Running head: THE INDUS VALLEY
Running head: THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATIONCIVILIZATION
The Indus
The Indus Valley Civilization
Valley Civilization
A Synthesis of Current Knowledge
A Synthesis of Current Knowledge
By
By
Antilkumar Gandhi
Antilkumar Gandhi
The Origins of Western Culture
The Origins of Western Culture
Professor Stephen Carter
Professor Stephen Carter
Winter Quarter 2009
Winter Quarter 2009
Abstract
Abstract
One of the world's first civilizations developed in the
One of the world's first civilizations developed in the Indus River valley over 5,000 yearsIndus River valley over 5,000 years ago.
ago. In terms of iIn terms of influence and importance, it is on nfluence and importance, it is on par with the great civilpar with the great civilizations of izations of Egypt and Sumer.
Egypt and Sumer. While there is much known about While there is much known about these latter two civithese latter two civilizations, almostlizations, almost next to nothing was known
next to nothing was known about the Indus Valley civilization until the 20th cenabout the Indus Valley civilization until the 20th cen tury.tury. There is still much to be learned
There is still much to be learned and the excavations of and the excavations of hundreds on Indus sites arehundreds on Indus sites are ongoing.
ongoing. What has been discovered about this culWhat has been discovered about this culture through their settlture through their settlements and citiesements and cities reveals a civilization based in trade a
reveals a civilization based in trade and agriculture, ruled by a centralized govnd agriculture, ruled by a centralized governmentalernmental authority.
authority. But, much But, much is yet is yet to be dito be discovered about thiscovered about this culture. s culture. The following The following discussiondiscussion centers on what has been
centers on what has been learned thus far and areas for further study of Indus learned thus far and areas for further study of Indus ValleyValley civilization.
The Indus Valley Civilization: A Synthesis of Current
The Indus Valley Civilization: A Synthesis of Current Knowledge
Knowledge
Almost five thousand years ago, an advanced civilization flourished in the Sind Almost five thousand years ago, an advanced civilization flourished in the Sind and the Punjab regions of the I
and the Punjab regions of the Indian subcontinent. ndian subcontinent. At that time in tAt that time in the Indus River valleyhe Indus River valley and beyond, there were well-planned towns and cities with elaborate drainage systems, and beyond, there were well-planned towns and cities with elaborate drainage systems, paved streets, granaries and large pri
paved streets, granaries and large private dwellings. vate dwellings. All the houses were made All the houses were made of of standardized bricks and all were st
standardized bricks and all were strictly maintained by mrictly maintained by municipal authorities. unicipal authorities. There wereThere were also ports from which ships sailed as far away as Mesopotamia
also ports from which ships sailed as far away as Mesopotamia to trade various goods.to trade various goods. The people who bu
The people who built these cities and these ships also constructed many steatite seals.ilt these cities and these ships also constructed many steatite seals. These seals have images and script engraved upon them that provide evidence of the These seals have images and script engraved upon them that provide evidence of the strong influence of these people an
strong influence of these people and their civilization on the later peoples od their civilization on the later peoples of thef the subcontinent.
subcontinent. Considering the important place tConsidering the important place that is reserved for that is reserved for the Indus Valleyhe Indus Valley civilization (or Harappan civilization) in Indian history and the fact
civilization (or Harappan civilization) in Indian history and the fact that it is regarded asthat it is regarded as one of the birthplaces of
one of the birthplaces of civilization (along with Egypt and Sumer), (Jarrige andcivilization (along with Egypt and Sumer), (Jarrige and Meadow, 1980, p.
Meadow, 1980, p. 122), it is quite amazing how 122), it is quite amazing how relatively little the world knows about it.relatively little the world knows about it. No one even kn
No one even knew of the existence of this civilization until the ew of the existence of this civilization until the twentieth century.twentieth century. The first Indus Valley artifacts were recovered from Harappa, one
The first Indus Valley artifacts were recovered from Harappa, one of the two Indus cities,of the two Indus cities, in 1856 by a General Cunningham.
in 1856 by a General Cunningham. He was a BritiHe was a British soldier and amateur archaeologistsh soldier and amateur archaeologist who was fascinated by the artifacts he had picked up at the ruins of Harappa, but at that who was fascinated by the artifacts he had picked up at the ruins of Harappa, but at that time, neither he nor anyone else was
time, neither he nor anyone else was able to recognize their signiable to recognize their significance. ficance. TheThe Archaeological Survey of India, run by the
Archaeological Survey of India, run by the British, was aware that there were ancientBritish, was aware that there were ancient ruins at Harappa, but the Survey assumed
ruins at Harappa, but the Survey assumed that these ruins belonged to the that these ruins belonged to the Vedic period of Vedic period of Indian history.
Indian history. The world already had extensive knowledge of The world already had extensive knowledge of this civilization, so this civilization, so thethe ruins were not considered to be
1920 that the Survey was able to excavate Harappa and discover the existence of the 1920 that the Survey was able to excavate Harappa and discover the existence of the Indus Valley civilizati
Indus Valley civilization, (Piggott, 1950, p. 18). on, (Piggott, 1950, p. 18). Unfortunately, not as much as Unfortunately, not as much as possiblepossible could be learned about this civilization from the Harappan ruins because decades earlier could be learned about this civilization from the Harappan ruins because decades earlier it had been plundered for bricks by
it had been plundered for bricks by a railroad company. a railroad company. Fortunately, after thiFortunately, after this initials initial discovery, it did not take archaeologists very long
discovery, it did not take archaeologists very long to find other Indus ruins all over theto find other Indus ruins all over the Sind and the Punjab.
Sind and the Punjab. In 1922, the other Indus ciIn 1922, the other Indus city, Mohenjo-daro, was discovered andty, Mohenjo-daro, was discovered and excavated.
excavated. In the late 1920s and 1930s, mIn the late 1920s and 1930s, many other Indus towns and setany other Indus towns and settlements weretlements were found in the areas surrounding Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, (Piggott, 1950, pp. 18-19). found in the areas surrounding Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, (Piggott, 1950, pp. 18-19). The ruins are so extensive that
The ruins are so extensive that even today, archaeologists are discovering Induseven today, archaeologists are discovering Indus settlements.
settlements. To date, more than 200 Indus siTo date, more than 200 Indus sites have been recognized, (Bag, 1985, p. 8).tes have been recognized, (Bag, 1985, p. 8). The sites are spread out over
The sites are spread out over a half million square miles in Pakistan and northwesterna half million square miles in Pakistan and northwestern India.
India.
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were the first Indus settlements to be excavated and,the first Indus settlements to be excavated and, for a short time, wer
for a short time, were the only known Indus sie the only known Indus sites. tes. During this time, arDuring this time, archaeologists werechaeologists were understandably mystified by the ruins and had many questions
understandably mystified by the ruins and had many questions about the origins of thisabout the origins of this civilization.
civilization. But soon, the excavation of more ancient But soon, the excavation of more ancient sites such as Mehrgarh prsites such as Mehrgarh providedovided scholars with many clues
scholars with many clues about the origins of the Harabout the origins of the Harappan culture. appan culture. The current belief The current belief among Indus experts is that this culture did
among Indus experts is that this culture did develop over centuries, in ways similar todevelop over centuries, in ways similar to Egypt and Sumer.
Egypt and Sumer. Walter A. FairserWalter A. Fairservis, Jr., an expert on the vis, Jr., an expert on the Harappan culture, has beenHarappan culture, has been able to describe the course of development of the Harappan civilization as occurring in able to describe the course of development of the Harappan civilization as occurring in four separate stages, (Bag, 1985, pp. 6-7).
four separate stages, (Bag, 1985, pp. 6-7). Stage I occurred before c. 3300 BCE, Stage I occurred before c. 3300 BCE, duringduring which the first human set
which the first human settlements such as Mehrgarh began to appear. tlements such as Mehrgarh began to appear. Stage 2 lasted fromStage 2 lasted from c. 3300 BCE to c. 2500 BCE and can be called t
stage, cultivation of crops and past
stage, cultivation of crops and pastoralism were becoming widespread practioralism were becoming widespread practices. ces. Stage 3Stage 3 can be called the Early Harappan phase, last
can be called the Early Harappan phase, lasting from c. 2500 BCE to c. ing from c. 2500 BCE to c. 2300 BCE. 2300 BCE. ThisThis stage is "characterized by sedentary village life and regionalization with inter-regional stage is "characterized by sedentary village life and regionalization with inter-regional contacts," (Bag, 1985, p. 7).
contacts," (Bag, 1985, p. 7). Stage 4 is the MatStage 4 is the Mature Phase, which lasted fure Phase, which lasted from c. 2300 BCErom c. 2300 BCE to c. 1700 BCE.
to c. 1700 BCE. Most of the artiMost of the artifacts and ruins of thifacts and ruins of this culture that have been discovereds culture that have been discovered belong to this period.
belong to this period. These years were marked by These years were marked by urbanization, the construction of urbanization, the construction of monumental buildings, the use of copper, bronze and flake-blade tools, the making of monumental buildings, the use of copper, bronze and flake-blade tools, the making of steatite seals, beadwork, and sculpture and many other accomplishments, (Bag, 1985, p. steatite seals, beadwork, and sculpture and many other accomplishments, (Bag, 1985, p. 7).
7). After roughly 1700 BCE, the InduAfter roughly 1700 BCE, the Indus Valley civilization went s Valley civilization went through an extendedthrough an extended period of decline in most areas an
period of decline in most areas and a transformation in some areas.d a transformation in some areas. Some of the main sites of Indus ruins from the Mature Phase
Some of the main sites of Indus ruins from the Mature Phase are the two cities of are the two cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro and the towns of Chanhu-daro, Kot-diji, Kalibangan, Amri, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro and the towns of Chanhu-daro, Kot-diji, Kalibangan, Amri, Lothal, Rangpur and many others.
Lothal, Rangpur and many others. This time period was belThis time period was believed to have been the heightieved to have been the height of the Indus culture, when
of the Indus culture, when their prosperity was greatest and the most significanttheir prosperity was greatest and the most significant achievements were made.
achievements were made. Of course, the greatest examplOf course, the greatest examples of this prosperites of this prosperity were they were the two great cities of Har
two great cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. appa and Mohenjo-daro. The very existence of cities The very existence of cities in a culturein a culture implies the existence of prosperous rural areas, capable of supporting large urban
implies the existence of prosperous rural areas, capable of supporting large urban populations that are not directl
populations that are not directly involved in food production, (Bag, 1985, pp. 8-9). y involved in food production, (Bag, 1985, pp. 8-9). ThisThis is why these cities play such a prominent
is why these cities play such a prominent role in the archaeological record of the role in the archaeological record of the IndusIndus culture.
culture. The people living in these citiThe people living in these cities were not farmers, but es were not farmers, but traders, crafts workers traders, crafts workers andand artists.
artists. The cities were the centers The cities were the centers of Indus culture - where of Indus culture - where civilization was developed tocivilization was developed to its highest level.
of the most important artifacts of this civilization and provided the
of the most important artifacts of this civilization and provided the best insights into itsbest insights into its nature.
nature.
One of the most striking characteristics of the mature Harappan civilization is its One of the most striking characteristics of the mature Harappan civilization is its strong governmental authorit
strong governmental authority and large bureaucracyy and large bureaucracy. . There are no sThere are no survivingurviving
government records to support this conclusion, but there is an abundance of physical government records to support this conclusion, but there is an abundance of physical evidence that does.
evidence that does. First and foremost First and foremost are the neat, gridiron pattern lare the neat, gridiron pattern layouts of the Indusayouts of the Indus settlements.
settlements. Indus settlements were not Indus settlements were not like those of Egyptlike those of Egypt, Sumer or almost any , Sumer or almost any other other civilization.
civilization. Usually, urban centers sUsually, urban centers start out as small tart out as small settlements, slowly settlements, slowly growing larger growing larger over decades and
over decades and even centuries. even centuries. Streets and Streets and blocks are blocks are added when the added when the need arises. need arises. AsAs a result, urban centers have many crooked lanes and streets which have been built
a result, urban centers have many crooked lanes and streets which have been built arbitrarily and do not f
arbitrarily and do not fit any pattern. it any pattern. Indus urban centers had layouts Indus urban centers had layouts which fit a patterwhich fit a pattern,n, which indicates that their towns
which indicates that their towns and cities started out as and cities started out as towns and cities. towns and cities. They wereThey were each constructed according to a master plan i
each constructed according to a master plan in the space of a few yearn the space of a few years. s. These kinds of These kinds of settlements could not have been constructed without a great deal of thought and a
settlements could not have been constructed without a great deal of thought and a tremendous amount of resources.
tremendous amount of resources. Thousands of people lived in each of Thousands of people lived in each of these urbanthese urban centers.
centers. The cities, Mohenjo-daro The cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, had a and Harappa, had a population of about 30,000 population of about 30,000 eacheach (Bag, 1985, p. 40).
(Bag, 1985, p. 40). Clearly, mapping out an urban Clearly, mapping out an urban center of this size would center of this size would be no easybe no easy task.
task. Also, all Also, all Indus settlemIndus settlements were made ents were made almost entialmost entirely of rely of baked bricks. baked bricks. BuildingBuilding such a place would require an enormous supply
such a place would require an enormous supply of bricks. of bricks. Only some sort of Only some sort of governmental authority would be able to
governmental authority would be able to undertake a project of this magnitude.undertake a project of this magnitude. Other evidence that points to government
Other evidence that points to government involvement is the fact that there areinvolvement is the fact that there are many features that are comm
many features that are common to the more than two hundred known Indus on to the more than two hundred known Indus sites. sites. BesidesBesides all being built in a gridiron layout, all settlements consisted of three main areas - a
residential area, a citadel area and a
residential area, a citadel area and a cemetery. cemetery. Also, the town plans of Also, the town plans of the two cities arethe two cities are so similar that they are believed to have been planned by the "same central board of so similar that they are believed to have been planned by the "same central board of imperial urban planners," (Wolpert
imperial urban planners," (Wolpert, 1989, p. 15). , 1989, p. 15). Considering the massive efforConsidering the massive effort requiredt required building an Indus town and
building an Indus town and taking into account all the taking into account all the similarities between thesesimilarities between these settlements, it is only reasonable to conclude that there
settlements, it is only reasonable to conclude that there existed a centralizedexisted a centralized governmental authority in the Indus civilization.
governmental authority in the Indus civilization. Additional evidence also supports thi
Additional evidence also supports this conclusion. s conclusion. There was a standard syThere was a standard systemstem of weights that was used
of weights that was used by the Indus people. by the Indus people. Many living in tMany living in the towns and cities werehe towns and cities were traders, and it was no
traders, and it was no doubt very important to have a stdoubt very important to have a standard system in place. andard system in place. InIn Mohenjo-daro, Chanhu-daro and Harappa, set
Mohenjo-daro, Chanhu-daro and Harappa, sets of stone s of stone weights have been fweights have been found. ound. TheThe system is unlike the Egyptian or Sumerian systems, so the Indus system was not an system is unlike the Egyptian or Sumerian systems, so the Indus system was not an import but an original Indus
import but an original Indus invention. invention. This indicates the existence of This indicates the existence of some kind of some kind of bureau (probably governmental, due to
bureau (probably governmental, due to the importance of trade in this culture), whichthe importance of trade in this culture), which determined and regulated this system of weights.
determined and regulated this system of weights. The Indus people al
The Indus people also had a standardiso had a standardized method of brick zed method of brick production. production. InIn
Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan and in all the other mature phase Indus sites, very Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan and in all the other mature phase Indus sites, very nearly all the bricks were constructed following the standard
nearly all the bricks were constructed following the standard ratio of 4:2:1 (length : widthratio of 4:2:1 (length : width : thickness), (Bag, 1985, p. 62).
: thickness), (Bag, 1985, p. 62). They did vary in siThey did vary in size, of course, from one setze, of course, from one settlement totlement to another and depending on their intended uses, but the standard ratio of 4:2:1 was nearly another and depending on their intended uses, but the standard ratio of 4:2:1 was nearly always maintained.
always maintained. The primary signifThe primary significance of this evidence is the ficance of this evidence is the fact that there wereact that there were standard ratios for bri
standard ratios for brick sizes at all. ck sizes at all. These facts indicate that These facts indicate that some type of organizationsome type of organization existed which decided on
existed which decided on and upheld standard ratand upheld standard ratios for briios for brick dimensions. ck dimensions. TheThe likelihood that it was a governmental
standardized bricks were found at
standardized bricks were found at all Indus sites; some located hundreds of miles apart.all Indus sites; some located hundreds of miles apart. Also, knowing the importance of bricks
Also, knowing the importance of bricks in the building of Indus settlements, which werein the building of Indus settlements, which were most likely government projects, it is reasonable to conclude
most likely government projects, it is reasonable to conclude that a government agencythat a government agency set the standards for
set the standards for brick dimensions, (Bhattacharya, 1988, p. 10). brick dimensions, (Bhattacharya, 1988, p. 10). All of this evidence,All of this evidence, take together, points to "the
take together, points to "the existence of a functioning state system," governing theexistence of a functioning state system," governing the people of this civilization, (Bhattacharya, 1988, p. 10).
people of this civilization, (Bhattacharya, 1988, p. 10). The government also provided many other s
The government also provided many other services to its ciervices to its citizens. tizens. One of theseOne of these was an elaborate system of drains in each
was an elaborate system of drains in each settlement that was maintained by civicsettlement that was maintained by civic authorities, and which was unlike bo
authorities, and which was unlike both the Egyptian and Sumerian drainage systems.th the Egyptian and Sumerian drainage systems. Each bathroom in each
Each bathroom in each house of an Indus settlement was phouse of an Indus settlement was paved with special bricks that fitaved with special bricks that fit together perfectly to form
together perfectly to form a watertight floor. a watertight floor. The drains which led from each The drains which led from each bathroombathroom emptied into large troughs or
emptied into large troughs or jars outside each home. jars outside each home. Municipal authorities saw to Municipal authorities saw to it thatit that each of these areas was cleared of
each of these areas was cleared of refuse on a regular basis, refuse on a regular basis, (Bag, 1985, p. 57). (Bag, 1985, p. 57). ThereThere were also drains on each street
were also drains on each street which would clear away excess rwhich would clear away excess rainwater. ainwater. They wereThey were located below the level
located below the level of the street and were especially important during the of the street and were especially important during the rainyrainy season to prevent flood and water dam
season to prevent flood and water damage, (Bag, 1985, p. 58). age, (Bag, 1985, p. 58). These street drains werThese street drains weree made with meticulous care, allowing f
made with meticulous care, allowing for no cracks between bricks. or no cracks between bricks. Details such asDetails such as making the corners of the
making the corners of the drains round instead of square (to reduce drains round instead of square (to reduce friction) were seen tofriction) were seen to by the Indus city
by the Indus city planners. planners. These systems of These systems of drains in the Indus sdrains in the Indus settlements were soettlements were so well-made and well-maintained by the Indus go
well-made and well-maintained by the Indus governmental authorities that even after vernmental authorities that even after three millennia of disuse, they are still completely intact in every settlement.
three millennia of disuse, they are still completely intact in every settlement. The urban planners of the
The urban planners of the Indus towns and cities divided every Indus settlementIndus towns and cities divided every Indus settlement into 3 areas - the cit
religious, cultural and civic center
religious, cultural and civic center of each town, (Wheeler, 1966, p. 18). of each town, (Wheeler, 1966, p. 18). It was alwaysIt was always built on higher ground and overlooked the rest
built on higher ground and overlooked the rest of the settlement lof the settlement like an acropolis. ike an acropolis. TheThe citadel at Mohenjo-daro is relatively very large, second in
citadel at Mohenjo-daro is relatively very large, second in size only to the citadel atsize only to the citadel at Harappa.
Harappa. It is It is also the also the best excavated cibest excavated citadel. tadel. There are thrThere are three principal ee principal structures locatedstructures located there - the Great Bath, t
there - the Great Bath, the college and the collection of granaries. he college and the collection of granaries. The Great Bath of The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro (Figure 1) was a
Mohenjo-daro (Figure 1) was a large brick pool and it was large brick pool and it was a public facility. a public facility. It wasIt was located next to several small rooms which were probably private bathing rooms reserved located next to several small rooms which were probably private bathing rooms reserved for the college of priests that were believed
for the college of priests that were believed to have been the to have been the spiritual leaders of the city,spiritual leaders of the city, (Bag, 1985, p. 53).
(Bag, 1985, p. 53). Every house did have private bathiEvery house did have private bathing facilities, but the Indus ng facilities, but the Indus peoplepeople did not bathe only for sanitary purposes, but for ritualistic purposes as well, (Kosambi, did not bathe only for sanitary purposes, but for ritualistic purposes as well, (Kosambi, 1965, p. 66).
1965, p. 66). By building a Great Bath, tBy building a Great Bath, the municipal authorities were provihe municipal authorities were providing ading a service of great religious and
service of great religious and cultural significance to their cultural significance to their citizens. citizens. Other settlementsOther settlements also had bathing facilities in their citadel area,
also had bathing facilities in their citadel area, but they were less grand than the but they were less grand than the GreatGreat Bath.
Bath.
Figure 1 The Great Bath of
The college area of the
The college area of the citadel at Mohenjo-daro consisted of a square coucitadel at Mohenjo-daro consisted of a square courtyardrtyard and several brick paved rooms off
and several brick paved rooms off to the sides. to the sides. Archaeologists have conjectured thatArchaeologists have conjectured that these structures were t
these structures were the home of a college of priesthe home of a college of priests. s. Part of the rPart of the reason why the collegeeason why the college is believed to be the
is believed to be the home of some priests is because of its close phome of some priests is because of its close proximity to the "Stuparoximity to the "Stupa Mound."
Mound." This mound is a larThis mound is a large, unexcavated section of the citadel located east ge, unexcavated section of the citadel located east of theof the college.
college. It is unexcavated because a Buddhist sIt is unexcavated because a Buddhist stupa which has been built over thitupa which has been built over this mounds mound and Buddhist authorities refuse t
and Buddhist authorities refuse to let anyone disturb ito let anyone disturb it. . But archaeologists have beenBut archaeologists have been able to excavate all around it and have theorized that an Indus temple lies underneath the able to excavate all around it and have theorized that an Indus temple lies underneath the stupa, (Bag, 1985. p. 54).
stupa, (Bag, 1985. p. 54). Another reason to assiAnother reason to assign the college as the home of the gn the college as the home of the priestspriests is because many Indus experts believe
is because many Indus experts believe that the government of the Indus that the government of the Indus civilization,civilization, although secular in outlook, was theocrati
although secular in outlook, was theocratic in character. c in character. "We must assume that t"We must assume that there washere was continuity of government throughout the life of
continuity of government throughout the life of the civilization," (Piggott, 1950, p.84).the civilization," (Piggott, 1950, p.84). This unparalleled continuity suggests "the unchanging
This unparalleled continuity suggests "the unchanging traditions of the temple," rather traditions of the temple," rather than the "secular instability
than the "secular instability of the court," (Moore and of the court," (Moore and Eldredge, 1970, p. 18). Eldredge, 1970, p. 18). Given theGiven the high status of religious leaders in Indus society, it is reasonable to
high status of religious leaders in Indus society, it is reasonable to think that the college,think that the college, located at the citadel, was the home of a college of priests.
located at the citadel, was the home of a college of priests. The other major feature of the citadel
The other major feature of the citadel at Mohenjo-daro was the collection of at Mohenjo-daro was the collection of granaries located west of t
granaries located west of the Great Bath. he Great Bath. These storehouses were too larThese storehouses were too large to have beenge to have been owned by one person.
owned by one person. Indus experts have concluded that they musIndus experts have concluded that they must have been owned byt have been owned by the municipal government.
the municipal government. First of allFirst of all, they were located at the ci, they were located at the citadel, which istadel, which is community property.
community property. Secondly, in those times, a Secondly, in those times, a granary that large would sgranary that large would serve the sameerve the same function as a bank
function as a bank or treasury, which would normally be controlled by a or treasury, which would normally be controlled by a governmentalgovernmental authority, (Marlow, 1967, p. 604).
for the urban population during
for the urban population during a time of food shortage or famine a time of food shortage or famine - a use which would- a use which would also indicate that it was
also indicate that it was under government control, (Wolpert, 1989, p. 15). under government control, (Wolpert, 1989, p. 15). All of theseAll of these reasons make it reasonable to conclude that the granaries were owned by the municipal reasons make it reasonable to conclude that the granaries were owned by the municipal government.
government. Granaries were usually lGranaries were usually located at other Indus sites ocated at other Indus sites as well and were noas well and were no doubt run in the same way.
doubt run in the same way.
The people of the Indus Valley civilization had an advanced urban culture that The people of the Indus Valley civilization had an advanced urban culture that thrived in the extraordinary cit
thrived in the extraordinary cities and towns that they ies and towns that they built. built. The main occupation of theThe main occupation of the people who lived in
people who lived in these urban centers was trade - in all these urban centers was trade - in all kinds of goods and withkinds of goods and with different peoples within and wit
different peoples within and without the Indian subcontinent. hout the Indian subcontinent. The Indus people builtThe Indus people built ships to carry on t
ships to carry on this trade. his trade. At Lothal, which is At Lothal, which is one of the main Indus sitone of the main Indus sites, a port hases, a port has been found.
been found. Representations of ships Representations of ships have been found on square steatite seals have been found on square steatite seals discovereddiscovered at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal
at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal and other settlementand other settlements. s. Trade was probably Trade was probably conductedconducted using overland routes as well.
using overland routes as well. There is some evidence that IThere is some evidence that Indus traders used bullock ndus traders used bullock cart caravans to get their goods
cart caravans to get their goods to foreign markets, (Bag, 1985, p. to foreign markets, (Bag, 1985, p. 10). 10). Using ships andUsing ships and caravans, the Indus traders exported
caravans, the Indus traders exported a great variety of goods, including cotton, a great variety of goods, including cotton, grains,grains, gold, silver, copper, lapis lazuli, ivory ornaments, stone b
gold, silver, copper, lapis lazuli, ivory ornaments, stone b eads and even pearls, eads and even pearls, (Wheeler,(Wheeler, 1966, p. 64).
1966, p. 64).
There is a great deal of
There is a great deal of evidence to prove that Indus evidence to prove that Indus traders brought items such astraders brought items such as these to Mesopotamian markets t
these to Mesopotamian markets thousands of miles away. housands of miles away. The distinctly Indus squareThe distinctly Indus square steatite seals with the unique Indus script have b
steatite seals with the unique Indus script have been found at ruins in Mesopotamia,een found at ruins in Mesopotamia, (Buchanan, 1967, p. 104).
(Buchanan, 1967, p. 104). The script is stThe script is still undeciphered but Indus experts belill undeciphered but Indus experts believe thatieve that the seals were used as personal
the seals were used as personal trademarks and were brought to Mesopotamia by Industrademarks and were brought to Mesopotamia by Indus traders.
been found in Mesopotamia and at Lothal.
been found in Mesopotamia and at Lothal. Persian Gulf seals Persian Gulf seals are a combination of are a combination of typical Mesopotamian and Indus seals.
typical Mesopotamian and Indus seals. They are round like the forThey are round like the former but bear themer but bear the typical designs and script of
typical designs and script of the latter, (Wheeler, 1966, p. 37). the latter, (Wheeler, 1966, p. 37). The existence of theseThe existence of these types of seals shows that there was contact between
types of seals shows that there was contact between these two civilizations.these two civilizations.
There have also been objects of Indus origin found on the island of Bahrain in the There have also been objects of Indus origin found on the island of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf, near Mesopotami
Persian Gulf, near Mesopotamia. a. Excavations at Bahrain have identified it Excavations at Bahrain have identified it as the placeas the place "Dilmun" mentioned in the Sumeri
"Dilmun" mentioned in the Sumerian texts, (Bag, 1985, pp. 10-11). an texts, (Bag, 1985, pp. 10-11). These texts say tThese texts say thathat there was trade
there was trade between "Dilmun" and "Mesopotambetween "Dilmun" and "Mesopotamia". ia". Archeologists have alsArcheologists have also beeno been able to identify the "Meluhha" mentioned
able to identify the "Meluhha" mentioned in Sumerian texts as the coast of the in Sumerian texts as the coast of the Sind andSind and Saurashtra, where the Indus port
Saurashtra, where the Indus port Lothal is located, (Bag, 1985, pp.10-11). Lothal is located, (Bag, 1985, pp.10-11). The evidenceThe evidence of contact between these
of contact between these two civilizations is very pronounced.two civilizations is very pronounced.
The Indus people did not trade only with Mesopotamia, though, and they did not The Indus people did not trade only with Mesopotamia, though, and they did not only export goods.
only export goods. Numerous objects have been found in the INumerous objects have been found in the Indus settlements which arendus settlements which are made of materials that were
made of materials that were not indigenous to that region. not indigenous to that region. They could only have beenThey could only have been imports - either from Mesopotamia or a number of o
imports - either from Mesopotamia or a number of o ther peoples that the Harappansther peoples that the Harappans traded with, (Bag, 1985, pp. 11-12).
traded with, (Bag, 1985, pp. 11-12). By all accounts, the Indus ValBy all accounts, the Indus Valley civilization was anley civilization was an important and influential member of the international community in an
important and influential member of the international community in an cient times, at or cient times, at or near the same level of importance as Mesopotamia.
near the same level of importance as Mesopotamia.
In order to maintain the substantial trading that the
In order to maintain the substantial trading that the Indus people were engaged Indus people were engaged inin and also to meet the domestic demands of the urban areas, a large portion of the
and also to meet the domestic demands of the urban areas, a large portion of the population must have been crafts workers.
population must have been crafts workers. One of the largest clOne of the largest classes of crafts workerasses of crafts workerss must have been the brick makers, obviously, since the Harappans built their settlements must have been the brick makers, obviously, since the Harappans built their settlements out of brick.
settlement, an abundance of clay ware and potsher
settlement, an abundance of clay ware and potsherds have been found. ds have been found. Clay pots held aClay pots held a special significance
special significance for the for the Indus people. Indus people. They were They were not just not just household items. household items. In almostIn almost every grave found at Indus sites, clay pots have been found buried along with the dead. every grave found at Indus sites, clay pots have been found buried along with the dead. Almost all of these clay wares from the mature phase
Almost all of these clay wares from the mature phase of the Harappan civilization wereof the Harappan civilization were made on a pottery
made on a pottery wheel, as opposed twheel, as opposed to hand-sculpted. o hand-sculpted. Mature Harappan phase pottMature Harappan phase potteryery was decorated with designs and pigments
was decorated with designs and pigments. . But the pots were not piBut the pots were not pieces of art as they eces of art as they areare in some other cultures.
in some other cultures. The representations of animals The representations of animals and people are very simpliand people are very simplistic andstic and evidence indicates that pots with designs were often mass-produced.
evidence indicates that pots with designs were often mass-produced.
The metallurgists of the Indus civilization worked mainly with gold, silver, The metallurgists of the Indus civilization worked mainly with gold, silver, copper and bronze.
copper and bronze. Copper was Copper was the most the most commonly used commonly used of these of these metals. metals. It was It was foundfound in abundance in this region.
in abundance in this region. It was probably tIt was probably the first metal that he first metal that the Harappans' ancestorsthe Harappans' ancestors worked with since it was
worked with since it was the most easily mthe most easily malleable. alleable. At the Indus ruins, everyAt the Indus ruins, everything fromthing from copper jewelry to copper weaponry has been found - beads, arrowheads, needles, kitchen copper jewelry to copper weaponry has been found - beads, arrowheads, needles, kitchen utensils, amulets, fish
utensils, amulets, fish hooks, hairpins, etc. hooks, hairpins, etc. Copper was also an importCopper was also an important export, withant export, with copper ingots found at the port city of Lothal, (Bag, 1985, p. 81).
copper ingots found at the port city of Lothal, (Bag, 1985, p. 81). Bronze is an alloy of copper an
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin and in the d tin and in the Indus valley; the ores of these twoIndus valley; the ores of these two metals could often be found together.
metals could often be found together. The Harappans' ancestors probably stThe Harappans' ancestors probably started using itarted using it not long after the discovery
not long after the discovery of copper. of copper. Bronze was also used for Bronze was also used for a broad variety of a broad variety of purposes in the Indus civi
purposes in the Indus civilization. lization. One of the most promiOne of the most prominent Indus artifacts that nent Indus artifacts that havehave ever been discovered is the statuett
ever been discovered is the statuette of a dancing girl cast in e of a dancing girl cast in bronze (Figure 2). bronze (Figure 2). It is oneIt is one of the finest works of
of the finest works of Harappan art. Harappan art. But the Indus people did prefer But the Indus people did prefer to use bronze toto use bronze to make weaponry and cutting utensils i
used for these purposes than copper.
used for these purposes than copper. It was and is a It was and is a stronger metal than copper, better stronger metal than copper, better suited to their purposes, and the Harappans recognized that, (Bag, p. 1985, p. 79). suited to their purposes, and the Harappans recognized that, (Bag, p. 1985, p. 79).
Figure 2 "Dancing Girl" Figure 2 "Dancing Girl"
Gold has been found in the Indus region and experts believe it was the next metal Gold has been found in the Indus region and experts believe it was the next metal that the Harappans utilized.
that the Harappans utilized. Silver is not Silver is not believed to have been located in this area, believed to have been located in this area, but isbut is thought to have been an import from out
thought to have been an import from outside the subcontinent. side the subcontinent. The import business inThe import business in silver must have been strong because I
silver must have been strong because Indus metallurgists oftndus metallurgists often worked with silver. en worked with silver. ButBut these two metals, unlike copper and bronze, were not used for any other purpose than for these two metals, unlike copper and bronze, were not used for any other purpose than for ornamentation.
ornamentation. The Indus people were believed to have worn a grThe Indus people were believed to have worn a great deal of ornaments,eat deal of ornaments, though.
though. Figurines found at Indus Figurines found at Indus sites all "wear" necklaces, arsites all "wear" necklaces, armbands and bangles, evenmbands and bangles, even the male figurines, (Marl
the male figurines, (Marlow, 1967, [p. 603). ow, 1967, [p. 603). The use of gold and silThe use of gold and silver was quitever was quite extensive and no d
extensive and no doubt there were many metallurgists who specialized in gold oubt there were many metallurgists who specialized in gold or silver.or silver. Considering the extensive use of all four
Considering the extensive use of all four metals, it is reasonable to believe thatmetals, it is reasonable to believe that metallurgists made up a significant percentage of the
metallurgists made up a significant percentage of the crafts worker population of Induscrafts worker population of Indus urban centers.
Textile workers were also
Textile workers were also included in the class of included in the class of crafts workers. crafts workers. The IndusThe Indus civilization was one of the first in the
civilization was one of the first in the world to cultivate cotton and weave world to cultivate cotton and weave it into cloth (c.it into cloth (c. 3000 BCE).
3000 BCE). The Harappan textile workers wove clThe Harappan textile workers wove cloth by hand by interloth by hand by interlacing two or acing two or more sets of
more sets of strands. strands. There was no There was no type of loom. type of loom. Cotton thread was Cotton thread was made by usingmade by using terracotta spindles.
terracotta spindles. Dye vats have also been found at Dye vats have also been found at some Indus sites and some Indus sites and it has beenit has been determined that they were used to dye the cotton cloth red, (Bhattacharya, 1988, p. 11). determined that they were used to dye the cotton cloth red, (Bhattacharya, 1988, p. 11). Cotton cloth was also an important trade
Cotton cloth was also an important trade item.item. Sharp-edged tools were made by
Sharp-edged tools were made by metallurgists, but alsmetallurgists, but also by stoneworkers. o by stoneworkers. For For example, a common household implement was a parallel-sided chert flake which served example, a common household implement was a parallel-sided chert flake which served as a bl
as a blade. ade. Sculptors also Sculptors also used stone used stone for statues. for statues. Three exquisite Three exquisite pieces have been pieces have been found:found: a male torso, a female torso and
a male torso, a female torso and the bust of a bearded the bust of a bearded "wise man," This last bust has been"wise man," This last bust has been the subject of much debate among Indus experts
the subject of much debate among Indus experts. . Most experts believe that tMost experts believe that this statue ishis statue is a representation of an Indus priest-king or deity, (Figure 3).
a representation of an Indus priest-king or deity, (Figure 3).
Figure 3 "Wise Man" Figure 3 "Wise Man"
Indus seal makers also worked in stone,
Indus seal makers also worked in stone, creating seals that were miniature workscreating seals that were miniature works of art.
of art. They worked mostly wiThey worked mostly with steatite, occasionally witth steatite, occasionally with agate and chert andh agate and chert and sometimes even with terracott
sometimes even with terracotta, faience and copper, (Bag, 1985, p. 74). a, faience and copper, (Bag, 1985, p. 74). Every seal isEvery seal is unique, but they do follow a general
unique, but they do follow a general form. form. Most of the sealMost of the seals are square or rectangular,s are square or rectangular, though there are some round seals
though there are some round seals e.g. the Persian Gulf seale.g. the Persian Gulf seals. s. The typical Indus sealThe typical Indus seal design is carved in a
design is carved in a sunken pattern, so that the impression the seal sunken pattern, so that the impression the seal makes appears inmakes appears in relief.
relief. Animals are Animals are usually depictusually depicted on the ed on the seals, both seals, both real and real and fantastical. fantastical. They wereThey were carved on the seals with great
carved on the seals with great skill and attention to detaiskill and attention to detail. l. Seals have been found whichSeals have been found which feature an elephant, a rhinoceros, a ti
feature an elephant, a rhinoceros, a tiger, an antelope and a crocodile. ger, an antelope and a crocodile. Bulls have alsoBulls have also been found on the Indus seals.
been found on the Indus seals. The bull, in particular, sThe bull, in particular, seems to have been a focal point of eems to have been a focal point of interest of the Indus people.
interest of the Indus people. Speculations about a link between a Speculations about a link between a religious bull cult andreligious bull cult and the bull cult of the Minoans have been made, but "no direct link between their bull cult the bull cult of the Minoans have been made, but "no direct link between their bull cult and that of the Minoans...has been established," (Cunningham and Reich, 2006, p. 173). and that of the Minoans...has been established," (Cunningham and Reich, 2006, p. 173). Also creatures that are composites of many animals have
Also creatures that are composites of many animals have been featured on several been featured on several sealsseals and one seal even shows an animal that appears to be a unicorn (Figure 4).
and one seal even shows an animal that appears to be a unicorn (Figure 4).
Figure 4 Unicorn Seal Figure 4 Unicorn Seal
Human figurines are only sometimes depicted on the
Human figurines are only sometimes depicted on the seals but are usually muchseals but are usually much cruder renderings than the animal depicti
cruder renderings than the animal depictions. ons. Sailors are depicted on a sSailors are depicted on a ship on somehip on some seals.
seals. One of the most elaboratOne of the most elaborate Indus seals is the e Indus seals is the "Seal of the Seven Deiti"Seal of the Seven Deities" (Figure 5),es" (Figure 5), which has seven identical stick f
which has seven identical stick figures representing the deitiigures representing the deities. es. Three seals, includingThree seals, including one nicknamed "The Lord of the Beasts" (Figure 6) appear to be a prototype of the later one nicknamed "The Lord of the Beasts" (Figure 6) appear to be a prototype of the later Hindu god Shiva.
Hindu god Shiva. These seals show that tThese seals show that there was an apparent continuity bethere was an apparent continuity between theween the Indus age and the later Aryan
Indus age and the later Aryan age in Indian history. age in Indian history. The Indus culture did have anThe Indus culture did have an influence on the development of later Indian cultures, (Wheeler, 1966, p.40).
influence on the development of later Indian cultures, (Wheeler, 1966, p.40).
Figure 5 Seal of the
Figure 5 Seal of the Seven DeitiesSeven Deities
Figure 6 "The Lord of
Most of the Indus seals also have writing on them, but the Indus script has not Most of the Indus seals also have writing on them, but the Indus script has not been deciphered as
been deciphered as of yet. There is no equivalent of of yet. There is no equivalent of the Rosetta stone for the Indus valleythe Rosetta stone for the Indus valley language, (Moor and Eldredge,
language, (Moor and Eldredge, 1970, p.16), and 1970, p.16), and the script is not at all similar to Egyptianthe script is not at all similar to Egyptian or Sumerian. "The pictographs are as phenomenon that, within a short range of time and or Sumerian. "The pictographs are as phenomenon that, within a short range of time and space, three great civilizations produced three
space, three great civilizations produced three utterly divergent systems of notation,"utterly divergent systems of notation," (Wheeler, 1966, p. 40).
(Wheeler, 1966, p. 40). Another impediment to deciphering this script is that there are Another impediment to deciphering this script is that there are nono long Indus texts which scholars can work with. The Indus seals, along with some graffiti long Indus texts which scholars can work with. The Indus seals, along with some graffiti found on some clay pots, are
found on some clay pots, are the only examples of Indus writing that have the only examples of Indus writing that have beenbeen recognized in Indus script. This number o
recognized in Indus script. This number of characters in a language rules ouf characters in a language rules out thet the possibility that this is either an alphabetic (one character-one letter), or
possibility that this is either an alphabetic (one character-one letter), or a logographica logographic language (one character-one wo
language (one character-one word), (Fairservis, 1983, p.61). A logo-syllabic language isrd), (Fairservis, 1983, p.61). A logo-syllabic language is more complex than an alphabetic or logographic one, which makes deciphering it that more complex than an alphabetic or logographic one, which makes deciphering it that much harder, (Bag, 1985, p.112).
much harder, (Bag, 1985, p.112).
Some progress has been made, though. Indus experts have been able to analyze Some progress has been made, though. Indus experts have been able to analyze the graffiti on the clay pots, and
the graffiti on the clay pots, and have determined that the Indus script was read have determined that the Indus script was read from rightfrom right to left, (Bag, 1985, p.111). They were able to come this conclusion because the script on to left, (Bag, 1985, p.111). They were able to come this conclusion because the script on the pots was handwritten, not carved,
the pots was handwritten, not carved, and some of the characters that weand some of the characters that were writtenre written partially overlapped each other. Careful analysis of these ov
partially overlapped each other. Careful analysis of these ov erlapped areas revealed thaterlapped areas revealed that the first character written on the pot was the
the first character written on the pot was the rightmost one, (Bag, 1985, p.111). Burightmost one, (Bag, 1985, p.111). But thet the direction of the writing is the only characteristic of this language
direction of the writing is the only characteristic of this language that Indus experts havethat Indus experts have been able to conclusively determine. These experts have been reduced to conjecture and been able to conclusively determine. These experts have been reduced to conjecture and educated guesses as to the translation of the script. The probable uses of the seals during educated guesses as to the translation of the script. The probable uses of the seals during
Indus times have provided some clues. Evidence suggests that the seals were a kind of Indus times have provided some clues. Evidence suggests that the seals were a kind of marker, which could be stamped on certain objects. The impressions of one seal have marker, which could be stamped on certain objects. The impressions of one seal have been found on
been found on many clay pots, and Indus experts believe many clay pots, and Indus experts believe that this was the way potters or that this was the way potters or pot sellers branded their wares, (Bag, 1985, p 74). But the seals were not for trading pot sellers branded their wares, (Bag, 1985, p 74). But the seals were not for trading purpose only. Experts speculate that people
purpose only. Experts speculate that people used them also as marks of social rank--theyused them also as marks of social rank--they would identify the owner as the
would identify the owner as the holder of a certain office or title, (Fairservis, 1983, p.66).holder of a certain office or title, (Fairservis, 1983, p.66). The seals themselves also suggest that they were u
The seals themselves also suggest that they were u sed as personalized markers--most of sed as personalized markers--most of them have a perforated boss on the back, for handling and suspension, (Fairservis, 1983, them have a perforated boss on the back, for handling and suspension, (Fairservis, 1983, p.59; Wheeler, 1966, p. 37). Based on this, it is reasonable to assume that the language on p.59; Wheeler, 1966, p. 37). Based on this, it is reasonable to assume that the language on
the seals refers to personal names, occupations,
the seals refers to personal names, occupations, and family affiliations. This helps Indusand family affiliations. This helps Indus script experts by allowing them to put the
script experts by allowing them to put the foreign writing into a specific context.foreign writing into a specific context. The Indus script experts have also looked
The Indus script experts have also looked for clues in the modern languages for clues in the modern languages of theof the Indian subcontinent. They believe that, based on archaeological evidence, the Harappan Indian subcontinent. They believe that, based on archaeological evidence, the Harappan language cannot have
language cannot have completely died out--it was probably still spoken in some formcompletely died out--it was probably still spoken in some form after the civilization declined, and must have been transformed throughout the centuries after the civilization declined, and must have been transformed throughout the centuries into one of the languages or language groups of today, (Bag, 1985, p.115). Comparisons into one of the languages or language groups of today, (Bag, 1985, p.115). Comparisons have been made between the pictographic Indus script and the Dravidian language group, have been made between the pictographic Indus script and the Dravidian language group, spoken by the peoples of South India, and similarities have been found, (Fairservis, 1983, spoken by the peoples of South India, and similarities have been found, (Fairservis, 1983, pp. 62-63). Many Indus script experts have
pp. 62-63). Many Indus script experts have tried to translate the Harappan language tried to translate the Harappan language usingusing a Dravidian language framework. "But the translations reached by this method are not a Dravidian language framework. "But the translations reached by this method are not always satisfactory"' (Bag, 1985, p.116). The Indus
always satisfactory"' (Bag, 1985, p.116). The Indus experts involved in this endeavor doexperts involved in this endeavor do believe, though, that they are using the correct approach. "The Dravidian solution is the believe, though, that they are using the correct approach. "The Dravidian solution is the
most likely choice of many historical linguists, though other possibilities have not bee most likely choice of many historical linguists, though other possibilities have not bee nn
totally excluded," (Bag, 1985, p.119). The other possibilities are that the Harappan totally excluded," (Bag, 1985, p.119). The other possibilities are that the Harappan language was related to the Brahmi language (the script of the two languages is very language was related to the Brahmi language (the script of the two languages is very similar), or to the Indo-European family of language,
similar), or to the Indo-European family of language, which are associated with thewhich are associated with the Aryans, (Bag, 1985, p. 113
Aryans, (Bag, 1985, p. 113). The seal makers of the Indus ). The seal makers of the Indus valley civilization have leftvalley civilization have left behind a legacy that will undoubtedly occupy the time and thoughts of many Indus behind a legacy that will undoubtedly occupy the time and thoughts of many Indus
scholars for a long time to come. scholars for a long time to come.
The evidence left behind by the Indus traders and crafts-workers give the people The evidence left behind by the Indus traders and crafts-workers give the people of today tantalizing glimpses of a highly sophisticated urban civilization that flourished of today tantalizing glimpses of a highly sophisticated urban civilization that flourished thousands of years ago. The urban centers are monuments to municipal and other thousands of years ago. The urban centers are monuments to municipal and other
governmental authority. The existence of a brisk Indus import and export business and a governmental authority. The existence of a brisk Indus import and export business and a large and varied crafts industry are a testament to the prosperity and advanced nature of large and varied crafts industry are a testament to the prosperity and advanced nature of this civilization. However, none of the Indus urban centers would have existed, nor would this civilization. However, none of the Indus urban centers would have existed, nor would there have been any traders or crafts workers if the Indus people had not been able to there have been any traders or crafts workers if the Indus people had not been able to master the art of agriculture and food production, (Bag, 1985, pp.8-9). Because they did, master the art of agriculture and food production, (Bag, 1985, pp.8-9). Because they did, not all people had
not all people had to devote all of their time to these to devote all of their time to these pursuits, and could become the pursuits, and could become the craftscrafts workers and merchants needed to develop an urban civilization. The Indus people came workers and merchants needed to develop an urban civilization. The Indus people came up with many innovations in food
up with many innovations in food cultivation that helped them shift from a rural to ancultivation that helped them shift from a rural to an urban-based culture. The main crop that was cultivated was wheat, but many others were urban-based culture. The main crop that was cultivated was wheat, but many others were cultivated as well, such as field peas, dates, mustard seeds, sesamum, and possibly rice, cultivated as well, such as field peas, dates, mustard seeds, sesamum, and possibly rice, (Wheeler, 1966, pp.63-64). No
(Wheeler, 1966, pp.63-64). No doubt the cultivation of a variety of crops doubt the cultivation of a variety of crops created a better,created a better, more nutritious diet for the Indus people. Their
more nutritious diet for the Indus people. Their diet was also greatly improved by thediet was also greatly improved by the domestication of several animals, including, most importantly, the chicken.
domestication of several animals, including, most importantly, the chicken. TheThe domestication of this fowl was great advancement
only enriched their diet, but greatly increased their
only enriched their diet, but greatly increased their food output. This step was alsofood output. This step was also
significant in the development of world civilization. The Indus people were the first ones significant in the development of world civilization. The Indus people were the first ones to domesticate fowl for human consumption, and many cultures since have followed in to domesticate fowl for human consumption, and many cultures since have followed in their footsteps, (Wolpert, 1989, p.20). The Indus people also were able to develop a very their footsteps, (Wolpert, 1989, p.20). The Indus people also were able to develop a very complex irrigation-and-inundation system, which helped them greatly increase their grain complex irrigation-and-inundation system, which helped them greatly increase their grain supply. They were able to farm more land and raise crops on ground that would have supply. They were able to farm more land and raise crops on ground that would have been otherwise unarable because
been otherwise unarable because of this advance. Without this irrigation-and-inundationof this advance. Without this irrigation-and-inundation system, the Harappans would not have been capable of supporting a large surplus urban system, the Harappans would not have been capable of supporting a large surplus urban population, (Wolpert, 1989, p.20).
population, (Wolpert, 1989, p.20).
There has also been much evidence that has been uncovered at the Indus ruins to There has also been much evidence that has been uncovered at the Indus ruins to provide insight into the type of society and
provide insight into the type of society and culture the Indus people lived in. culture the Indus people lived in. TheThe theocratic nature of the Indus government
theocratic nature of the Indus government was mentioned earlier, as were the religiouswas mentioned earlier, as were the religious rituals that the Harappans observed. The nature of the Harappan religion has been found rituals that the Harappans observed. The nature of the Harappan religion has been found by Indus experts to be fertility based - a co
by Indus experts to be fertility based - a combination of Mother Goddess and phallicmbination of Mother Goddess and phallic worship, (Marlow, September 1967, p.605). Many crude clay figurines have been found worship, (Marlow, September 1967, p.605). Many crude clay figurines have been found at Indus sites which archaeologists have conc
at Indus sites which archaeologists have concluded are representations of the Indusluded are representations of the Indus Mother Goddess. A few stones have also been found at the Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa Mother Goddess. A few stones have also been found at the Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa sites that are in the shape of
sites that are in the shape of male and female genitalia, and male and female genitalia, and Indus experts believe thatIndus experts believe that they are religious artifact, (Bhattacharya, 1988, p.12). The
they are religious artifact, (Bhattacharya, 1988, p.12). The prototype of the later Hinduprototype of the later Hindu God Shiva, which was found
God Shiva, which was found on three of the steatite seals, was also probabon three of the steatite seals, was also probably linked toly linked to this phallic worship. In the Hindu religion, Shiva is
this phallic worship. In the Hindu religion, Shiva is often represented by a phallic shapedoften represented by a phallic shaped idol, (Rai, 1992, p.22). Considering that the origins of Shiva were in the Harappan
idol, (Rai, 1992, p.22). Considering that the origins of Shiva were in the Harappan religion, and that the Harappans engaged in phallic worship, it seems probable that the religion, and that the Harappans engaged in phallic worship, it seems probable that the
link between Shiva and a phallus also originated in the Harappan religion, (Rai, 1992, p. link between Shiva and a phallus also originated in the Harappan religion, (Rai, 1992, p. 22).
22).
The social structure of this society seems to have included
The social structure of this society seems to have included a large middle class,a large middle class, which makes it very unlike the Sumerian and Egyptian societies, which consisted of a which makes it very unlike the Sumerian and Egyptian societies, which consisted of a few rich and many poor, (Wheeler, 1966, p.21). The remains of the houses found in the few rich and many poor, (Wheeler, 1966, p.21). The remains of the houses found in the Indus cities indicate this. The thickness of the foundations of the walls of most Indus Indus cities indicate this. The thickness of the foundations of the walls of most Indus dwellings indicates that there were many two and
dwellings indicates that there were many two and three story houses. There was also athree story houses. There was also a working class, which lived in smaller cottages in
working class, which lived in smaller cottages in both cities and in barracks near both cities and in barracks near thethe granaries, (Moore and Eldredge, 1970,
granaries, (Moore and Eldredge, 1970, p.19). Of course, there was the p.19). Of course, there was the elite as well, whichelite as well, which included the college of p
included the college of priests, who lived at the citadel of the riests, who lived at the citadel of the settlement, and some of thesettlement, and some of the wealthiest families. There have been no
wealthiest families. There have been no ruins of palatial building found as of yet, ruins of palatial building found as of yet, though,though, in either the residential areas or at the
in either the residential areas or at the citadels of any Indus site. Indus experts havecitadels of any Indus site. Indus experts have concluded from this lack of ev
concluded from this lack of evidence that there was no idence that there was no "superrich" class in Indus society"superrich" class in Indus society that was many, many times wealthier than other Harappans. This is also one of the
that was many, many times wealthier than other Harappans. This is also one of the reasons why Indus experts believe that this society was ruled
reasons why Indus experts believe that this society was ruled by a theocracy, and not bby a theocracy, and not by ay a monarchy or oligarchy.
monarchy or oligarchy.
The houses that the Indus people lived in were of different sizes, but all were The houses that the Indus people lived in were of different sizes, but all were constructed according to the same
constructed according to the same basic floor plan. All houses had a basic floor plan. All houses had a square interior square interior courtyard, around which the rooms were located. There were no windows facing the courtyard, around which the rooms were located. There were no windows facing the streets, and the main entrance of every house was located on the side of the residence. It streets, and the main entrance of every house was located on the side of the residence. It could only be reached by walking down a narrow side lane that intersected the main could only be reached by walking down a narrow side lane that intersected the main street, (Moore and Eldredge, 1970, p.18). It seems that the Harappans were not very street, (Moore and Eldredge, 1970, p.18). It seems that the Harappans were not very creative when it came to architecture. Nor could they be characterized as quick to change creative when it came to architecture. Nor could they be characterized as quick to change
-- the excavations at Mohenjo-daro have revealed a total of ten cities so far, one built -- the excavations at Mohenjo-daro have revealed a total of ten cities so far, one built right on the top of the other, (Wolpert, 1989, p.16). The houses of one level are built right on the top of the other, (Wolpert, 1989, p.16). The houses of one level are built exactly as they were on the level underneath, and the ten cities are believed to have been exactly as they were on the level underneath, and the ten cities are believed to have been built over centuries, (Wolpert, 1989, p.
built over centuries, (Wolpert, 1989, p. 16). Conservatism, utilitarianism, and practical-16). Conservatism, utilitarianism, and practical-mindedness seem to have been
mindedness seem to have been the distinguishing characteristics of the people of thisthe distinguishing characteristics of the people of this civilization.
civilization.
Of course, as one can
Of course, as one can imagine, in a culture such as imagine, in a culture such as this one, art was not a primarythis one, art was not a primary concern. There have been only four really noteworthy pieces of Indus art that have been concern. There have been only four really noteworthy pieces of Indus art that have been found--the male and female stone torsos, the bronze "dancing girl", and the stone bust of found--the male and female stone torsos, the bronze "dancing girl", and the stone bust of the bearded wise man. There are some well-made animal figurines that have been found, the bearded wise man. There are some well-made animal figurines that have been found, but most of the other pieces
but most of the other pieces of art are crude representations, and are of art are crude representations, and are poorly made. Of poorly made. Of course, there are the magnificent Indus
course, there are the magnificent Indus seals, each a miniature work of art, bseals, each a miniature work of art, but Indusut Indus artisans were not just creating art for art's sake when
artisans were not just creating art for art's sake when they constructed these seals. Theythey constructed these seals. They had practical purpose. In addition, no evidence has been found of any other kind of art, had practical purpose. In addition, no evidence has been found of any other kind of art, such as music or literature.
such as music or literature.
The cemeteries of the Indus sites, which are
The cemeteries of the Indus sites, which are the third main feature of an Industhe third main feature of an Indus settlement, have been excavated also and dozens of bodies have been exhumed. The settlement, have been excavated also and dozens of bodies have been exhumed. The funerary customs of the Harappans included the burial of a number of clay pots that funerary customs of the Harappans included the burial of a number of clay pots that contained various human belongings, along with the dead body. The body was always contained various human belongings, along with the dead body. The body was always inhumed on its back, with the head facing north, (wheeler, 1966, p.35). No "royal tombs" inhumed on its back, with the head facing north, (wheeler, 1966, p.35). No "royal tombs" have ever been
have ever been located, but wealthier citizens were interred in mud-brick located, but wealthier citizens were interred in mud-brick graves or brick graves or brick chambers, (Wheeler, 1966, p.35). The Harappans usually buried their dead singly, but chambers, (Wheeler, 1966, p.35). The Harappans usually buried their dead singly, but three double graves, each containing a male and a female skeleton, have been found at three double graves, each containing a male and a female skeleton, have been found at
