EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, 9/e, ACTIVE LEARNING EDITION

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Anita E Woolfolk-Hoy

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EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, 9/e,

ACTIVE LEARNING EDITION

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Educational Psychology

Ninth Edition

Active Learning Edition

Anita Woolfolk

The Ohio State University

ALLYN & BACON

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To 35 years of students.

You are a gift, and my greatest teacher.

AWH

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hoy, Anita Woolfolk

Educational psychology / Anita Woolfolk.—Active learning ed., 9th ed.

p. cm.

ISBN 0-205-43529-7

1. Educational psychology. I. Title.

LB1051.W74 2005 370.15—dc22

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iii Preface xxi

Cluster 1 Teachers, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 1

Module 1 Teachers, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 1

Point/Counterpoint: What Is Good Teaching? 7

Cluster 2 Cognitive Development and Language 18

Module 2 Development: Some General Principles 20 Point/Counterpoint: Brain-Based Education 25

Family/Community Partnerships: Promoting Literacy 28 Module 3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 31 Module 4 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective 43 Module 5 Implications of Piaget and Vygotsky

for Teachers 51

Guidelines: Teaching the Preoperational Child 37 Guidelines: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 39 Guidelines: Helping Students to Use Formal

Operations 41

Guidelines: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching 57

Cluster 3 Personal, Moral, and Social Development 60

Module 6 Understanding Ourselves and Others 62 Guidelines: Encouraging Initiative in Preschool Children 64 Guidelines: Encouraging Industry 64

Guidelines: Supporting Identity Formation 66 Point/Counterpoint: What Should Schools Do

to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem? 70

Family/Community Partnerships: Building Self-Esteem 74 Guidelines: Encouraging Emotional Competence 75 Module 7 Moral Development 78

Guidelines: Dealing With Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation 84

Module 8 Socialization: Family, Peers, and Teachers 88

Guidelines: Helping Children of Divorce 89 Guidelines: Supporting Personal and Social

Development 91

Guidelines: Safety on the Internet 94

Cluster 4 Learner Differences and Learning Needs 100

Module 9 Individual Differences: Intelligence, Cognitive Processing, and Learning Styles 102 Guidelines: Interpreting IQ Scores 110

Module 10 Integration and Inclusion: Teaching Every Child in Today’s Classroom 116

Family/Community Partnerships: Productive Conferences 118 Guidelines: Encouraging Language Development 122 Guidelines: Teaching Students with Mild Retardation 124 Guidelines: Disciplining Students with Emotional

Problems 126

Module 11 Ability Differences and Teaching 136 Point/Counterpoint: Is Tracking An Effective Strategy? 138 Guidelines: Grouping by Achievement 139

Cluster 5 Culture and Community 146 Module 12 Diversity in Today’s Classrooms 148

Family/Community Partnerships: Building Learning Communities 158

Module 13 Girls and Boys: Differences in the Classroom 160

Guidelines: Avoiding Sexism in Teaching 169

Point/Counterpoint: Do Boys and Girls Learn Differently? 170 Module 14 Creating Culturally Compatible

Classrooms 173

Guidelines: Dialects in the Classroom 178 Guidelines: Culturally Relevant Teaching 184

Cluster 6 Behavioral Views of Learning 188 Module 15 Behavioral Explanations of Learning:

Contiguity, Classical Conditioning, and Operant Conditioning 190 Guidelines: Applying Classical Conditioning 194 Module 16 Applied Behavior Analysis 203

Guidelines: Using Praise Appropriately 204 Guidelines: Encouraging Positive Behaviors 207 Guidelines: Using Punishment 209

Module 17 Behavioral Approaches to Teaching and Management (includes Recent Approaches, Problems, and Issues) 212

B R I E F C O N T E N T S

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Family/Community Partnerships: Student Self-Management 218

Point/Counterpoint: Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning? 221

Cluster 7 Cognitive Views of Learning 226 Module 18 Elements of the Cognitive Perspective:

Information Processing 228 Guidelines: Gaining and Maintaining Attention 234 Module 19 Long-Term Memory: The Goal

of Teaching 241

Guidelines: Using Information Processing Ideas in the Classroom 249

Module 20 Cognition, Metacognition, and Teaching 252

Point/Counterpoint: What’s Wrong with Memorizing? 259 Family/Community Partnerships: Organizing Learning 261

Cluster 8 Complex Cognitive Processes 264 Module 21 Learning and Teaching about Concepts 266

Guidelines: Applying Bruner’s Ideas 272 Guidelines: Applying Ausubel’s Ideas 273 Module 22 Problem Solving 276

Point/Counterpoint: Should Students Be Allowed to Use Calculators and Spell-Checkers? 283

Guidelines: Problem Solving 286 Module 23 Teaching for Transfer 289

Guidelines: Becoming an Expert Student 295

Family/Community Partnerships: Promoting Transfer 299

Cluster 9 Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning 302

Module 24 Social Learning and Social Cognitive Theories 304

Guidelines: Using Observational Learning 310

Module 25 Constructivism and Situated Learning 314 Module 26 Applications of Constructivist and Situated

Perspectives on Learning 324 Point/Counterpoint: Should Schools Teach Critical

Thinking and Problem Solving? 332 Family/Community Partnerships: Communicating

about Innovations 334

Cluster 10 Motivation in Learning and Teaching 338 Module 27 Motivation: A Definition and Four

General Approaches 340

Module 28 Goals, Interests, and Emotions 350 Guidelines: Building on Students’ Interests 355 Point/Counterpoint: Does Making Learning Fun Make

for Good Learning? 356

Guidelines: Coping with Anxiety 358 Module 29 Self-Schemas 361

Guidelines: Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy 365

Guidelines: Encouraging Self-Efficacy and Self-Worth 367 Module 30 Motivation to Learn in School 370

Family/Community Partnerships: Motivation to Learn 382

Cluster 11 Creating Learning Environments 386 Module 31 Creating a Positive Learning

Environment 388

Guidelines: Establishing Class Procedures 394 Guidelines: Designing Learning Spaces 399 Module 32 Maintaining a Good Environment

for Learning 402

Guidelines: Keeping Students Engaged 403 Guidelines: Imposing Penalties 406

Point/Counterpoint: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea? 406 Module 33 The Need for Communication 410

Family/Community Partnerships: Classroom Management 418

Cluster 12 Teaching for Academic Learning 422 Module 34 The First Step: Planning 424

Guidelines: Using Instructional Objectives 429 Module 35 Teacher-Directed Instruction

and Teacher Expectations 434 Guidelines: Teaching Effectively 436

Point/Counterpoint: Is Homework a Valuable Use of Time? 441

Family/Community Partnerships: Homework 442 Guidelines: Productive Group Discussions 446 Guidelines: Avoiding the Negative Effects

of Teacher Expectations 450 Module 36 Student-Centered Teaching

in Content Areas and Inclusive Classrooms 453

Guidelines: Teaching for Conceptual Change 459

Cluster 13 Teaching for Self-Regulation, Creativity, and Tolerance 468

Module 37 Self-Regulation and Agency 470 Family/Community Partnerships: Parents Supporting

Self-Regulation 472

Point/Counterpoint: Should Schools Teach Character and Compassion? 478

Guidelines: Using Cooperative Learning 486 Module 38 Creativity and Community 489

Guidelines: Encouraging Creativity 492

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Cluster 14 Evaluation, Measurement, and Assessment 502 Module 39 Definitions and Concepts 504

Guidelines: Increasing Reliability and Validity 514 Family/Community Partnerships: Explaining

and Using Test Results 515

Guidelines: Becoming an Expert Test-Taker 516 Module 40 Standardized Tests 519

Point/Counterpoint: Should Tests Be Used to Hold Teachers Accountable? 525

Guidelines: Accommodations in Testing 531 Module 41 Getting the Most from Traditional

Classroom Assessment Approaches:

Testing and Grading 534 Guidelines: Writing Objective Test Items 537 Guidelines: Minimizing the Detrimental Effects

of Grades 542

Guidelines: Using Any Grading System 547 Family/Community Partnerships: Conferences 550

Module 42 Innovations in Classroom Assessment 553 Point/Counterpoint: Which Is Better—Traditional Tests

or Authentic Assessment? 554 Guidelines: Creating Portfolios 558 Guidelines: Developing a Rubric 560

Appendix A Becoming a Professional 567 Passing the PRAXIS™ 567

Becoming a Teacher 571

Enhancing Your Expertise With Technology 576

Appendix B Standards and Licensure: PRAXIS II^™ and INTASC 585

Glossary 601 References 611 Name Index 649 Subject Index 661

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Preface xxi

Cluster 1

Teachers, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 1

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would You Do? 1 Module 1

Teachers, Teaching, and

Educational Psychology 1

Overview 2

Teacher-Student Relationships 2 Teacher Preparation and Quality 2 Inside Four Classrooms 4

A Bilingual 1st Grade 4 A Suburban 5th Grade 4 Two Advanced Math Classes 5 Expert Knowledge 5

Beginning Teachers 6

The Role of Educational Psychology:

Is It Just Common Sense? 8 Taking Turns 9

Helping Students 9 Skipping Grades 9 Obvious Answer? 10

Using Research to Understand and Improve Teaching 10

Descriptive Studies 10 Correlational Studies 11 Experimental Studies 11

Single-Subject Experimental Designs 12 Microgenetic Studies 12

The Role of Time in Research 13 Theories for Teaching 13 Teachers as Researchers 14 SUMMARY 14

KEY TERMS 15 CHECK YOURSELF 16

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would They Do? 17 Point/Counterpoint: What Is Good Teaching? 7

Cluster 2

Cognitive Development and Language 18

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would You Do? 19

Module 2

Development: Some General Principles 20

Overview 20

The Brain and Cognitive Development 21 The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex 21 Specialization and Integration 22

The Developing Brain: Neurons 22 Implications for Teachers 24 The Development of Language 24 Diversity in Language: Dual Language Development 26

Language Development in the School Years 26 Pronunciation 26

Syntax 27

Vocabulary and Meaning 27 Pragmatics 27

Metalinguistic Awareness 27 Partnerships with Families 27 SUMMARY 29

Module 3

Piaget’s Theory of

Cognitive Development 31

Overview 31

Influences on Development 31 Basic Tendencies in Thinking 32

Organization 32

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C O N T E N T S

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Adaptation 32 Equilibration 33

Four Stages of Cognitive Development 33 Infancy: The Sensorimotor Stage 33

Early Childhood to the Elementary Years: The Preoperational Stage 34

Later Elementary to the Middle School Years: The Concrete-Operational Stage 36

Junior and Senior High: Formal Operations 38 Do We All Reach the Fourth Stage? 40

SUMMARY 41 KEY TERMS 41 CHECK YOURSELF 42

Module 4

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective 43

Overview 43

The Social Sources of Individual Thinking 44 Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development 45 The Role of Language and Private Speech 45

Language and Cultural Diversity 46 Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Views Compared 46 Self-Talk and Learning 47

The Role of Learning and Development 48 Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Views Compared 48 The Role of Adults and Peers 48

Module 5

Implications of Piaget and Vygotsky for Teachers 51

Overview 51

Understanding and Building on Students’ Thinking 51 Activity and Constructing Knowledge 52

The Value of Play 52

Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory 53 The Trouble with Stages 53

Underestimating Children’s Abilities 53 Cognitive Development and Information Processing 54

Cognitive Development and Culture 54 Assisted Learning 55

The Zone of Proximal Development 55 Private Speech and the Zone 56 Teaching 56

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would They Do? 59 Point/Counterpoint: Brain-Based Education 25 Family and Community Partnerships: Promoting

Literacy 28 Guidelines:

Teaching the Preoperational Child 37 Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 39 Helping Students to Use Formal Operations 41 Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching 57

Cluster 3

Personal, Moral, and Social Development 60

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would You Do? 61 Module 6

Understanding Ourselves

and Others 62

Overview 62

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development 62 The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy,

and Initiative 62

Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry versus Inferiority 64

Adolescence: The Search for Identity 65 Identity Statuses 65

Consequences of Different Statuses 65 Beyond the School Years 66

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem 66 The Structure of Self-Concept 67 How Self-Concept Develops 68 School Life and Self-Esteem 69 Gender, Ethnicity, and Self-Esteem 71

Diversity and Self-Esteem 72

Personal and Collective Self-Esteem 73 The Self and Others 74

Intention 74

Taking the Perspective of Others 74 Emotional Competence 75

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Module 7

Moral Development 78

Overview 78

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development 78 Alternatives to Kohlberg’s Theory 80

Cultural Differences in Moral Reasoning 80 Diversity in Reasoning: The Morality of Caring 80 Moral Behavior 82

Aggression 82 Bullies 83

Relational Aggression 83 Victims 84

When Aggression Leads to Violence 84 Cheating 85

Module 8

Socialization: Family, Peers, and Teachers 88

Overview 88

American Families Today 88 Divorce 88

Effects of Divorce 89

Peer Relationships and Peer Cultures 89 Who Is Likely to Have Problems with Peers? 90

Peer Cultures 90 New Roles for Teachers 91 Navigating Transitions 92

Young Children: Starting School 92 Students in the Middle Grades:

Another Transition 92 Children and Youth at Risk 94

Child Abuse 94 Eating Disorders 95 Drug Abuse 96 Suicide 96 SUMMARY 97 KEY TERMS 97 CHECK YOURSELF 98

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would They Do? 99 Point/Counterpoint: What Should Schools

Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem? 70 Family and Community Partnerships: Building

Self-Esteem 74

Guidelines:

Encouraging Initiative in Preschool Children 64 Encouraging Industry 64

Supporting Identity Formation 66 Encouraging Emotional Competence 75 Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging

Cooperation 84

Helping Children of Divorce 89

Supporting Personal and Social Development 91 Safety on the Internet 94

Cluster 4

Learner Differences and Learning Needs 100

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would You Do? 101 Module 9

Individual Differences: Intelligence,

Cognitive Processing, and Learning Styles 102

Overview 102

Language and Labeling 102 Person-First Language 102 Disabilities and Handicaps 103 Individual Differences in Intelligence 103

Intelligence: One Ability or Many? 104 Multiple Intelligences 104

Multiple Intelligences Go to School 106 Intelligence as a Process 107

How Is Intelligence Measured? 109 Binet’s Dilemma 109

Group versus Individual IQ Tests 109 What Does an IQ Score Mean? 110

Intelligence and Achievement 110

Intelligence: Heredity or Environment? 111 Cognitive Styles 111

Field Dependence and Field Independence 111 Impulsive and Reflective Cognitive

Styles 112

Learning Styles and Preferences 112 What Are Learning Preferences? 113 Cautions 113

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Module 10

Integration and Inclusion:

Teaching Every Child in Today’s Classroom 116

Overview 116

Least Restrictive Placement 116

Individualized Educational Program 117 The Rights of Students and Families 117 Prevalent Problems and Mild Disabilities 118 Students with Learning Disabilities 118

Student Characteristics 119

Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities 121 Students with Communication Disorders 121

Speech Disorders 121 Language Disorders 122

Students with Mental Retardation 123

Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 125 Less Prevalent Problems and More Severe

Disabilities 126

Students with Health Impairments 126 Cerebral Palsy and Multiple Disabilities 127 Seizure Disorders (Epilepsy) 127

Students Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing 128 Students with Low Vision and Blindness 128 Section 504 Protections for Students 129 Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders 130

Treating and Teaching Students with ADHD 131 SUMMARY 133

Module 11

Ability Differences and Teaching 136

Overview 136

Between-Class Ability Grouping 136 Within-Class Ability Grouping 137 Students Who are Gifted and Talented:

Who Are These Students? 139

What Is the Origin of These Gifts? 140 What Problems Do The Gifted Face? 141 Strategies for Identifying and Teaching Gifted Students 141

Recognizing Gifts and Talents 142 Teaching Gifted Students 142 SUMMARY 143

KEY TERMS 144

CHECK YOURSELF 144

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would They Do? 145 Point/Counterpoint: Is Tracking an Effective

Strategy? 138

Family and Community Partnerships:

Productive Conferences 118 Guidelines:

Interpreting IQ Scores 110

Encouraging Language Development 122 Teaching Students with Mild Retardation 124 Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems 126 Grouping by Achievement 139

Cluster 5

Culture and Community 146

Diversity in Today’s Classrooms 148

Overview 148

Individuals, Groups, and Society 148 American Cultural Diversity 150

Culture and Group Membership 150

Cautions in Interpreting Cultural Differences 150 Social Class Differences: Being Poor 151

SES and Achievement 152 Poor Health Care 152

Low Expectations—Low Self-Esteem 152 Learned Helplessness 153

Peer Influences and Resistance Cultures 153 Tracking 153

Childrearing Styles 154

Home Environment and Resources 154 Ethnic, Racial, and Cultural Differences:

The Changing Demographics 155 Cultural Conflicts 156

Cultural Compatibility 156

Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement 157

The Legacy of Discrimination 158 The Development of Prejudice 159 Continuing Discrimination 160 Stereotype Threat 161

Short-Term Effects: Test Performance 161 Long-Term Effects: Disidentification 162 Combating Stereotype Threat 162

Contents

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Module 13

Girls and Boys: Differences in the Classroom 165

Overview 165

Gender-Role Identity 165

Gender-Role Stereotyping in the Preschool Years 166 Gender Bias in the Curriculum 167

Sex Discrimination in Classrooms 167 Sex Differences in Mental Abilities 168 Eliminating Gender Bias 169

Module 14

Creating Culturally Compatible Classrooms 173

Overview 173

Social Organization 173 Learning Styles 173

Possible Differences 173

Cautions about Learning Styles Research 175 Sociolinguistics: Language Differences

in the Classroom 175

Participation Structures 175 Sources of Misunderstanding 175 Dialects 176

Dialects and Pronunciation 176 Dialects and Teaching 176 Bilingualism 177

What Does Bilingualism Mean? 177 Becoming Bilingual 178

Bilingual Education 179

Research on Bilingual Programs 181 Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 181

Students Must Experience Academic Success 181 Develop/Maintain Their Cultural Competence 181 Develop a Critical Consciousness to Challenge the Status Quo 182

Teaching Every Student: Know Your Students, Respect Your Students, Teach Your Students 183

Know Your Students 183 Respect Your Students 183 Teach Your Students 184

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would They Do? 187 Point/Counterpoint: Do Boys and Girls Learn

Differently? 170

Family and Community Partnerships: Building Learning Communities 158

Guidelines:

Avoiding Sexism in Teaching 169 Dialects in the Classroom 178 Culturally Relevant Teaching 184

Cluster 6

Behavioral Views of Learning 188

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would You Do? 189

Module 15

Behavioral Explanations of Learning:

Continguity, Classical Conditioning, and Operant Conditioning 190

Overview 190

Learning: A Definition 190

Learning Is Not Always What It Seems 191 Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning 192

Pavlov’s Dilemma and Discovery: Classical Conditioning 192

Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction 193 Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses 194 The Work of Thorndike and Skinner 195

Types of Consequences 195 Reinforcement 196 Punishment 197

Reinforcement Schedules 198 Extinction 198

Antecedents and Behavior Change 199 Cueing 199

Prompting 200 SUMMARY 201 KEY TERMS 201 CHECK YOURSELF 202

Module 16

Applied Behavior Analysis 203

Overview 203

Methods for Encouraging Behaviors 203

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Reinforcing with Teacher Attention 203

Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle 205 Shaping 205

Positive Practice 206

Coping with Undesirable Behavior 206 Negative Reinforcement 206

Satiation 208 Reprimands 208 Response Cost 209 Social Isolation 209 Some Cautions 209 SUMMARY 210 KEY TERMS 210 CHECK YOURSELF 211

Module 17

Behavioral Approaches to Teaching and Management 212

Overview 212

Mastery Learning 212 Group Consequences 213

Token Reinforcement Programs 213 Contingency Contract Programs 214 Recent Approaches: Self-Regulation and Cognitive Behavior Modification 215 Self-Management 216

Goal Setting 216

Monitoring and Evaluating Progress 216 Self-Reinforcement 217

Cognitive Behavior Modification and Self-Instruction 218

Criticisms of Behavioral Methods 219 Ethical Issues 222

Goals 222 Strategies 222 SUMMARY 223 KEY TERMS 223 CHECK YOURSELF 224

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would They Do? 225 Point/Counterpoint: Should Students Be

Rewarded for Learning? 221

Student Self-Management 218 Guidelines:

Applying Classical Conditioning 194 Using Praise Appropriately 204

Encouraging Positive Behaviors 207 Using Punishment 209

Cluster 7

Cognitive Views of Learning 226

Module 18

Elements of the Cognitive Perspective:

Information Processing 228

Overview 228

Comparing Cognitive and Behavioral Views 228 The Importance of Knowledge in Learning 229

General and Specific Knowledge 230 Declarative, Procedural, and Conditional Knowledge 230

An Overview of the Information Processing Model of Memory 230

Sensory Memory 232

Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory Memory 232

Perception 232

The Role of Attention 233 Attention and Teaching 233 Working Memory 234

The Central Executive 235 The Phonological Loop 235 The Visuospatial Sketchpad 236

Duration and Contents of Working Memory 236 Retaining Information in Working Memory 237 Forgetting 238

Module 19

Long-Term Memory:

The Goal of Teaching 241

Overview 241

Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Long-Term Memory 241

Explicit Memories: Semantic and Episodic 242 Propositions and Propositional Networks 243 Images 243

Schemas 243

Episodic Memory 245 Implicit Memories 245

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Storing and Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory 246

Levels of Processing Theories 247 Retrieving Information from Long-Term Memory 247

Forgetting and Long-Term Memory 248 SUMMARY 250

Module 20

Cognition, Metacognition, and Teaching 252

Overview 252

Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation 252 Individual Differences in Metacognition 253 Individual Differences and Working Memory 253

Developmental Differences 254 Individual Differences 254

Individual Differences and Long-Term Memory 255

Development of Declarative Knowledge 255 Making it Meaningful 255

Mnemonics 257 Rote Memorization 258

Becoming an Expert: Development of Procedural and Conditional Knowledge 258

Automated Basic Skills 259 Domain-Specific Strategies 260 Learning Outside School 260 SUMMARY 261

KEY TERMS 261

CHECK YOURSELF 262

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would They Do? 263 Point/Counterpoint: What’s Wrong

with Memorizing? 259

Organizing Learning 261 Guidelines:

Getting and Maintaining Attention 234 Using Information Processing Ideas

in the Classroom 249

Cluster 8

Complex Cognitive Processes 264

Module 21

Learning and Teaching about Concepts 266

Overview 266

Views of Concept Learning 266 Prototypes and Exemplars 266 Concepts and Schemas 267 Strategies for Teaching Concepts 267

An Example Concept-Attainment Lesson 267 Lesson Components 268

Lesson Structure 268

Extending and Connecting Concepts 270 Teaching Concepts through Discovery 270

Structure and Discovery 270 Discovery in Action 270

Teaching Concepts through Exposition 271 Advance Organizers 272

Steps in an Expository Lesson 273

Teaching Concepts in Diverse Classrooms 273 SUMMARY 274

Module 22

Problem Solving 276

Overview 276

Problem Solving: General or Domain-Specific? 276 Identifying: Problem Finding 277

Defining Goals and Representing the Problem 277 Focusing Attention 278

Understanding the Words 278

Understanding the Whole Problem 278 Translation and Schema Training 279 The Results of Problem Representation 280 Exploring Possible Solution Strategies 280

Algorithms 280 Heuristics 281

Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back 281 Factors That Hinder Problem Solving 282

Functional Fixedness 282 Response Set 283

The Importance of Flexibility 284

Effective Problem Solving: What Do the Experts Do? 284 Expert Knowledge 284

Novice Knowledge 286 SUMMARY 287

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Module 23

Teaching for Transfer 289

Overview 289

Learning Strategies and Tactics 289 Deciding What Is Important 290 Summaries 290

Underlining and Highlighting 290 Taking Notes 291

Visual Tools for Organizing 292 Reading Strategies 292

Applying Learning Strategies 294 Valuing Learning 294

Effort and Efficacy 295 Epistemological Beliefs 295

A Contemporary View of Teaching for Transfer 296 Teaching for Positive Transfer 297

What Is Worth Learning? 298 How Can Teachers Help? 298 Stages of Transfer for Strategies 298 SUMMARY 299

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would They Do? 301 Point/Counterpoint: Should Students Be Allowed

to Use Calculators and Spell-Checkers? 283 Family and Community Partnerships: Promoting

Transfer 299 Guidelines

Applying Bruner’s Ideas 272 Applying Ausubel’s Ideas 273 Problem Solving 286

Becoming an Expert Student 295

Cluster 9

Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning 302

Social Learning and Social

Cognitive Theories 304

Overview 304

Parents, Peers, and Teachers 304 Learning by Observing Others 306

Attention 306 Retention 307

Production 307

Motivation and Reinforcement 307

Factors That Influence Observational Learning 308 Observational Learning in Teaching 308

Directing Attention 309

Fine-Tuning Already-Learned Behaviors 309 Strengthening or Weakening Inhibitions 309 Teaching New Behaviors 309

Arousing Emotion 309 Reciprocal Determinism 310 SUMMARY 312

Module 25

Constructivism and Situated Learning 314

Overview 314

Constructivist Views of Learning 315

Psychological/Individual Constructivism 315 Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism 316 Constructionism 316

How Is Knowledge Constructed? 317 Knowledge: Situated or General? 318

Common Elements of Constructivist Perspectives 318 Complex Learning Environments and

Authentic Tasks 319 Social Negotiation 319

Multiple Perspectives and Representations of Content 319

Understanding the Knowledge Construction Process 320

Student Ownership of Learning 320 Looking Back at Learning 320

Module 26

Applications of Constructivist and Situated Perspectives on Learning 324

Overview 324

Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning 324 Examples of Inquiry 324

Problem-Based Learning 326

Research on Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning 327

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Dialogue and Instructional Conversations 328 Cognitive Apprenticeships 329

A Cognitive Apprenticeship in Learning Mathematics 330

Cognitive Apprenticeships in Thinking 331 Developing Thinking in Every Class 331 Critical Thinking 331

The Language of Thinking 333

An Integretated Constructivist Program: Fostering Communities of Learners 333

Working with Families 335 SUMMARY 335

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would They Do? 337 Point/Counterpoint: Should Schools Teach Critical

Thinking and Problem Solving? 332 Family and Community Partnerships:

Communicating about Innovations 334 Guidelines:

Using Observational Learning 310

Cluster 10

Motivation in Learning and Teaching 338

Module 27

Motivation: A Definition and Four General Approaches 340

Overview 340

Meeting Some Students 340

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 341 Behavioral Approaches to Motivation 343 Humanistic Approaches to Motivation 343

Maslow’s Hierarchy 343

Cognitive Approaches to Motivation 344 Attribution Theory 344

Attributions in the Classroom 345

Teacher Actions and Student Attributions 345 Expectancy × Value Theories 346

Sociocultural Conceptions of Motivation 346 SUMMARY 348

Module 28

Goals, Interests, and Emotions 350

Overview 350

Types of Goals and Goal Orientations 350 Four Goal Orientations in School 351

Wait—Are Performance Goals Always Bad? 351 Beyond Mastery and Performance 352

Feedback and Goal Acceptance 353 Goals: Lessons for Teachers 353 Tapping Interests and Emotions 353

Arousal: Excitement and Anxiety in Learning 354 Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity 355 Anxiety in the Classroom 357

How Does Anxiety Interfere with Achievement? 357 Coping with Anxiety 357

Interests and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers 358 SUMMARY 359

Module 29

Self-Schemas 361

Overview 361

Beliefs about Ability 361 Beliefs about Self-Efficacy 362

Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem 362 Sources of Self-Efficacy 362

Efficacy and Motivation 363 Teacher Efficacy 363 Self-Determination 364

Self-Determination in the Classroom 364 Information and Control 364

Learned Helplessness 365 Self-Worth 366

Self-Schemas: Lessons for Teachers 367 SUMMARY 368

Module 30

Motivation to Learn in School 370

Overview 370

On TARGET for Learning 370 Tasks for Learning 370

Task Value 371 Authentic Tasks 371

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Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing Accomplishment 373

Supporting Choices 373

Recognizing Accomplishment 375 Grouping, Evaluation, and Time 375

Grouping and Goal Structures 375 Evaluation 375

Time 376

Bringing it All Together: Strategies to Encourage Motivation and Thoughtful Learning 377 Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations 378

Do I Want to Do It? Seeing the Value of Learning 379 Attainment and Intrinsic Value 379

Instrumental Value 380

What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Staying Focused on the Task 381

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would They Do? 385 Point/Counterpoint: Does Making Learning Fun

Make Good Learning? 356

Family and Community Partnerships: Motivation to Learn 382

Guidelines:

Building on Students’ Interests 355 Coping with Anxiety 358

Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy 365 Encouraging Self-Efficacy and Self-Worth 367

Cluster 11

Creating Learning Environments 386

Creating a Positive Learning

Environment 388

Overview 388

The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation 388 The Goals of Classroom Management 389

More Time for Learning 390 Access to Learning 390

Management for Self-Management 391 Some Research Results 392

Rules and Procedures Required 392

Procedures 393 Rules 393

Rules for Elementary School 394 Rules for Secondary School 395 Consequences 395

Who Sets the Rules and Consequences? 396 Planning Spaces for Learning 397

Interest-Areas 397 Personal Territories 397

Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class 398 Effective Managers for Elementary Students 398 Effective Managers for Secondary Students 400 SUMMARY 400

Module 32

Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning 402

Overview 402

Encouraging Engagement 402 Prevention Is the Best Medicine 402

Withitness 403

Overlapping and Group Focus 403 Movement Management 403 Dealing with Discipline Problems 404

Special Problems with Secondary Students 405 SUMMARY 408

Module 33

The Need for Communication 410

Overiew 410

Message Sent—Message Received 410 Diagnosis: Whose Problem Is It? 411 Counseling: The Student’s Problem 411 Confrontation and Assertive Discipline 412

“I” Messages 412 Assertive Discipline 412

Confrontations and Negotiations 413 Student Conflicts and Confrontations 414

Peer Harassment 414 Violence in the Schools 415

Summing It Up: Learning Environments for All Students 416

Culturally Responsive Management 417

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www.ablongman.com/woolfolk Contents xvii Communicating with Families about Classroom

Management 418 SUMMARY 419 KEY TERMS 419 CHECK YOURSELF 420

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would They Do? 421 Point/Counterpoint: Is Zero Tolerance

a Good Idea? 406

Classroom Management 418 Guidelines:

Establishing Class Procedures 394 Designing Learning Spaces 399 Keeping Students Engaged 403 Imposing Penalties 406

Cluster 12

Teaching for Academic Learning 422

The First Step: Planning 424

Overview 424

Objectives for Learning 425

Mager: Start with the Specific 425 Gronlund: Start with the General 426

Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies 427 The Cognitive Domain 427

Bloom 2001 427

The Affective Domain 428 The Psychomotor Domain 429

Another View: Planning from a Constructivist Perspective 429

An Example of Constructivist Planning 430 Integrated and Thematic Plans 430 SUMMARY 432

Module 35

Teacher-Directed Instruction and Teacher Expectations 434

Overview 434

Characteristics of Effective Teachers 434 Teachers’ Knowledge 434

Clarity and Organization 435 Warmth and Enthusiasm 435

Explanation and Direct Instruction 436 Direct Instruction 437

Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions 437 Why Does Direct Instruction Work? 438 Criticisms of Direct Instruction 439 Seatwork and Homework 439

Seatwork 440 Homework 440

Making Seatwork and Homework Valuable 440 Questioning and Recitation 442

Kinds of Questions 443

Fitting the Questions to the Students 444 Responding to Student Answers 445 Group Discussion 445

Teacher Expectations: Two Kinds of Expectation Effects 446

Sources of Expectations 447

Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’ Achievement? 448

Teacher Behavior and Student Reaction 448 Instructional Strategies 448

Teacher–Student Interactions 449 SUMMARY 451

Module 36

Student-Centered Teaching in Content Areas and Inclusive Classrooms 453

Overview 453

Learning to Read and Write 454 Balance in Reading and Writing 454 Comprehension Monitoring and Reading:

Reciprocal Teaching 454

Applying Reciprocal Teaching 456 Learning and Teaching Mathematics 456 Learning and Teaching Science 457

Beyond the Debates to Outstanding Teaching 459 Effective Teaching in Inclusive Classrooms 460 Resource Rooms, Collaborative Consultation, and Cooperative Teaching 461

Working with Individual Students 462 Technology and Exceptional Students 462 SUMMARY 464

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Teachers’ Casebook: What Would They Do? 467 Point/Counterpoint: Is Homework a Valuable

Use of Time? 441

Homework 442 Guidelines:

Using Instructional Objectives 429 Teaching Effectively 436

Productive Group Discussions 446 Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher

Expectations 450

Teaching for Conceptual Change 459

Cluster 13

Teaching for Self-Regulation, Creativity, and Tolerance 468

Self-Regulation and Agency 470

Overview 470

What Influences Self-Regulation? 470 Knowledge 470

Motivation 471 Volition 471

Family Influences 471 Self-Regulation Processes 471 Social and Emotional Learning 473

What Is EQ? 474 EQ Goes to School 475 Cautions 475

Social Skills 475

Life Skills: Preventing High-Risk Behaviors 476 Compassion and Tolerance 477

Group Work and Cooperation in Learning 479 Beyond Groups to Cooperation 479

What Can Go Wrong: Misuses of Group Learning 480

Making Cooperative Learning Work 481 Setting Up Cooperative Groups 481 Giving and Receiving Explanations 481 Assigning Roles 482

Strategies for Cooperation 483 Jigsaw 483

Reciprocal Questioning 484 Scripted Cooperation 485

STAD 485 SUMMARY 487 KEY TERMS 487 CHECK YOURSELF 488 Module 38

Creativity and

Community 489

Overview 489

Defining Creativity 489

What Is the Source of Creativity? 489 Creativity and Cognition 490 Creativity and Diversity 490 Assessing Creativity 490 Creativity in the Classroom 491

Brainstorming 491

Take Your Time—and Play! 492 The Big C: Revolutionary Innovation 493 Creating a Classroom Learning Community 493 Getting Started on Community 496

Conflict and Negotiation 496 Respect and Protect 497

Community Outside the Classroom:

Service Learning 497 SUMMARY 499 KEY TERMS 499 CHECK YOURSELF 500

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would They Do? 501 Point/Counterpoint: Should Schools Teach

Character and Compassion? 478 Family and Community Partnerships:

Parents Supporting Self-Regulation 472 Guidelines:

Using Cooperative Learning 486 Encouraging Creativity 492

Cluster 14

Evaluation, Measurement, and Assessment 502

Definitions and Concepts 504

Overview 504

Norm-Referenced Tests 505 Criterion-Referenced Tests 505

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What Test Scores Mean 506 Frequency Distributions 507 Measurements of Central Tendency and Standard Deviation 507 The Normal Distribution 508 Types of Scores 509

Percentile Rank Scores 509 Grade Equivalent Scores 510 Standard Scores 511

Interpreting Test Scores 512 Reliability 512

True Score 512

Confidence Interval 513 Validity 513

Absence of Bias 514 SUMMARY 517 KEY TERMS 517 CHECK YOURSELF 518

Module 40

Standardized Tests 519

Overview 519

Achievement Tests: What Has the Student Learned? 519

Using Information from a Norm-Referenced Achievement Test 519

Diagnostic Tests: What Are the Student’s Strengths and Weaknesses? 522

Aptitude Tests: How Well Will the Student Do in the Future? 522

IQ and Scholastic Aptitude 522

Discussing Test Results with Families 523 How Widespread Is Standardized Testing? 523 Accountability and High Stakes Testing 524 Testing Teachers 526

PRAXIS^™ 527

National Board Certification 527

The Uses of Testing in American Society 528 Preparing for Tests 528

New Directions in Standardized Testing:

Authentic Assessment 529 Changes in the SAT 530

Accommodating Diversity in Testing 532 SUMMARY 532

Module 41

Getting the Most from Traditional Assessment Approaches:

Testing and Grading 534

Overview 534

Formative and Summative Assessment 534 Planning for Testing 535

When to Test? 535

Judging Textbook Tests 535 Objective Testing 535

Using Multiple-Choice Tests 536 Writing Multiple-Choice Questions 536 Essay Testing 538

Constructing Essay Tests 538 Evaluating Essays: Dangers 538 Evaluating Essays: Methods 539 Grades, Grading, and Students 540

Effects of Failure 540 Effects of Feedback 541 Grades and Motivation 541

Grading and Reporting: Nuts and Bolts 542 Criterion-Referenced versus Norm-Referenced Grading 543

Criterion-Referenced Systems 543 Norm-Referenced Systems 543

The Point System and Percentage Grading 543 The Contract System and Grading Rubrics 546 Grading on Effort and Improvement 546 Cautions: Being Fair 548

Diversity and Grading 548

Beyond Grading: Communication 549 SUMMARY 551

Module 42

Innovations in Classroom Assessment 553

Overview 553

Authentic Classroom Assessment 553

Performance in Context: Portfolios and Exhibitions 555 Portfolios 556

Exhibitions 557

Evaluating Portfolios and Performances 558 Scoring Rubrics 558

Reliability, Validity, Generalizability 561

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Diversity and Equity in Performance Assessment 561

Assessing Learning Potential:

Dynamic Assessment 561 SUMMARY 562

Teachers’ Casebook: What Would They Do? 565 Point/Counterpoint: Should Tests Be Used

to Hold Teachers Accountable? 525

Point/Counterpoint: Which Is Better—Traditional Tests or Authentic Assessments? 554

Family and Community Partnerships: Explaining and Using Test Results 515

Conferences 550 Guidelines:

Increasing Reliability and Validity 514

Becoming an Expert Test-Taker 516 Accommodations in Testing 531 Writing Objective Test Items 537 Minimizing the Detrimental Effects

of Grades 542

Using Any Grading System 547 Creating Portfolios 558 Developing a Rubric 560

Appendix A:

Becoming a Professional 567

Appendix B:

Standards and Licensure:

PRAXIS II

^™

and INTASC 585

Glossary 601 References 611 Name Index 649 Subject Index 661

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