༄ ། །ར ལ་ཡ ངས་མཐའ་འཁ ར་གནས་ས ངས་ལ ན་ཚ ག ས། N atio nal E
nvironment Commissi
on
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT COMMISSION
ROYAL GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN
Reference Guide for
Rio Conventions
R
ef
erence Guide f
or Rio Con
ventions
National Environment Commission
P.O. Box 466, Thimphu, Bhutan
www.nec.gov.bt
༄ ། །དཔལ
་ལ ན་འབ ག་པ་ཕ གས་ལས་ར མ་ར ལ །།
Royal Government of Bhutan
National Environment Commission
Reference Guide for Rio
Conventions
RIO Reference Guide – National Capacity Self
Assessment Project
Copyright © 2011
National Environment Commission Secretariat Royal Government of Bhutan
Post Box 466 Thimphu www.nec.gov.bt Printed by: Phama Printers
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The NEC wishes to convey special gratitude to the Global Environment Facility (GEF) for providing funding for compilation of the National Capacity Self Assessment and further towards providing the financial support for its implementation. Furthermore the United Nations Development Programme, the Bhutan Country office which provided support throughout the project and assisted in a great manner to making this initiative a success.
The support received from the three thematic working groups and the project board is also appreciated. The committee members worked tirelessly throughout the project to make sure that the product will be usable in furthering environmental management in the country. The Focal Points of the three Rio Conventions (United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification) have also been instrumental in producing this document and their contribution is greatly appreciated.
The completion of this assessment would not have been possible without the dedication of the NCSA project management team, and the staff of the NEC, who have worked hard to ensure that the project goals and objectives are met. Support received from the other ministries and agencies is also appreciated. The role played by the local consultants has also been pivotal and the support provided by their experts has also been of great value.
Table of contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTTABLE OF CONTENTS --- I ACRONYMS --- IV SCOPE AND PURPOSE --- IX
1. BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND ITS IMPORTANCE --- 2
2. THE CHANGING LIFE ON EARTH --- 3
3. BIODIVERSITY UNDER THREAT --- 4
4. THE UN CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY --- 5
THE CONFERENCE OF PARTIES --- 7
SUBSIDIARY INTERGOVERNMENTAL BODIES --- 8
EXPERT GROUPS AND WORKSHOPS --- 8
THE SECRETARIAT --- 8
CARTAGENA PROTOCOL ON BIOSAFETY --- 9
PROGRAMMES OF WORK AND POLICY GUIDANCE DEVELOPED BY THE CONVENTION --- 10
PRINCIPLES, GUIDELINES AND TOOLS FOR THE CONVENTION --- 11
2010BIODIVERSITY TARGET AND THE STRATEGIC PLAN OF THE CONVENTION --- 12
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CONVENTION --- 14
5. NATIONAL ACTIONS --- 15
SURVEYS --- 15
CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE --- 16
REPORTING --- 16
6. INTERNATIONAL ACTIONS --- 16
THEMATIC PROGRAMMES AND "CROSS-CUTTING" ISSUES --- 17
FINANCIAL AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT--- 17
THE BIOSAFETY PROTOCOL --- 18
SHARING THE BENEFITS OF GENETIC RESOURCES--- 19
TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE --- 20
7. WAY FORWARD --- 20
PROMOTING FOR THE LONG TERM --- 20
INFORMATION, EDUCATION, AND TRAINING --- 22
WHAT CAN WE DO ABOUT BIODIVERSITY? --- 22
WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE? --- 24
CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL WARMING --- 25
CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS --- 25
IS CLIMATE CHANGE REALLY HAPPENING? --- 26
CAUSES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL WARMING --- 27
GREENHOUSE GASES AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT --- 27
WEATHER VS CLIMATE --- 28
HOW IS CLIMATE CHANGE DIFFERENT FROM OZONE --- 29
2. THE CLIMATE PHENOMENA --- 29
HUMAN ACTIVITIES --- 29
RISING LEVELS OF GREENHOUSE GASES --- 29
GLOBAL TEMPERATURE RISE --- 29
IMPACT ON THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT --- 30
RISKS AND PRESSURES ON HUMAN SOCIETY --- 30
STABILIZATION OF GREENHOUSE GASES --- 30
THE ROLE OF CLIMATE CHANGE CONVENTION --- 31
THE KYOTO PROTOCOL --- 31
LIMITING EMISSIONS--- 31
3. THE GREENHOUSE GASES --- 31
THE MAIN GREENHOUSE GASES --- 31
Carbon dioxide --- 32
Methane --- 34
Nitrous Oxide --- 35
Fluorocarbons --- 36
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT --- 37
4. HOW WILL THE CLIMATE CHANGE? --- 39
5. IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE --- 40
AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY --- 40
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS --- 42
WATER RESOURCES --- 44
HUMAN HEALTH --- 46
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS, ENERGY AND INDUSTRY --- 47
CLIMATE DISASTERS AND EXTREME EVENTS --- 49
SEA LEVELS, OCEANS, AND COASTAL AREAS --- 51
6. ADAPTING TO CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS --- 53
7. THE CLIMATE CHANGE CONVENTION --- 53
Annex I, ANNEX II and Non-annex I Countries under the Convention --- 56
THE CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES --- 57
COP President and Bureau --- 58 Subsidiary Bodies --- 59 The secretariat --- 60
KYOTO PROTOCOL --- 61
The Kyoto mechanisms --- 61
Core elements of the Kyoto Protocol --- 64
COMMITMENTS --- 64
8. NATIONAL ACTIONS --- 65
REPORTING UNDER THE CONVENTION --- 65
Reporting by Annex I Parties --- 65
Reporting by Non-annex I Parties --- 66
REPORTING TO THE KYOTO PROTOCOL --- 66
9. WAY FORWARD --- 67
1. LAND DEGRADATION - INTRODUCTION --- 70
EXTENT AND RATE OF LAND DEGRADATION --- 71
2. LAND DEGRADATION - CAUSES --- 73
CLIMATE CHANGE --- 73
RAINFALL --- 76
FLOODS --- 79
DROUGHTS --- 79
SOLAR RADIATION, TEMPERATURE AND EVAPORATION --- 80
WIND --- 82
WILDFIRES, LAND DEGRADATION AND ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS --- 83
3. LAND DEGRADATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE --- 83
4. THE UN CONVENTION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION --- 85
ROLE OF UNCCD --- 85
THE UNCCDSECRETARIAT --- 85
5. NATIONAL CONTEXT--- 86
KEY LAND DEGRADATION ISSUES AND CONCERNS IN BHUTAN --- 86
Overgrazing--- 86
Forest Fire --- 87
Excessive Forest Utilization --- 87
Infrastructure Development --- 88
Unsustainable Agricultural Practices --- 88
Pollution --- 89
Rapid Urbanization --- 89
NATIONAL INITIATIVES TO COMBAT LAND DEGRADATION --- 89
The National Land management campaign --- 90
The project on sustainable land management --- 90
1. CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY --- 94
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS --- 94
KEY FEATURES OF THE CBD --- 94
EXAMPLES OF ACTIVITIES TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY --- 95
Direct measures: in situ conservation --- 95
Direct measures: ex-situ conservation --- 95
Capacity development and enabling environment --- 96
2. UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE --- 96
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS --- 96
IMPACTS AND REMEDIES --- 97
KEY FEATURES OF THE UNFCCC AND THE KYOTO PROTOCOL --- 97
EXAMPLE OF MEASURES TO IMPLEMENT THE CLIMATE CHANGE CONVENTION --- 98
Collection and exchange of information related to climate change --- 98
Capacity development and enabling environment --- 99
Measures to contain GHG emissions and enhance GHG absorption --- 99
3. UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION --- 99
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS --- 99
KEY FEATURES OF THE UNCCD --- 100
EXAMPLES OF MEASURES TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION--- 101
Direct measures --- 101
Capacity development and enabling environment --- 101
REFERENCES / BIBLOGRAPHY --- 102
List of Tables TABLE 1.THEMATIC PROGRAMMES OF WORK OF THE CONVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY --- 10
TABLE 2.PRINCIPLES,GUIDELINES, AND OTHER TOOLS DEVELOPED UNDER THE CONVENTION --- 11
TABLE 3.PROVISIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR GOALS AND TARGETS --- 12
List of Figures
FIGURE 1.IMPLEMENTATION MODE OF THE CONVENTION --- 7
FIGURE 2.ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE CBDSECRETARIAT --- 9
FIGURE 3.THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT --- 28
FIGURE 4.INCREASE OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE AIR OVER THE PAST FEW CENTURIES --- 33
FIGURE 5.GLOBAL CARBON CYCLE (BILLION METRIC TONS CARBON) --- 34
FIGURE 6.METHANE IS ON THE RISE SINCE 1750 --- 34
FIGURE 7.NITROUS OXIDE HAS BEEN ON THE RISE SINCE 1750 --- 35
FIGURE 8.PROCESS OF GLOBAL WARMING AND HOW GREENHOUSE GASES CREATE THE "GREENHOUSE EFFECT" --- 37
FIGURE 9.SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF RAINFALL INDUCED PROCESSES INVOLVED IN LAND DEGRADATION --- 78
ACRONYMS
AAUs Assigned amount units
ACC Annual allowable cut
AGBM Ad hoc Group on the Berlin Mandate
BPSP Biodiversity Planning and Support Programme
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CDM Clean Development Mechanism
CEPA Communication Education and Public Awareness
CER Certified emission reduction
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons
CHM Clearing House Mechanism
CO Carbon Monoxide
COP Conference of the Parties (to the CBD)
CRED Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters
DANIDA Danish International Development Agency
EIT Economies in Transition
ENSO El Nino/South Oscillation
ERU Emission reduction unit
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FFI Fauna and Flora International
FMU Forest Management Unit
FRDD Forest Resources Development Division
FYP Five Year Plan
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEF Global Environment Facility
GEP Global Warming Potentials
GHG greenhouse gas
GIS Geographic Information System
GMO Genetically Modified Organism
GNH Gross National Happiness
GTI Global Taxonomy Initiative
HAPEX Hydrologic Atmospheric Pilot Experiment
IUCN World Conservation Union
JI Joint Implementation
JISC Joint Implementation Supervisory Committee
LADP Local Area Development Programmes
LDCs Least Developed Countries
LMO Living Modified Organism
LULUCF Land use, land-use change and forestry
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoWHS Ministry of Works and Human Settlement
MT Metric tons
NAO North Atlantic Oscillation
NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
NEC National Environment Commission
NECS National Environment Commission Secretariat
NGO Non-governmental organization
NMVOC Non-methane Volatile Organic Compounds
NO Nitric Oxide
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PFCs Perfluorocarbons
RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan
RMU Removal unit
RUSLE Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation
SBI Subsidiary Body for Implementation
SBs Subsidiary Bodies
SBSTA Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice
SBSTTA Subsidiary Body on Scientific Technical and Technological Advice
SLM Sustainable land management
SOC Soil Organic Carbon
SOM Soil Organic Matter
SST Sea Surface Temperature
TNC The Nature Conservancy
UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNITAR United Nations Institute for Training and Research
UNSO Office to Combat Desertification and Drought
UNU United Nations University
USLE Universal Soil Loss Equation
UV Ultraviolet
WB World Bank
WEF World Economic Forum
WEPP Water Erosion Prediction Project
WGRI Working Group on Review of Implementation (of the Convention)
WMO World Metrological Organization
WRI World Resources Institute
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This guideline provides an overview of the RIO Conventions (the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the United Nations Convention to Combat Land Degradation). The main focus of compiling this guideline is to simplify and bring together the components of the three conventions into one concise booklet.
The document is developed as a reference guide bringing together the three RIO Conventions. It details on basic themes on which the three Rio Conventions dwell upon (biodiversity, climate change and land degradation). The guideline touches upon the basic science of the three thematic areas, brief on the Convention histories, its operating procedures and institutions, national obligations under each Conventions, impacts and/or affects of local actions on global environmental management, and ways and approaches in dealing with problems.
This reference guide is grouped into four parts – Part A dealing on the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and the basics of biological diversity and its importance; Part B on the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the basics of climate science, the Convention, potential impacts of climate change and national actions to mitigate climate change; Part C on the UN Convention to Combat Desertification, the causes and impacts of land degradation, measures to combat land degradation, the Convention and national actions to minimize land degradation; and Part D provides a concise note on each of the three Rio Conventions and main issues confronted on each of the thematic areas.
However, this reference guide aims to serve as a reference for those interested in and working on the issues around the three thematic areas (biodiversity, climate change and land degradation). It is designed to provide an easy route to understanding the importance of the Rio Conventions and how local actions can contribute towards a sustainable development path.
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
PART A
UNITED NATIONS
CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL
DIVERSITY
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
1.
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND ITS IMPORTANCE
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the variety of life on earth. It comprises the variability within species, among species, and of ecosystems. It also refers to the complex relationships among living things, and between living things and their environment.
Biodiversity is therefore the sum total of all life on our planet, and includes all the different species of plants, animals and micro-organisms (estimated at more than ten million species), all the genetic variability within these species (estimated at between 10-100,000 genes per species) and all the diversity of the ecosystems formed by the different combinations of species.
Biodiversity is important because it underpins ecosystem functioning and the provision of essential ecosystem services. Human well-being depends on this “web of life”.
The biodiversity we see today is the fruit of billions of years of evolution, shaped by natural processes and, increasingly, by the influence of humans. It forms the web of life of which we are an integral part and upon which we so fully depend.
This diversity is often understood in terms of the wide variety of plants, animals and microorganisms. So far, about 1.75 million species have been identified, mostly small creatures such as insects. Scientists reckon that there are actually about 13 million species, though estimates range from 3 to 100 million.
Biodiversity also includes genetic differences within each species – for example, between varieties of crops and breeds of livestock. Chromosomes, genes, and DNA – the building blocks of life – determine the uniqueness of each individual and each species.
Yet another aspect of biodiversity is the variety of ecosystems such as those that occur in deserts, forests, wetlands, mountains, lakes, rivers, and agricultural landscapes. In each ecosystem, living creatures, including humans, form a community, interacting with one another and with the air, water, and soil around them.
It is the combination of life forms and their interactions with each other and with the rest of the environment that has made Earth a uniquely habitable place for humans. Biodiversity provides a large number of goods and services that sustain our lives.
At the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, world leaders agreed on a comprehensive strategy for "sustainable development" - meeting our needs while ensuring that we leave a healthy and viable world for future generations. One of the key agreements adopted at Rio was the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD). This pact among the vast majority of the world's governments sets out commitments for maintaining the world's ecological underpinnings as we go about the business of economic development. The Convention establishes three main goals: the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits from the
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
2.
THE CHANGING LIFE ON EARTH
The rich tapestry of life on our planet is the outcome of over 3.5 billion years of evolutionary history. It has been shaped by forces such as changes in the planet’s crust, ice ages, fire, and interaction among species.
Now, it is increasingly being altered by humans. From the dawn of agriculture, some 10,000 years ago, through the Industrial Revolution of the past three centuries, we have reshaped our landscapes on an ever-larger and lasting scale. We have moved from hacking down trees with stone tools to literally moving mountains to mine the Earth’s resources. Old ways of harvesting are being replaced by more intensive technologies, often without controls to prevent overharvesting. For example, fisheries that have fed communities for centuries have been depleted in a few years by huge, sonar-guided ships using nets big enough to swallow a dozen jumbo jets at a time. By consuming ever more of nature’s resources, we have gained more abundant food and better shelter, sanitation, and health care, but these gains are often accompanied by increasing environmental degradation that may be followed by declines in local economies and the societies they supported.
As of 2011, the world’s population hit 6.9 billion. United Nations experts predict the world will have to find resources for a population of 9 billion people in 40 years. Yet our demands on the world’s natural resources are growing even faster than our numbers: since 1950, the population has more than doubled, but the global economy has quintupled. And the benefits are not equally spread: most of the economic growth has occurred in a relatively few industrialized countries.
At the same time, our settlement patterns are changing our relationship with the environment. Nearly half the world’s people live in towns and cities. For many people, nature seems remote from their everyday lives. More and more people associate food with stores, rather than with their natural source.
Protecting biodiversity is in our self-interest. Biological resources are the pillars upon which we build civilizations. Nature's products support such diverse industries as agriculture, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper, horticulture, construction and waste treatment. The loss of biodiversity threatens our food supplies, opportunities for recreation and tourism, and sources of wood, medicines and energy. It also interferes with essential ecological functions.
Our need for pieces of nature we once ignored is often important and unpredictable. Time after time we have rushed back to nature's cupboard for cures to illnesses or for infusions of tough genes from wild plants to save our crops from pest outbreaks. What's more, the vast array of interactions among the various components of biodiversity makes the planet habitable for all species, including humans. Our personal health, and the health of our economy and human society, depends on the continuous supply of various ecological services that would be extremely costly or impossible to replace. These natural services are so varied as to be almost infinite. For example, it would be impractical to replace, to any
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
large extent, services such as pest control performed by various creatures feeding on one another, or pollination performed by insects and birds going about their everyday business. "Goods and Services" provided by ecosystems include:
i. Provision of food, fuel and fiber;
ii. Provision of shelter and building materials; iii. Purification of air and water;
iv. Detoxification and decomposition of wastes; v. Stabilization and moderation of the Earth's climate;
vi. Moderation of floods, droughts, temperature extremes and the forces of wind; vii. Generation and renewal of soil fertility, including nutrient cycling;
viii. Pollination of plants, including many crops; ix. Control of pests and diseases;
x. Maintenance of genetic resources as key inputs to crop varieties and livestock breeds, medicines, and other products;
xi. Cultural and aesthetic benefits; and xii. Ability to adapt to change.
3.
BIODIVERSITY UNDER THREAT
When most people think of the dangers besetting the natural world, they think of the threat to other creatures. Declines in the numbers of such charismatic animals as pandas, tigers, elephants, whales, and various species of birds, have drawn world attention to the problem of species at risk. Species have been disappearing at 50-100 times the natural rate, and this is predicted to rise dramatically. Based on current trends, an estimated 34,000 plant and 5,200 animal species including one in eight of the world's bird species face extinction.
For thousands of years we have been developing a vast array of domesticated plants and animals important for food. But this treasure house is shrinking as modern commercial agriculture focuses on relatively few crop varieties. And, about 30 percent of breeds of the main farm animal species are currently at high risk of extinction. While the loss of individual species catches our attention, it is the fragmentation, degradation, and outright loss of forests, wetlands, coral reefs, and other ecosystems that poses the gravest threat to biological diversity. Forests are home to much of the known terrestrial biodiversity, but about 45 percent of the Earth's original forests are gone, cleared mostly during the past century. Despite some re-growth, the world's total forests are still shrinking rapidly, particularly in the tropics. Up to 10 percent of coral reefs - among the richest ecosystems - have been destroyed, and one third of the remainder face collapse over the next 10 to 20 years. Coastal mangroves, a vital nursery habitat for countless species, are also vulnerable, with half already gone.
Global atmospheric changes, such as ozone depletion and climate change, only add to the stress. A thinner ozone layer lets more ultraviolet-B radiation reach the Earth's surface where
UN Convention on Biological Diversity species. Scientists warn that even a one-degree increase in the average global temperature, if it comes rapidly, will push many species over the brink. Our food production systems could also be seriously disrupted.
The loss of biodiversity often reduces the productivity of ecosystems, thereby shrinking nature's basket of goods and services, from which we constantly draw. It destabilizes ecosystems, and weakens their ability to deal with natural disasters such as floods, droughts, and hurricanes, and with human-caused stresses, such as pollution and climate change. Already, we are spending huge sums in response to flood and storm damage exacerbated by deforestation - such damage is expected to increase due to global warming.
The reduction in biodiversity also hurts us in other ways. Our cultural identity is deeply rooted in our biological environment. Plants and animals are symbols of our world, preserved in flags, sculptures, and other images that define us and our societies. We draw inspiration just from looking at nature's beauty and power. While loss of species has always occurred as a natural phenomenon, the pace of extinction has accelerated dramatically as a result of human activity. Ecosystems are being fragmented or eliminated, and innumerable species are in decline or already extinct. We are creating the greatest extinction crisis since the natural disaster that wiped out the dinosaurs 65 million years ago. These extinctions are irreversible and, given our dependence on food crops, medicines and other biological resources, pose a threat to our own well-being. It is reckless if not downright dangerous to keep chipping away at our life support system. It is unethical to drive other forms of life to extinction, and thereby deprive present and future generations of options for their survival and development.
Can we save the world's ecosystems, and with them the species we value and the other millions of species, some of which may produce the foods and medicines of tomorrow? The answer will lie in our ability to bring our demands into line with nature's ability to produce what we need and to safely absorb what we throw away.
4.
THE UN CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD) is a legally binding international treaty to promote the following objectives:
i. the conservation of biological diversity; ii. the sustainable use of its components; and
iii. the equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. It was the first global agreement on the conservation and sustainable use of all components of biodiversity including genetic sources, species and ecosystems.
The UNCBD was negotiated under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in the period 1989-1992 and completed in May 2002. May 22 is celebrated each year as International Biodiversity day. The Treaty was opened for signature
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
during the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, and came into force on 29 December 1993. The Royal Government of Bhutan ratified the Convention on August 28, 1995 not long after the Convention came into existence.
The Convention is comprehensive in its goals, and deals with an issue so vital to humanity's future, that it stands as a landmark in international law. It recognizes for the first time that the conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humankind" and is an integral part of the development process. The agreement covers all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources. It links traditional conservation efforts to the economic goal of using biological resources sustainably. It sets principles for the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources, notably those destined for commercial use. It also covers the rapidly expanding field of biotechnology, addressing technology development and transfer, benefit-sharing and biosafety. Importantly, the Convention is legally binding; countries that join it are obliged to implement its provisions. Thus far, the Government of Bhutan stood by its unraveling commitment towards safeguarding the pristine environment the Bhutanese has enjoyed for centuries.
The Convention reminds decision-makers that natural resources are not infinite and sets out a new philosophy for the 21st century, that of sustainable use. While past conservation efforts were aimed at protecting particular species and habitats, the Convention recognizes that ecosystems, species and genes must be used for the benefit of humans. However, this should be done in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity.
The Convention also offers decision-makers guidance based on the precautionary principle that where there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such a threat. The Convention acknowledges that substantial investments are required to conserve biological diversity. It argues, however, that conservation will bring us significant environmental, economic and social benefits in return.
Some of the many issues dealt with under the Convention include:
i. Measures and incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity;
ii. Regulated access to genetic resources;
iii. Access to and transfer of technology, including biotechnology; iv. Technical and scientific cooperation;
v. Impact assessment;
vi. Education and public awareness; vii. Provision of financial resources; and
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
THE CONFERENCE OF PARTIES
The Convention on Biological Diversity provides a global legal framework for action on biodiversity. It brings together the 193 member countries in the Conference of the Parties (COP) which is the Convention’s governing body that meets every two years, or as needed, to review progress in the implementation of the Convention, to adopt programmes of work, to achieve its objectives, and provide policy guidance.
It may also consider amendments and the adoption of Protocols to the Convention: The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was negotiated within the framework of the Convention. Although the UNCBD is an international treaty, responsibility for its implementation resides primarily with each Party at the national level. Thus the decisions of COP constitute guidance to Parties on how to proceed with their implementation of the Convention. Its decisions during these meetings also serve as mandates for the work of the Secretariat to support implement the Convention. Consensus is required for all decisions on substantive issues (i.e. a decision cannot be adopted if one or more parties formally object).
While decisions in the COP are made by governments, a large number of other bodies can participate in the meetings and contribute information and points of view. These include representatives of indigenous and local communities, international organizations, nongovernmental organizations, and private sector associations.
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
SUBSIDIARY INTERGOVERNMENTAL BODIES
The COP is assisted by the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical, and Technological Advice (SBSTTA), which is made up of government representatives with expertise in relevant fields, as well as observers for non-Party governments, the scientific community, and other relevant organizations. SBSTTA is responsible for providing recommendations to the COP on the technical aspects of the implementation of the Convention.
Other subsidiary bodies have been established by the COP to deal with specific issues as they arise. These are called “ad hoc open-ended Working Groups” because they are established for a limited mandate and period of time, and because they are open to all Parties as well as the participation of observers. Current Working Groups are:
i. the Working Group on Access and Benefit-Sharing is currently the forum for negotiating an international regime on access and benefit sharing;
ii. the Working Group on Article 8 (j) and Related Provisions addresses issues related to protection of traditional knowledge;
iii. the Working group on Protected Areas is guiding and monitoring implementation of the programme of work on protected areas; and
iv. the Working Group on the Review of Implementation of the Convention examines the implementation of the Convention, including national biodiversity strategies and action plans.
Working Groups make recommendations to the COP, and, as is the case for the Working Group on Access and Benefit-Sharing, may also provide a forum for negotiations of a particular instrument under the Convention.
EXPERT GROUPS AND WORKSHOPS
The COP and SBSTTA may also establish expert groups or call for the organization by the Secretariat of liaison groups, workshops, and other meetings. Participants in these meetings are usually experts nominated by governments, as well as representatives of international organizations, local and indigenous communities and other bodies. Unlike SBSTTA and the open-ended Working Groups these are usually not considered as intergovernmental meetings. The purpose of these meetings vary: Expert groups may provide scientific assessments, for example, while workshops may be used for training or capacity building. Liaison groups advise the secretariat or act as for cooperation with other conventions and organizations.
THE SECRETARIAT
The Secretariat of the Convention is the administrative body of the CBD. The principal functions of the Secretariat are to prepare for and service meetings of the COP and other subsidiary bodies of the Convention, and to coordinate with other international bodies. It also
UN Convention on Biological Diversity assists member governments in the implementation of the multi-year programme of work of the COP, collects and disseminates information, and coordinates with other international organizations. The Secretariat is hosted by UNEP and is led by an Executive Secretary (ES). It is provided by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and is located in Montreal, Canada.
The Secretariat organizes the meetings of the COP, SBSTTA, the Working Groups and a large number of expert groups and workshops. For each one of them, the secretariat prepares agenda, background documentation, and prepares reports of the meetings, as well as handling logistics.
The secretariat is organized into a number of divisions.
Figure 2. Organizational Structure of the CBD Secretariat
Each party to the CBD designates a National Focal Point responsible for coordinating CBD related activities at the country level. National Focal Points work closely with the Secretariat, as well as government agencies and relevant organizations in their countries to implement the decisions of the COP. The National Environment Commission has been mandated by the Royal Government of Bhutan as the focal institution for the Convention.
The secretariat also provides the global hub of the Clearing-House Mechanism (CHM), an internet-based network that promotes technical and scientific cooperation and the exchange of information. It relies on CHM Focal Points, which are national and international centres and institutions with relevant expertise, to gather and organize information to be shared. The Secretariat analyses national reports of parties.
To facilitate its work, the Secretariat has developed partnerships with a wide variety of UN agencies, environmental conventions and non-governmental organizations to provide technical input and assistance. The secretariat also works closely with the financial Mechanism of the Convention.
CARTAGENA PROTOCOL ON BIOSAFETY
The only existing protocol to the Convention is the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB). It was adopted by the conference of the Parties in 2000 and entered into force in September
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
2002. The Protocol seeks to protect biodiversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from biotechnology. A key point here is that the Conference of the Parties to the Convention also serves as the Meeting of the Parties (MOP) to the Protocol, and the Secretariat and the Financial Mechanism set up under the Convention perform the same functions under the Biosafety Protocol. The Protocol is supported by a Biosafety Clearing-House. As well, there are National Biosafety Focal points to assist in implementation at the national level. Therefore, the Biosafety Protocol is administered by a semi-autonomous unit within the Secretariat. The Executive Secretary of the CBD is also the head of the Biosafety unit within the Secretariat.
Bhutan deposited the instrument for accession to the Protocol in August 26, 2002 and entered into force as a member party on September 11, 2003. As of 2011, there are 160 member parties with the recent ratification by the government of Somalia and the Republic of Guinea-Bissau in 2010.
PROGRAMMES OF WORK AND POLICY GUIDANCE DEVELOPED BY THE CONVENTION
THE PROGRAMMES OF WORKSince the Convention entered into force, Parties have developed seven thematic work programmes, each of which establishes a vision for, and basic principles to guide future work, sets out key issues for consideration, identifies potential outputs, and suggests a timetable and means for achieving these outputs. Parties, the Secretariat, and relevant organizations contribute to the implementation of the thematic work programmes, which are periodically reviewed by the COP and SBSTTA.
The COP also initiates work on key cross-cutting issues of relevance to multiple thematic areas. Essentially these correspond to the issues addressed in the Convention's substantive provisions. The seventh meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP-7), for example, adopted a programme of work on protected areas to support the establishment and maintenance, by 2010 for terrestrial, and by 2012 for marine areas, of comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas that reflect the objectives of the Convention.
Table 1. Thematic Programmes of Work of the Convention on Biodiversity
i. Agricultural biological diversity ii. Inland water biological diversity iii. Marine and coastal biological diversity iv. Forest biological diversity
v. Biological diversity of dry and sub-humid lands vi. Mountain biological diversity
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
PRINCIPLES, GUIDELINES AND TOOLS FOR THE CONVENTION
The Ecosystem Approach was adopted by the Conference of the Parties as the primary framework for action under the Convention. It is a strategy for integrated natural resource management that takes a holistic approach to managing biodiversity and its components. It involves managing resources at a scale and scope that not only conserve the components of biodiversity, but also protect the essential processes and functions of the ecosystem of which they are part (i.e. nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, supply of freshwater and food). The Ecosystem Approach recognizes humans, with their cultural diversity, as integral parts of ecosystems. Thus, it involves managing ecosystems and natural resources in a way that reflects their intrinsic value, as well as the benefits they provide to humans, in a fair and equitable way. All implementation of the Convention is carried out and evaluated according to the ecosystem approach.
Table 2. Principles, Guidelines, and other Tools Developed under the Convention
i. Description, Principles, and Operational Guidelines for the Ecosystem Approach (http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/cross-cutting/ecosystem/default.asp)
ii. Bonn Guidelines on Access to Genetic Resources and Fair and Equitable Sharing of the Benefits Arising out of their Utilization (http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/socio-eco/benefit/bonn.asp)
iii. Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines for the Sustainable Use of Biodiversity (http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/socio-eco/use/addis-principles.asp)
iv. Guiding Principles on Invasive Alien Species (http://www.biodiv.org/decisions/?dec=VI/23) v. Akwé: Kon Voluntary Guidelines for the Conduct of Cultural, Environmental, and Social
Impact Assessment regarding Developments Proposed to Take Place on, or which are Likely to Impact on, Sacred Sites and on
vi. Lands and Waters Traditionally Occupied or Used by Indigenous and Local Communities (http://www.biodiv.org/doc/ref/tk-akwe-en.pdf)
vii. Guidelines for Incorporating Biodiversity-related Issues into Environmental Impact Assessment Legislation
viii. and/or Processes and in Strategic Environmental Assessment (http://www.biodiv.org/decisions/default.aspx?dec=VI/7) ix. Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development
(http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/socioeco/ tourism/guidelines.asp) x. Proposals for the Design and Implementation of Incentive Measures
(http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/socio-eco/incentives/proposals.asp)
xi. Proposals for the Application of Ways and Means to Remove or Mitigate Perverse Incentives (http://www.biodiv.org/decisions/default.aspx?dec=VII/18)
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
2010 BIODIVERSITY TARGET AND THE STRATEGIC PLAN OF THE CONVENTION
In 2002, the Conference of the Parties adopted a Strategic Plan, which commits Governments to more effective and coherent implementation of the three objectives of the Convention in order to achieve, by 2010, a significant reduction in the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional, and national level as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth. This target – which has come to be known as the 2010 Biodiversity Target – was subsequently endorsed by Heads of Government at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) and the United Nations General Assembly. The Summit also highlighted the essential role that biodiversity and the 2010 target play in meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
The Conference of the Parties adopted a framework to evaluate progress towards the 2010 target. This included the identification of a set of goals and sub-targets under seven focal areas for action. Indicators for these sub-targets are currently being developed. The combination of goals, sub-targets, and indicators builds upon the approach taken in the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. It provides a flexible, yet meaningful framework within which regional and national targets can be set for further advancement towards the 2010 target.
Table 3. Provisional Framework for Goals and Targets
PROTECT THE COMPONENTS OF BIODIVERSITY
Goal 1. Promote the conservation of the biological diversity of ecosystems, habitats and biomes Target 1.1: At least 10percent of each of the world’s ecological regions effectively conserved. Target 1.2: Areas of particular importance to biodiversity protected.
Goal 2. Promote the conservation of species diversity
Target 2.1: Restore, maintain, or reduce the decline of populations of species of selected taxonomic groups.
Target 2.2: Status of threatened species improved. Goal 3. Promote the conservation of genetic diversity
Target 3.1: Genetic diversity of crops, livestock, and of harvested species of trees, fish and wildlife and other valuable species conserved, and associated indigenous and local knowledge maintained. PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE USE
Goal 4. Promote sustainable use and consumption.
Target 4.1: Biodiversity-based products derived from sources that are sustainably managed, and Production areas managed consistent with the conservation of biodiversity.
Target 4.2: Unsustainable consumption, of biological resources, that impacts upon biodiversity, reduced.
UN Convention on Biological Diversity ADDRESS THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Goal 5. Pressures from habitat loss, land use change and degradation, and unsustainable water use, reduced.
Target 5.1: Rate of loss and degradation of natural habitats decreased Goal 6. Control threats from invasive alien species
Target 6.1: Pathways for major potential alien invasive species controlled.
Target 6.2: Management plans in place for major alien species that threaten ecosystems, habitats or species.
Goal 7. Address challenges to biodiversity from climate change, and pollution
Target 7.1: Maintain and enhance resilience of the components of biodiversity to adapt to climate change.
Target 7.2: Reduce pollution and its impacts on biodiversity.
MAINTAIN GOODS AND SERVICES FROM BIODIVERSITY TO SUPPORT HUMAN WELL-BEING
Goal 8. Maintain capacity of ecosystems to deliver goods and services and support livelihoods Target 8.1: Capacity of ecosystems to deliver goods and services maintained.
Target 8.2: Biological resources that support sustainable livelihoods, local food security and health care, especially of poor people maintained.
PROTECT TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, INNOVATIONS AND PRACTICES Goal 9 Maintain socio-cultural diversity of indigenous and local communities
Target 9.1 Protect traditional knowledge, innovations, and practices.
Target 9.2: Protect the rights of indigenous and local communities over their traditional knowledge, innovations and practices, including their rights to benefit-sharing.
ENSURE THE FAIR AND EQUITABLE SHARING OF BENEFITS ARISING OUT OF THE USE OF GENETIC RESOURCES
Goal 10. Ensure the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of genetic resources
Target 10.1: All transfers of genetic resources are in line with the Convention on Biological Diversity, the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, and other applicable agreements.
Target 10.2: Benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic resources shared with the countries providing such resources.
ENSURE PROVISION OF ADEQUATE RESOURCES
Goal 11. Parties have improved financial, human, scientific, technical and technological capacity to implement the Convention
Target 11.1: New and additional financial resources are transferred to developing country Parties, to allow for the effective implementation of their commitments under the Convention, in accordance with Article 20.
Target 11.2: Technology is transferred to developing country Parties, to allow for the effective implementation of their commitments under the Convention, in accordance with its Article 20, paragraph 4.
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CONVENTION
As noted above responsibility for its implementation resides primarily with each Party at the national level. Decisions of the COP and the programmes of work, principles and other guidance provide a framework for Parties on how to proceed with their implementation of the Convention. Parties have an obligation to develop and implement National Biodiversity Strategies and Actions Plans (NBSAPs) or other similar tasks, and should integrate biodiversity concerns into other national policies strategies and programmes. Parties must report to the Conference of Parties on national implementation of the Convention through National Reports.
The Royal Government of Bhutan revised its NBSAP also called the Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) in 2009 (third revision) and submitted its fourth National Report on the Convention in the same year.
The Convention’s financial mechanism provides financial resources to developing countries for the implementation of the CBD. It is supported primarily by funding from member governments and operated by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) under the guidance of COP. UNDP, UNEP, and the World Bank, as Implementing Agencies of the GEF, including the preparation and cost-effectiveness of GEF projects.
There are a number of international organizations, inter-governmental and non-governmental, that have expertise, mandates or resources that enable them to assist countries with NBSAPs and national reports. Such inter-governmental organizations include the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations University (UNU), the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), and others, including regional organizations. Non-governmental organizations include the World Conservation Union (IUCN), the World Wide fund for Nature (WWF), Fauna and Flora International (FFI), the World Resources Institute (WRI), The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and others.
The implementation of the Convention is also supported by workshops, meetings, and activities outside the formal Convention process. These may be held in conjunction with the Secretariat and Parties to the Convention, or outside the auspices of the CBD. Examples include specialized conference, regional and sub-regional preparatory meetings for COP, side events and COP and SBSTTA meetings, and the global taxonomy initiative (GTI). Through its work programme on Communication, Education and Public Awareness (CEPA), the Convention offers an outreach programme targeted at all stakeholder groups. From educational programmes to public awareness campaigns, the CEPA work programme attempts to engage stakeholders at all ages and levels in awareness due to the raising of the issues surrounding biodiversity. An important international activity is the International Day for Biodiversity, celebrated nationally around the world on 22 May each year. In addition, the UN General Assembly has proclaimed 2010 as the International year of Biodiversity.
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
5.
NATIONAL ACTIONS
The Convention on Biological Diversity, as an international treaty, identifies a common problem, sets overall goals and policies and general obligations, and organizes technical and financial cooperation. However, the responsibility for achieving its goals rests largely with the countries themselves. For further knowledge on national actions, reference can be made to the Bhutan Biodiversity Action Plan (2009) and the fourth National Report (2009) – detailing on the implementation status, challenges, issues and constrains in implementing the Convention.
Private companies, landowners, fishermen, and farmers take most of the actions that affect biodiversity. Governments need to provide the critical role of leadership, particularly by setting rules that guide the use of natural resources, and by protecting biodiversity where they have direct control over the land and water. Under the Convention, governments undertake to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity. They are required to develop national biodiversity strategies and action plans, and to integrate these into broader national plans for environment and development. This is particularly important for such sectors as forestry, agriculture, fisheries, energy, transportation and urban planning. Other treaty commitments include:
i. Identifying and monitoring the important components of biological diversity that needs to be conserved and used sustainably;
ii. Establishing protected areas to conserve biological diversity while promoting environmentally sound development around these areas;
iii. Rehabilitating and restoring degraded ecosystems and promoting the recovery of threatened species in collaboration with local residents;
iv. Respecting, preserving and maintaining traditional knowledge of the sustainable use of biological diversity with the involvement of indigenous peoples and local communities;
v. Preventing the introduction of, controlling, and eradicating alien species that could threaten ecosystems, habitats or species;
vi. Controlling the risks posed by organisms modified by biotechnology – with particular reference to LMOs;
vii. Promoting public participation, particularly when it comes to assessing the environmental impacts of development projects that threaten biological diversity; viii. Educating people and raising awareness about the importance of biological diversity
and the need to conserve it; and
ix. Reporting on how each country is meeting its biodiversity goals.
SURVEYS
One of the first steps towards a successful national biodiversity strategy is to conduct surveys to find out what biodiversity exists, its value and importance, and what is
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
endangered. On the basis of these survey results, governments can set measurable targets for conservation and sustainable use. National strategies and programmes need to be developed or adapted to meet these targets.
CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE
The conservation of each country's biological diversity can be achieved in various ways. "In-situ" conservation - the primary means of conservation - focuses on conserving genes, species, and ecosystems in their natural surroundings, for example by establishing protected areas, rehabilitating degraded ecosystems, and adopting legislation to protect threatened species. "Ex-situ" conservation uses zoos, botanical gardens and gene banks to conserve species.
Promoting the sustainable use of biodiversity will be of growing importance for maintaining biodiversity in the years and decades to come. Under the Convention, the "ecosystem approach to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity" is being used as a framework for action, in which all the goods and services provided by the biodiversity in ecosystems are considered. The Convention is promoting activities to ensure that everyone benefits from such goods and services in an equitable way.
REPORTING
Each government that joins the Convention is to report on what it has done to implement the accord, and how effective this is in meeting the objectives of the Convention. These reports are submitted to the Conference of the Parties (COP) - the governing body that brings together all countries that have ratified the Convention. The reports can be viewed by the citizens of all nations available online at www.cbd.int.
The Convention secretariat works with national governments to help strengthen reporting and to make the reports of various countries more consistent and comparable, so that the world community can get a clearer picture of the big trends. Part of that work involves developing indicators for measuring trends in biodiversity, particularly the effects of human actions and decisions on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. The national reports, particularly when seen together, are one of the key tools for tracking progress in meeting the Convention's objectives. Most of the parties have successfully submitted their national reports prepared as per the formats developed by the Secretariat.
6.
INTERNATIONAL ACTIONS
The Convention's success depends on the combined efforts of the world's nations. The responsibility to implement the Convention lies with the individual countries and, to a large extent, compliance will depend on informed self-interest and peer pressure from other countries and from public opinion. The Convention has created a global forum-actually a
UN Convention on Biological Diversity series of meetings-where governments, non-governmental organizations, academics, the private sector and other interested groups or individuals share ideas and compare strategies. The Convention's ultimate authority is the Conference of the Parties (COP), consisting of all governments (and regional economic integration organizations) that have ratified the treaty. This governing body reviews progress under the Convention, identifies new priorities, and sets work plans for members. The COP can also make amendments to the Convention, create expert advisory bodies, review progress reports by member nations, and collaborate with other international organizations and agreements.
The Conference of the Parties can rely on expertise and support from several other bodies that are established by the Convention:
i. The Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA). The SBSTTA is a committee composed of experts from member governments competent in relevant fields. It plays a key role in making recommendations to the COP on scientific and technical issues.
ii. The Clearing House Mechanism. This Internet-based network promotes technical and scientific cooperation and the exchange of information.
iii. The Secretariat. Based in Montreal, it is linked to United Nations Environment Programme. Its main functions are to organize meetings, draft documents, assist member governments in the implementation of the programme of work, coordinate with other international organizations, and collect and disseminate information. In addition, the COP establishes ad hoc committees or mechanisms as it sees fit. For example, it created a Working Group on Biosafety and a Working Group on the knowledge of indigenous and local communities.
THEMATIC PROGRAMMES AND "CROSS-CUTTING" ISSUES
The Convention's members regularly share ideas on best practices and policies for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity with an ecosystem approach. They look at how to deal with biodiversity concerns during development planning, how to promote transboundary cooperation, and how to involve indigenous peoples and local communities in ecosystem management. The Conference of the Parties has launched a number of thematic programmes covering the biodiversity of inland waters, forests, marine and coastal areas, dry-lands, and agricultural lands. Cross-cutting issues are also addressed on matters such as the control of alien invasive species, strengthening the capacity of member countries in taxonomy, and the development of indicators of biodiversity loss.
FINANCIAL AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT
When the Convention was adopted, developing countries emphasized that their ability to take national actions to achieve global biodiversity benefits would depend on financial and technical assistance. Thus, bilateral and multilateral support for capacity building and for
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
investing in projects and programmes is essential for enabling developing countries to meet the Convention's objectives.
Convention-related activities by developing countries are eligible for support from the financial mechanism of the Convention: the Global Environment Facility (GEF). GEF projects, supported by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the World Bank, help forge international cooperation and finance actions to address four critical threats to the global environment: biodiversity loss, climate change, depletion of the ozone layer and degradation of international waters.
THE BIOSAFETY PROTOCOL
Since the domestication of the first crops and farm animals, the humans have altered their genetic makeup through selective breeding and cross-fertilization. The results have been greater agricultural productivity and improved human nutrition.
In recent years, advances in biotechnology techniques have enabled us to cross the species barrier by transferring genes from one species to another. We now have transgenic plants, such as tomatoes and strawberries that have been modified using a gene from a cold water fish to protect the plants from frost. Some varieties of potato and corn have received genes from a bacterium that enables them to produce their own insecticide, thus reducing the need to spray chemical insecticides. Other plants have been modified to tolerate herbicides sprayed to kill weeds. Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) - often known as genetically modified organisms (GMOs) - are becoming part of an increasing number of products, including foods and food additives, beverages, drugs, adhesives, and fuels. Agricultural and pharmaceutical LMOs have rapidly become a multi-billion-dollar global industry.
Biotechnology is being promoted as a better way to grow crops and produce medicines, but it has raised concerns about potential side effects on human health and the environment, including risks to biological diversity. In some countries, genetically altered agricultural products have been sold without much debate, while in others, there have been vocal protests against their use, particularly when they are sold without being identified as genetically modified.
In response to these concerns, governments negotiated a subsidiary agreement to the Convention to address the potential risks posed by cross-border trade and accidental releases of LMOs. Adopted in January 2000, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety allows governments to signal whether or not they are willing to accept imports of agricultural commodities that include LMOs by communicating their decision to the world community via a Biosafety Clearing House, a mechanism set up to facilitate the exchange of information on and experience with LMOs. In addition, commodities that may contain LMOs are to be clearly labeled as such when being exported.
UN Convention on Biological Diversity Stricter Advanced Informed Agreement procedures apply to seeds, live fish, and other LMOs that are to be intentionally introduced into the environment. In these cases, the exporter must provide detailed information to each importing country in advance of the first shipment, and the importer must then authorize the shipment. The aim is to ensure that recipient countries have both the opportunity and the capacity to assess risks involving the products of modern biotechnology. The Protocol entered into force on 11 September 2003, ninety days after the deposit of the fiftieth instrument of ratification.
The Royal Government of Bhutan became party to the Protocol since 11 September 2003 after the submission of the instrument for ratification on 26 August 2002. Since becoming party to the Protocol, Bhutan also formulated its regulation on biosafety and established the national biosafety clearing-house as an obligatory party to the Protocol.
SHARING THE BENEFITS OF GENETIC RESOURCES
An important part of the biodiversity debate involves access to and sharing of the benefits arising out of the commercial and other utilization of genetic material, such as pharmaceutical products. Most of the world's biodiversity is found in developing countries, which consider it a resource for fueling their economic and social development. Historically, plant genetic resources were collected for commercial use outside their region of origin or as inputs in plant breeding. Foreign bio-prospectors have searched for natural substances to develop new commercial products, such as drugs. Often, the products would be sold and protected by patents or other intellectual property rights, without fair benefits to the source countries.
The treaty recognizes national sovereignty over all genetic resources, and provides that access to valuable biological resources be carried out on "mutually agreed terms" and subject to the "prior informed consent" of the country of origin. When a microorganism, plant, or animal is used for a commercial application, the country from which it came has the right to benefit. Such benefits can include cash, samples of what is collected, the participation or training of national researchers, the transfer of biotechnology equipment and know-how, and shares of any profits from the use of the resources.
Work has begun to translate this concept into reality and there are already examples of benefit-sharing arrangements. At least a dozen countries have established controls over access to their genetic resources, and an equal number of nations are developing such controls. Amongst the examples:
i. In 1995, the Philippines required bio-prospectors to get "prior informed consent" from both the government and local peoples.
ii. Costa Rica's National Institute of Biodiversity (INBIO) signed a historic bio-prospecting agreement with a major drug company to receive funds and share in benefits from biological materials that are commercialized.
iii. Countries of the Andean Pact (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Venezuela) have adopted laws and measures to regulate access to their genetic resources. The
UN Convention on Biological Diversity
bio-prospector is required to meet certain conditions, such as the submission of duplicate samples of genetic resources collected to a designated institution; including a national institution in the collection of genetic resources; sharing existing information; sharing research results with the competent national authority; assisting in the strengthening of institutional capacities; and sharing specific financial or related benefits.
Through the Convention, countries meet to develop common policies on these matters.
TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
The Convention also recognizes the close and traditional dependence of indigenous and local communities on biological resources and the need to ensure that these communities share in the benefits arising from the use of their traditional knowledge and practices relating to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Member governments have undertaken "to respect, preserve and maintain" such knowledge and practices, to promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the communities concerned, and to encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits derived from their utilization.
7.
WAY FORWARD
Economic development is essential to meeting human needs and to eliminating the poverty that affects so many people around the world. The sustainable use of nature is essential for the long-term success of development strategies. A major challenge for the 21st century will be making the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity a compelling basis for development policies, business decisions, and consumer desires.
PROMOTING FOR THE LONG TERM
The Convention has already accomplished a great deal on the road to sustainable development by transforming the international community's approach to biodiversity. This progress has been driven by the Convention's inherent strengths of near universal membership, a comprehensive and science-driven mandate, international financial support for national projects, world-class scientific and technological advice, and the political involvement of governments. It has brought together, for the first time, people with very different interests. It offers hope for the future by forging a new deal between governments, economic interests, environmentalists, indigenous peoples and local communities, and the concerned citizen.
However, many challenges still lie ahead. After a surge of interest in the wake of the Rio Summit, many observers are disappointed by the slow progress towards sustainable development during the 1990s. Attention to environmental problems was distracted by a series of economic crises, budget deficits, and local and regional conflicts. Despite the
UN Convention on Biological Diversity promise of Rio, economic growth without adequate environmental safeguards is still the rule rather than the exception.
Some of the major challenges to implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity and promoting sustainable development are:
i. Meeting the increasing demand for biological resources caused by population growth and increased consumption, while considering the long-term consequences of our actions;
ii. Increasing our capacity to document and understand biodiversity, its value, and threats to it;
iii. Building adequate expertise and experience in biodiversity planning;
iv. Improving policies, legislation, guidelines, and fiscal measures for regulating the use of biodiversity;
v. Adopting incentives to promote more sustainable forms of biodiversity use; vi. Promoting trade rules and practices that foster sustainable use of biodiversity;
vii. Strengthening coordination within governments, and between governments and stakeholders;
viii. Securing adequate financial resources for conservation and sustainable use, from both national and international sources;
ix. Making better use of technology;
x. Building political support for the changes necessary to ensure biodiversity conservation and sustainable use; and
xi. Improving education and public awareness about the value of biodiversity.
The Convention on Biological Diversity and its underlying concepts can be difficult to communicate to politicians and to the general public. Nearly a decade after the Convention first acknowledged the lack of information and knowledge regarding biological diversity, it remains an issue that few people understand. There is little public discussion of how to make sustainable use of biodiversity part of economic development. The greatest crunch in sustainable development decisions is the short- versus the long-term time frame. Sadly, it often still pays to exploit the environment now by harvesting as much as possible as fast as possible because economic rules do little to protect long-term interests.
Truly sustainable development requires countries to redefine their policies on land use, food, water, energy, employment, development, conservation, economics, and trade. Biodiversity protection and sustainable use requires the participation of ministries/agencies responsible for such areas as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, energy, tourism, trade and finance.
The challenge facing governments, businesses, and citizens is to forge transition strategies leading to long-term sustainable development. It means negotiating trade-offs even as people are clamoring for more land and businesses are pressing for concessions to expand their harvests. The longer we wait, the fewer options we will have.
