The view "Current Product List" lists all active products (products that are not discontinued) from the Products table. The view is created with the following SQL:

CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS

SELECT ProductID,ProductName

FROM Products

WHERE Discontinued=No

We can query the view above as follows:

SELECT * FROM [Current Product List]

Another view from the Northwind sample database selects every product in the Products table that has a unit price that is higher than the average unit price:

CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS

SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice

FROM Products

WHERE UnitPrice>(SELECT AVG(UnitPrice) FROM Products)

SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price]

Another example view from the Northwind database calculates the total sale for each category in 1997. Note that this view selects its data from another view called "Product Sales for 1997":

CREATE VIEW [Category Sales For 1997] AS

SELECT DISTINCT CategoryName,Sum(ProductSales) AS CategorySales

FROM [Product Sales for 1997]

GROUP BY CategoryName

SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]

We can also add a condition to the query. Now we want to see the total sale only for the category "Beverages":