CCNA curriculum ver. 3.1
1 CISCO MODUL 1 ... 16
1.1 Connecting to the Internet ... 17
1.1.1 Requirements for Internet connection... 17
1.1.2 PC basics ... 18
1.1.3 Network interface card... 20
1.1.4 NIC and modem installation ... 20
1.1.5 Overview of high-speed and dial-up connectivity ... 21
1.1.6 TCP/IP description and configuration ... 22
1.1.7 Testing connectivity with ping ... 22
1.1.8 Web browser and plug-ins ... 23
1.1.9 Troubleshooting Internet connection problems ... 24
1.2 Network Math ... 24
1.2.1 Binary presentation of data ... 24
1.2.2 Bits and bytes ... 25
1.2.3 Base 10 number system ... 26
1.2.4 Base 2 number system ... 27
1.2.5 Converting decimal numbers to 8-bit binary numbers ... 27
1.2.6 Converting 8-bit binary numbers to decimal numbers ... 29
1.2.7 Four-octet dotted decimal representation of 32-bit binary numbers ... 31
1.2.8 Hexadecimal ... 32
1.2.9 Boolean or binary logic... 35
1.2.10 IP addresses and network masks ... 36
2 CISCO MODUL 2 ... 38 2.1 NETWORK TERMINOLOGY ... 40 2.1.1 Data networks ... 40 2.1.2 Network history ... 41 2.1.3 Networking devices ... 44 2.1.4 Network Topology ... 46 2.1.5 Network protocols... 47
2.1.6 Local-area networks (LANs) ... 48
2.1.7 Wide-area networks (WANs) ... 49
2.1.8 Metropolitan-area networks (MANs) ... 50
2.1.9 Storage-area networks (SANs) ... 50
2.1.10 Virtual private network (VPN) ... 51
2.1.11 Benefits of VPNs ... 52
2.1.12 Intranets and extranets ... 52
2.2 Bandwidth ... 53 2.2.1 Importance of bandwidth ... 53 2.2.2 The desktop ... 54 2.2.3 Measurement ... 55 2.2.4 Limitations ... 55 2.2.5 Throughput... 57
2.2.6 Data transfer calculation ... 58
2.2.7 Digital versus analog ... 59
2.3 Networking Models ... 60
2.3.1 Using layers to analyze problems in a flow of materials ... 60
2.3.2 Using layers to describe data communication ... 61
2.3.3 OSI model ... 62
2.3.4 OSI Layers ... 63
3.1 COOPER MEDIA ... 70
3.1.1 Atoms and electrons... 71
3.1.2 Voltage ... 73
3.1.3 Resistance and Impendance ( Insulators, Conductors, Semiconductors ) ... 74
3.1.4 Current ... 75 3.1.5 Circuits ... 76 3.1.6 Cable specifications ... 77 3.1.7 Coaxial cable... 78 3.1.8 STP cable ... 79 3.1.9 UTP cable ... 80 3.2 OPTICAL MEDIA ... 82
3.2.1 The electromagnetic spectrum ... 82
3.2.2 Ray model of light ... 84
3.2.3 Reflection ... 85
3.2.4 Refraction... 85
3.2.5 Total internal reflection ... 86
3.2.6 Multimode fiber ... 87
3.2.7 Single-mode fiber ... 89
3.2.8 Other optical components ... 90
3.2.9 Signals and noise in optical fibers ... 92
3.2.10 Installation, care, and testing of optical fiber... 93
3.3 Wireless Media... 95
3.3.1 Wireless LAN organizations and standards ... 95
3.3.2 Wireless devices and topologies ... 96
3.3.3 How wireless LANs communicate ... 98
3.3.4 Authentication and association ... 99
3.3.5 The radio wave and microwave spectrums ... 99
3.3.6 Signals and noise on a WLAN ... 101
3.3.7 Wireless security ... 102
4 CISCO MODUL 4 ... 104
4.1 Frequency-Based Cable Testing ... 104
4.1.1 Waves... 105
4.1.2 Sine waves and square waves ... 106
4.1.3 Exponents and logarithms ... 107
4.1.4 Decibels ... 108
4.1.5 Time and frequency of signals ... 108
4.1.6 Analog and digital signals... 109
4.1.7 Noise in time and frequency ... 110
4.1.8 Bandwidth ... 110
4.2 Signals and Noise ... 111
4.2.1 Signals over copper and fiber optic cables ... 111
4.2.2 Attenuation and insertion loss on copper media ... 112
4.2.3 Sources of noise on copper media ... 113
4.2.4 Types of crosstalk ... 114
4.2.5 Cable testing standards ... 115
4.2.6 Other test parameters ... 117
4.2.7 Time-based parameters ... 117
4.2.8 Testing optical fiber ... 118
4.2.9 A new standard ... 119
5 Cabling LANs and WANs ... 121
5.1 Cablings LANs ... 123
5.1.1 LAN physical layer ... 123
5.1.2 Ethernet in the campus ... 124
5.1.3 Ethernet media and connector requirements ... 124
5.1.5 UTP implementation ... 126
5.1.6 Repeaters ( first level of OSI model ) ... 128
5.1.7 Hubs ( first level of OSI model ) ... 129
5.1.8 Wireless ... 130
5.1.9 Bridges ( second level of OSI model ) ... 131
5.1.10 Switches ( second level of OSI model ) ... 132
5.1.11 Host connectivity ... 134
5.1.12 Peer-to-peer ... 134
5.1.13 Client/server ... 136
5.1.14 WAN physical laye ... 137
5.2 Cabling WANs ... 137
5.2.1 WAN physical layer... 137
5.2.2 WAN serial connections ... 138
5.2.3 Routers and serial connections ... 139
5.2.4 Routers and ISDN BRI connections ... 140
5.2.5 Routers and DSL connections... 141
5.2.6 Routers and cable connections ... 142
5.2.7 Setting up console connections ... 142
6 Ethernet Fundamentals ... 145
6.1 Ethernet Fundamentals ... 146
6.1.1 Introduction to Ethernet ... 146
6.1.2 IEEE Ethernet naming rules ... 147
6.1.3 Ethernet and the OSI model ... 148
6.1.4 Naming... 150
6.1.5 Layer 2 framing ... 150
6.1.6 Ethernet frame structure... 152
6.1.7 Ethernet frame fields ... 153
6.2 Ethernet Operation ... 154
6.2.1 MAC ( protocols ) ... 154
6.2.2 MAC rules and collision detection/backoff ... 155
6.2.3 Ethernet timing ... 157
6.2.4 Interframe spacing and backoff ... 158
6.2.5 Error handling ... 159
6.2.6 Types of collisions ... 160
6.2.7 Ethernet errors... 161
6.2.8 FCS and beyond ... 163
6.2.9 Ethernet auto-negotiation ... 164
6.2.10 Link establishment and full and half duplex ... 164
7 CISCO MODUL 7 ... 167 7.1 10-Mbps and 100-Mbps Ethernet ... 168 7.1.1 10-Mbps Ethernet ... 168 7.1.2 10Base5 ... 170 7.1.3 10Base2 ... 171 7.1.4 10 Base-T ... 172
7.1.5 10BASE-T wiring and architecture ... 173
7.1.6 100-Mbps Ethernet ... 174
7.1.7 100BASE-TX... 175
7.1.8 100BASE-FX ... 176
7.1.9 Fast Ethernet architecture ... 176
7.2 Gigabit and 10-Gigabit Ethernet ... 177
7.2.1 1000-Mbps Ethernet ... 177
7.2.2 1000BASE-T ... 178
7.2.6 10-Gigabit Ethernet architectures ... 183
7.2.7 Future of Ethernet ... 184
8 CISCO MODUL 8 ... 187
8.1 Ethernet Switching ... 187
8.1.1 Layer 2 bridging... 188
8.1.2 Layer 2 switching ( look to source address ) ... 190
8.1.3 Switch operation ... 191
8.1.4 Latency... 192
8.1.5 Switch modes ... 192
8.1.6 Spanning-Tree Protocol ... 193
8.2 Collision Domains and Broadcast Domains ... 194
8.2.1 Shared media environments ... 194
8.2.2 Collision domains ... 195
8.2.3 Segmentation ... 198
8.2.4 Layer 2 broadcasts ... 200
8.2.5 Broadcast domains ... 202
8.2.6 Introduction to data flow... 202
8.2.7 What is a network segment? ... 203
9 CISCO MODUL 9 ... 206
9.1 Introduction to TCP/IP ... 208
9.1.1 History and future of TCP/IP ... 208
9.1.2 Application layer... 209
9.1.3 Transport layer ... 209
9.1.4 Internet layer ... 210
9.1.5 Network access layer ... 211
9.1.6 The OSI model and the TCP/IP model ... 212
9.1.7 Internet architecture ... 213
9.2 Internet Addresses ... 215
9.2.1 IP addressing ... 215
9.2.2 Decimal and binary conversion ... 216
9.2.3 IPv4 addressing ... 218
9.2.4 Class A, B, C, D, and E IP addresses... 220
9.2.5 Reserved IP addresses ... 222
9.2.6 Public and private IP addresses ... 227
9.2.7 Introduction to subnetting ... 229
9.2.8 IPv4 versus IPv6 ... 231
9.3 Obtaining an IP address ... 233
9.3.1 Obtaining an Internet address ... 233
9.3.2 Static assignment of an IP address ... 234
9.3.3 RARP IP address assignment ... 235
9.3.4 BOOTP IP address assignment ... 238
9.3.5 DHCP IP address management ... 244
9.3.6 Problems in address resolution ... 252
9.3.7 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) ... 253
9.3.8 CSMA/CD ... 261
10 CISCO MODUL 10 ... 261
10.1 Routed Protocol ... 263
10.1.1 Routable and routed protocols ... 263
10.1.2 IP as a routed protocol ... 264
10.1.3 Packet propagation and switching within a router ... 265
10.1.4 Connectionless and connection-oriented delivery ... 267
10.1.5 Anatomy of an IP packet ... 268
10.2 IP Routing Protocols... 269
10.2.1 Routing overview ... 269
10.2.3 Routed versus routing ... 273
10.2.4 Path determination ... 275
10.2.5 Routing tables ... 276
10.2.6 Routing algorithms and metrics ... 277
10.2.7 IGP and EGP ... 278
10.2.8 Link state and distance vector ... 279
10.2.9 Routing protocols ... 279
10.3 The Mechanics of Subnetting ... 280
10.3.1 Classes of network IP addresses ... 280
10.3.2 Introduction to and reason for subnetting ... 280
10.3.3 Establishing the subnet mask address ... 281
10.3.4 Applying the subnet mask... 283
10.3.5 Subnetting Class A and B networks ... 284
10.3.6 Calculating the resident subnetwork through ANDing... 286
11 CISCO MODUL 11 ... 287
11.1 TCP/IP Transport Layer ... 289
11.1.1 Introduction to the TCP/IP transport layer ... 289
11.1.2 Flow control ... 290
11.1.3 Session establishment, maintenance, and termination ... 290
11.1.4 Three-way handshake ... 292
11.1.5 Windowing... 293
11.1.6 Acknowledgment ... 294
11.1.7 TCP ... 295
11.1.8 UDP ... 296
11.1.9 TCP and UDP port numbers ... 297
11.2 The Application Layer ... 300
11.2.1 Introduction to the TCP/IP application layer ... 300
11.2.2 DNS ... 300 11.2.3 FTP and TFTP ... 301 11.2.4 HTTP ... 302 11.2.5 SMTP ... 303 11.2.6 SNMP... 304 11.2.7 TELNET ... 304 12 MODULE 1 ... 308 12.1 WANs ... 308 12.1.1 Introduction to WANs ... 308
12.1.2 Introduction to routers in a WAN ... 310
12.1.3 Router LANs and WANs ... 312
12.1.4 Role of routers in a WAN ... 314
12.1.5 Academy approach to hands-on labs ... 316
12.2 Routers ... 316
12.2.1 Introduction to WANs ... 316
12.2.2 Router physical characteristics ... 318
12.2.3 Router external connections... 319
12.2.4 Management port connections ... 319
12.2.5 Console port connections ... 320
12.2.6 Connecting router LAN interfaces ... 321
12.2.7 Connecting WAN interfaces ( I and II OSI Layer ) ... 322
12.2.8 Module-1 Summary ... 324
13 MODULE 2 ... 325
13.1 Operating Cisco IOS Software ... 325
13.1.1 The purpose of Cisco IOS software ( IOS = Operating system for Routers ) ... 327
13.1.5 Operation of Cisco IOS software ... 332
13.2 Starting a Router ... 333
13.2.1 Initial startup of Cisco routers ... 333
13.2.2 Router LED indicators ... 335
13.2.3 The initial Router bootup ... 335
13.2.4 Establish a console session ... 337
13.2.5 Router login ... 337
13.2.6 Keyboard help in the router CLI ... 338
13.2.7 Enhanced editing commands ... 343
13.2.8 Router command history ... 343
13.2.9 Troubleshooting command line errors ... 344
13.2.10 The show version command... 345
13.2.11 Module 2. Summary ... 346
14 MODULE 3 ... 347
14.1 Configure a Router ... 348
14.1.1 CLI command modes ... 348
14.1.2 Configuring a router name ... 349
14.1.3 Configuring router passwords ... 349
14.1.4 Examining the show commands ... 350
14.1.5 Configuring a serial interface ... 352
14.1.6 Making configuration changes... 353
14.1.7 Configuring an Ethernet interface... 354
14.2 Finishing the Configuration ... 355
14.2.1 Importance of configuration standards ... 355
14.2.2 Interface descriptions ... 355
14.2.3 Configuring an interface description ... 355
14.2.4 Login banners ... 356
14.2.5 Configuring message-of-the-day (MOTD) ... 357
14.2.6 Host name resolution ... 357
14.2.7 Configuring host tables ... 358
14.2.8 Configuration backup and documentation ... 359
14.2.9 Backing up configuration files ... 359
14.2.10 Module 3. Summary ... 361
15 MODULE 4 ... 361
15.1 Discovering and Connecting to Neighbors ... 362
15.1.1 Introduction to CDP ... 362
15.1.2 Information obtained with CDP ... 362
15.1.3 Implementation, monitoring, and maintenance of CDP ... 363
15.1.4 Creating a network map of the environment ... 366
15.1.5 Disabling CDP ... 366
15.1.6 Troubleshooting CDP ... 367
15.2 Getting Information about Remote Devices ... 372
15.2.1 Telnet ... 372
15.2.2 Establishing and verifying a Telnet connection ... 373
15.2.3 Disconnecting and suspending Telnet sessions ... 374
15.2.4 Advanced Telnet operation ... 375
15.2.5 Alternative connectivity tests... 376
15.2.6 Troubleshooting IP addressing issues ... 378
15.2.7 Summary ... 378
16 MODULE 5 ... 379
16.1 Router Boot Sequence and Verification ... 379
16.1.1 Stages of the router power-on boot sequence ... 379
16.1.2 How a Cisco device locates and loads IOS... 380
16.1.3 Using the boot system command ... 381
16.1.5 Troubleshooting IOS boot failure ... 383
16.2 Managing the Cisco File System ... 384
16.2.1 IOS file system overview ... 384
16.2.2 The IOS naming convention ... 386
16.2.3 Managing configuration files using TFTP ... 387
16.2.4 Managing configuration files using copy and paste ... 388
16.2.5 Managing IOS images using TFTP ... 390
16.2.6 Managing IOS images using Xmodem ... 391
16.2.7 Environment variables ... 393
16.2.8 File system verification ... 395
16.2.9 Summary ... 396
17 MODULE 6 ... 397
17.1 Introduction to Static Routing ... 397
17.1.1 Introduction to routing ... 397
17.1.2 Static route operation ... 398
17.1.3 Configuring static routes ... 400
17.1.4 Configuring default route forwarding ... 402
17.1.5 Verifying static route configuration ... 403
17.1.6 Troubleshooting static route configuration ... 404
17.2 Dynamic Routing Overview ... 406
17.2.1 Introduction to routing protocols ... 406
17.2.2 Autonomous systems ... 407
17.2.3 Purpose of a routing protocol and autonomous systems... 408
17.2.4 Identifying the classes of routing protocols ... 408
17.2.5 Distance vector routing protocol features ... 409
17.2.6 Link-state routing protocol features ... 411
17.3 Routing Protocols Overview ... 413
17.3.1 Path determination ... 413
17.3.2 Routing configuration ... 416
17.3.3 Routing protocols ... 417
17.3.4 IGP versus EGP ... 418
17.3.5 Summary ... 420
18 MODULE 7 ... 421
18.1 Distance Vector Routing ... 421
18.1.1 Distance vector routing updates ... 421
18.1.2 Distance vector routing loop issues ... 422
18.1.3 Defining a maximum count ... 423
18.1.4 Elimination routing loops through split-horizon ... 424
18.1.5 Route poisoning ... 425
18.1.6 Avoiding routing loops with triggered updates ... 426
18.1.7 Preventing routing loops with holddown timers ... 427
18.2 RIP ... 428
18.2.1 RIP routing process ... 428
18.2.2 Configuring RIP ... 428
18.2.3 Using the ip classless command ... 430
18.2.4 Common RIP configuration issues ... 431
18.2.5 Verifying RIP configuration ... 434
18.2.6 Troubleshooting RIP update issues... 436
18.2.7 Preventing routing updates through an interface ... 438
18.2.8 Load balancing with RIP ... 438
18.2.9 Load balancing across multiple paths ... 439
18.2.10 Integrating static routes with RIP ... 441
18.3.3 IGRP routes... 446
18.3.4 IGRP stability features ... 446
18.3.5 Configuring IGRP ... 448
18.3.6 Migrating RIP to IGRP ... 448
18.3.7 Verifying IGRP configuration ... 452
18.3.8 Troubleshooting IGRP ... 454
18.3.9 Summary ... 457
19 MODULE 8 ... 458
19.1 Overview of TCP/IP Error Message ... 458
19.1.1 ICMP ... 458
19.1.2 Error reporting and error correction ... 459
19.1.3 ICMP message delivery ... 460
19.1.4 Unreachable networks... 460
19.1.5 Use ping to test destination reachability ... 462
19.1.6 Detecting excessively long routes... 464
19.1.7 Echo messages ... 464
19.1.8 Destination unreachable message ... 465
19.1.9 Miscellaneous error reporting ... 467
19.2 TCP/IP Suite Control Messages ... 467
19.2.1 Introduction to control messages ... 467
19.2.2 ICMP redirect/change requests ... 468
19.2.3 Clock synchronization and transit time estimation ... 470
19.2.4 Information requests and reply message formats ... 471
19.2.5 Address mask requests ... 471
19.2.6 Router discovery message ... 473
19.2.7 Router solicitation message ... 474
19.2.8 Congestion and flow control messages ... 475
19.2.9 Summary ... 475
20 MODULE 9 ... 476
20.1 Examining the Routing Table ... 477
20.1.1 The show ip route command ... 477
20.1.2 Determining the gateway of last resort ... 479
20.1.3 Determining route source and destination ... 481
20.1.4 Determining L2 and L3 addresses ... 482
20.1.5 Determining the route administrative distance ... 484
20.1.6 Determining the route metric ... 485
20.1.7 Determining the route next hop ... 486
20.1.8 Determining the last routing update... 488
20.1.9 Observing multiple paths to destination ... 489
20.2 Network Testing ... 490
20.2.1 Introduction to network testing ... 490
20.2.2 Using a structured approach to troubleshooting ... 491
20.2.3 Testing by OSI layers ... 493
20.2.4 Layer 1 troubleshooting using indicators... 494
20.2.5 Layer 3 troubleshooting using ping ... 495
20.2.6 Layer 7 troubleshooting using Telnet ... 496
20.3 Troubleshooting Router Issues Overview ... 497
20.3.1 Troubleshooting Layer 1 using show interfaces ... 497
20.3.2 Troubleshooting Layer 2 using show interfaces ... 500
20.3.3 Troubleshooting using show cdp ... 501
20.3.4 Troubleshooting using traceroute ... 503
20.3.5 Troubleshooting routing issues ... 504
20.3.6 Troubleshooting using show controllers ... 505
20.3.7 Introduction to debug ... 506
21 MODULE 10 ... 510
21.1 TCP Operation ... 510
21.1.1 TCP operation ... 510
21.1.2 Synchronization or three-way handshake ... 511
21.1.3 Denial of service attacks ... 512
21.1.4 Windowing and window size ... 513
21.1.5 Sequencing numbers ... 514
21.1.6 Positive acknowledgments ... 515
21.1.7 UDP operation ... 517
21.2 Overview of Transport Layer Ports ... 518
21.2.1 Multiple conversations between hosts ... 518
21.2.2 Ports for services ... 520
21.2.3 Ports for clients ... 522
21.2.4 Port numbering and well-known port numbers ... 522
21.2.5 Example of multiple sessions between hosts ... 523
21.2.6 Comparison of MAC addresses, IP addresses, and port numbers ... 523
21.2.7 Summary ... 524
22 MODULE 11 ... 525
22.1 Access Control List Fundamentals ... 525
22.1.1 Introduction to ACLs ... 525
22.1.2 How ACLs work ... 527
22.1.3 Creating ACLs ... 529
22.1.4 The function of a wildcard mask ... 531
22.1.5 Verifying ACLs ... 538
22.2 Access Control Lists (ACLs)... 539
22.2.1 Standard ACLs ... 539
22.2.2 Extended ACLs ... 542
22.2.3 Named ACLs ... 549
22.2.4 Placing ACLs ... 551
22.2.5 Firewalls... 555
22.2.6 Restricting virtual terminal access ... 555
22.2.7 Summary ... 556
23 MODULE 1 ... 558
23.1 VLSM ... 558
23.1.1 What is VLSM and why is it used? ... 558
23.1.2 A waste of space ... 560
23.1.3 When to use VLSM ... 561
23.1.4 Calculating subnets with VLSM ... 563
23.1.5 Route aggregation with VLSM ... 566
23.1.6 Configuring VLSM ... 567
23.2 RIP version 2 ... 571
23.2.1 RIP history ... 571
23.2.2 RIP v2 features... 572
23.2.3 Comparing RIP v1 and v2 ... 572
23.2.4 Configuring RIP v2 ... 574 23.2.5 Verifying RIP v2 ... 577 23.2.6 Troubleshooting RIP v2 ... 578 23.2.7 Default routes ... 579 23.2.8 Module Summary ... 581 24 MODULE 2 ... 582
24.1 Link-state Routing protocol ... 583
24.1.1 Overview of link-state routing ... 583
24.1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of link-state routing... 588
24.1.6 Compare and contrast distance vector and link-state routing ... 588
24.2 Single-Area OSPF Concepts ... 589
24.2.1 OSPF overview ... 589
24.2.2 OSPF terminology ... 591
24.2.3 Comparing OSPF with distance vector routing protocols ... 594
24.2.4 Shortest path algorithm ... 597
24.2.5 OSPF network types ... 598
24.2.6 OSPF Hello protocol ... 600
24.2.7 Steps in the operation of OSPF ... 601
24.3 Single-Area OSPF Configuration ... 603
24.3.1 Configuring OSPF routing process ... 603
24.3.2 Configuring OSPF loopback address and router priority ... 604
24.3.3 Modifying OSPF cost metric ... 607
24.3.4 Configuring OSPF authentication ... 607
24.3.5 Configuring OSPF timers ... 609
24.3.6 OSPF, propagating a default route ... 609
24.3.7 Common OSPF configuration issues ... 610
24.3.8 Verifying the OSPF configuration ... 611
24.3.9 Module Summary ... 611
25 MODULE 3 ... 613
25.1.1 Comparing EIGRP and IGRP ... 614
25.1.2 EIGRP concepts and terminology... 616
25.1.3 EIGRP design features ... 621
25.1.4 EIGRP technologies ... 622
25.1.5 EIGRP data structure ... 624
25.1.6 EIGRP algorithm ... 626
25.2 EIGRP Configuration ... 631
25.2.1 Configuring EIGRP ... 631
25.2.2 Configuring EIGRP summarization ... 632
25.2.3 Verifying basic EIGRP ... 634
25.2.4 Building neighbor tables ... 635
25.2.5 Discover routes ... 636
25.2.6 Select routes ... 637
25.2.7 Maintaining routing tables ... 639
25.3 Troubleshooting Routing Protocols ... 641
25.3.1 Routing protocol troubleshooting process ... 641
25.3.2 Troubleshooting RIP configuration ... 643
25.3.3 Troubleshooting IGRP configuration ... 644
25.3.4 Troubleshooting EIGRP configuration ... 646
25.3.5 Troubleshooting OSPF configuration ... 648
25.3.6 Module Summary ... 649
26 MODULE 4 ... 651
26.1 Introduction to Ethernet/802.3 LANs ... 652
26.1.1 Ethernet/802.3 LAN development ... 652
26.1.2 Factors that impact network performance ... 655
26.1.3 Elements of Ethernet/802.3 networks ... 655
26.1.4 Half-duplex networks ... 657
26.1.5 Network congestion ... 657
26.1.6 Network latency ... 659
26.1.7 Ethernet 10BASE-T transmission time... 659
26.1.8 The benefits of using repeaters ... 660
26.1.9 Full-duplex transmitting ... 661
26.2 Introduction to LAN Switching ... 661
26.2.2 LAN segmentation with bridges ... 662
26.2.3 LAN segmentation with routers ... 664
26.2.4 LAN segmentation with switches ... 665
26.2.5 Basic operations of a switch ... 666
26.2.6 Ethernet switch latency ... 668
26.2.7 Layer 2 and Layer 3 switching ... 669
26.2.8 Symmetric and asymmetric switching ... 670
26.2.9 Memory buffering ... 672
26.2.10 Two switching methods ... 672
26.3 Switch Operation ... 674
26.3.1 Functions of Ethernet switches ... 674
26.3.2 Frame transmission modes... 678
26.3.3 How switches and bridges learn addresses ... 679
26.3.4 How switches and bridges filter frames ... 680
26.3.5 Why segment LANs? ... 681
26.3.6 Microsegmentation implementation ... 683
26.3.7 Switches and collision domains ... 685
26.3.8 Switches and broadcast domains ... 687
26.3.9 Communication between switches and workstations ... 689
26.3.10 Module Summary ... 691
27 MODULE 5 ... 692
27.1 LAN design goals ... 692
27.1.1 LAN design goals ... 692
27.1.2 LAN design considerations ... 693
27.1.3 LAN design methodology ... 695
27.1.4 Layer 1 design ... 700
27.1.5 Layer 2 design ... 704
27.1.6 Layer 3 design ... 708
27.2 LAN Switches ... 711
27.2.1 Switched LANs, access layer overview ... 711
27.2.2 Access layer switches ... 712
27.2.3 Distribution layer overview ... 713
27.2.4 Distribution layer switches ... 714
27.2.5 Core layer overview ... 715
27.2.6 Core layer switches ... 715
27.2.7 Module Summary ... 716
28 MODULE 6 ... 718
28.1 Starting the Switch ... 719
28.1.1 Physical startup of the Catalyst switch ... 719
28.1.2 Switch LED indicators ... 719
28.1.3 Verifying port LEDs during switch POST ... 720
28.1.4 Viewing initial bootup output from the switch ... 721
28.1.5 Examining help in the switch CLI ... 724
28.1.6 Switch command modes ... 725
28.2 Configuring the Switch... 726
28.2.1 Verifying the Catalyst switch default configuration ... 726
28.2.2 Configuring the Catalyst switch ... 730
28.2.3 Managing the MAC address table ... 732
28.2.4 Configuring static MAC addresses ... 734
28.2.5 Configuring port security ... 735
28.2.6 Executing adds, moves, and changes ... 736
28.2.7 Managing switch operating system file ... 737
29 MODULE 7 ... 739
29.1 Redundant Topologies ... 739
29.1.1 Redundancy ... 739
29.1.2 Redundant topologies ... 740
29.1.3 Redundant switched topologies ... 742
29.1.4 Broadcast storms ... 743
29.1.5 Multiple frame transmissions... 744
29.1.6 Media access control database instability ... 744
29.2 Spanning-Tree Protocol ... 745
29.2.1 Redundant topology and spanning tree ... 745
29.2.2 Spanning-tree protocol ... 746
29.2.3 Spanning-tree operation ... 748
29.2.4 Selecting the root bridge ... 748
29.2.5 Stages of spanning-tree port states... 750
29.2.6 Spanning-tree recalculation ... 751
29.2.7 Rapid spanning-tree protocol ... 752
29.2.8 Summary ... 753
30 MODULE 8 ... 754
30.1 VLAN Concepts ... 755
30.1.1 VLAN introduction ... 755
30.1.2 Broadcast domains with VLANs and routers ... 757
30.1.3 VLAN operation ... 759 30.1.4 Benefits of VLANs ... 762 30.1.5 VLAN types ... 763 30.2 VLAN Configuration... 765 30.2.1 VLAN basics... 765 30.2.2 Geographic VLANs ... 766
30.2.3 Configuring static VLANs ... 767
30.2.4 Verifying VLAN configuration ... 768
30.2.5 Saving VLAN configuration ... 770
30.2.6 Deleting VLANs ... 771
30.3 Troubleshooting VLANs ... 772
30.3.1 Overview ... 772
30.3.2 VLAN troubleshooting process ... 773
30.3.3 Preventing broadcast storms ... 774
30.3.4 Troubleshooting VLANs ... 776
30.3.5 VLAN troubleshooting scenarios ... 779
30.3.6 Summary ... 781 31 MODULE 9 ... 783 31.1 Trunking ... 784 31.1.1 History of trunking... 784 31.1.2 Trunking concepts... 785 31.1.3 Trunking operation ... 786
31.1.4 VLANs and Trunking ... 788
31.1.5 Trunking implementation ... 789 31.2 VTP... 789 31.2.1 History of VTP... 789 31.2.2 VTP concepts ... 790 31.2.3 VTP operation ... 790 31.2.4 VTP implementation ... 792 31.2.5 VTP configuration ... 795
31.3 Inter-VLAN Routing Overview ... 797
31.3.1 VLAN basics... 797
31.3.2 Introducing inter-VLAN routing ... 799
31.3.4 Physical and logical interfaces ... 802
31.3.5 Dividing physical interfaces into subinterfaces ... 803
31.3.6 Configuring inter-VLAN routing... 805
VLAN trunking mode ( five - 5 mode ) ... 807
9.3.8 Summary ... 807
32 MODULE 1 ... 835
32.1 Scaling IP Addresses ... 836
32.1.1 Private addressing ... 836
32.1.2 Introducing NAT and PAT ... 836
32.1.3 Major NAT and PAT features ... 838
32.1.4 Configuring NAT and PAT ... 840
32.1.5 Verifying PAT configuration ... 845
32.1.6 Troubleshooting NAT and PAT configuration ... 847
32.1.7 Issues with NAT ... 848
32.2 DHCP ... 850
32.2.1 Introducing DHCP ... 850
32.2.2 BOOTP and DHCP differences ... 852
32.2.3 Major DHCP features ... 852 32.2.4 DHCP operation ... 853 32.2.5 Configuring DHCP ... 855 32.2.6 Verifying DHCP operation ... 856 32.2.7 Troubleshooting DHCP ... 857 32.2.8 DHCP Relay ... 857 32.2.9 Summary ... 860 33 MODULE 2 ... 861 33.1 WAN Technologies ... 861 33.1.1 WAN technology ... 861 33.1.2 WAN devices ... 864 33.1.3 WAN Standards ... 865 33.1.4 WAN encapsulation ... 867
33.1.5 Packet and circuit switching ... 868
33.1.6 WAN link options ... 871
33.2 WAN Technologies ... 872 33.2.1 Analog dialup ... 872 33.2.2 ISDN ... 873 33.2.3 Leased line ... 874 33.2.4 X.25... 875 33.2.5 Frame Relay ... 876
33.2.6 ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode... 877
33.2.7 DSL Digital Subscriber Line ... 877
33.2.8 Cable modem ... 879
33.3 WAN Design ... 881
33.3.1 WAN communication ... 881
33.3.2 Steps in WAN design ... 883
33.3.3 How to identify and select networking capabilities ... 885
33.3.4 Three-layer design model ... 887
33.3.5 Other layered design models... 889
33.3.6 Other WAN design considerations ... 890
33.3.7 Summary ... 891
34 MODULE 3 ... 892
34.1 PPP ... 893
34.1.1 Introduction to serial communication ... 893
34.1.5 HDLC encapsulation... 896
34.1.6 Configuring HDLC encapsulation ... 897
34.1.7 Troubleshooting a serial interface... 898
34.2 PPP Authentication ... 902
34.2.1 PPP layered architecture ... 902
34.2.2 Establishing a PPP session ... 905
34.2.3 PPP authentication protocols ... 907
34.2.4 Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) ... 908
34.2.5 Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) ... 909
34.2.6 PPP encapsulation and authentication process ... 910
34.3 Configuring PPP ... 912
34.3.1 Introduction to configuring PPP ... 912
34.3.2 Configuring PPP ... 913
34.3.3 Configuring PPP authentication... 914
34.3.4 Verifying the serial PPP encapsulation configuration ... 916
34.3.5 Troubleshooting the serial encapsulation configuration ... 917
34.3.6 Summary ... 918
35 MODULE 4 ... 919
35.1 ISDN Concepts ... 919
35.1.1 Introducing ISDN ... 919
35.1.2 ISDN standards and access methods ... 921
35.1.3 ISDN 3-layer model and protocols ... 923
35.1.4 ISDN functions ... 925
35.1.5 ISDN reference points ... 928
35.1.6 Determining the router ISDN interface ... 930
35.1.7 ISDN switch types ... 932
35.2 ISDN Configuration ... 933
35.2.1 Configuring ISDN BRI ... 933
35.2.2 Configuring ISDN PRI ... 935
35.2.3 Verifying ISDN configuration ... 937
35.2.4 Troubleshooting the ISDN configuration ... 939
35.3 DDR Configuration ... 940
35.3.1 DDR operation ... 940
35.3.2 Configuring legacy DDR ... 942
35.3.3 Defining static routes for DDR ... 943
35.3.4 Specifying interesting traffic for DDR ... 944
35.3.5 Configuring DDR dialer information ... 944
35.3.6 Dialer profiles ... 947
35.3.7 Configuring dialer profiles... 949
35.3.8 Verifying DDR configuration ... 950
35.3.9 Troubleshooting the DDR configuration ... 952
35.3.10 Summary ... 955
36 MODULE 5 ... 956
36.1 Frame Relay Concepts ... 956
36.1.1 Introducing Frame Relay ... 956
36.1.2 Frame Relay terminology ... 959
36.1.3 Frame Relay stack layered support ... 961
36.1.4 Frame Relay bandwidth and flow control... 961
36.1.5 Frame Relay address mapping and topology ... 965
36.1.6 Frame Relay LMI ( Local Management Interface ) ... 967
36.1.7 Stages of Inverse ARP and LMI operation ... 968
36.2 Configuring Frame Relay ... 970
36.2.1 Configuring basic Frame Relay ... 970
36.2.2 Configuring a static Frame Relay map ... 972
36.2.4 Frame Relay subinterfaces ... 974
36.2.5 Configuring Frame Relay subinterfaces ... 975
36.2.6 Verifying the Frame Relay configuration ... 976
36.2.7 Troubleshooting the Frame Relay configuration ... 979
36.2.8 Summary ... 979
37 MODULE 6 ... 981
37.1 Workstations and Servers ... 981
37.1.1 Workstations ... 981
37.1.2 Servers ... 983
37.1.3 Client-server relationship ... 985
37.1.4 Introduction to NOS... 986
37.1.5 Microsoft NT, 2000, and .NET ... 988
37.1.6 UNIX, Sun, HP, and LINUX ... 989
37.1.7 Apple ... 992
37.1.8 Concept of service on servers ... 992
37.2 Network Managment ... 995
37.2.1 Introduction to network management ... 995
37.2.2 OSI and network management model ... 997
37.2.3 SNMP and CMIP standards ... 998
37.2.4 SNMP operation ... 999
37.2.5 Structure of management information and MIBs ... 1003
37.2.6 SNMP protocol ... 1004
37.2.7 Configuring SNMP ... 1008
37.2.8 RMON ... 1009
37.2.9 Syslog... 1011
Autor ovog materijala_ Ivan Cindric
www.ic.ims.hr
Ovaj material namijenjen je za osobnu upotrebu i nitko nema dozvolu da
ga distribuira putem interneta za download
1 CISCO MODUL 1
OVERVIEW
To understand the role that computers play in a networking system, consider the Internet. Internet connections are essential for businesses and education. Careful planning is required to build a network that will connect to the Internet. Even for an individual personal computer (PC) to connect to the Internet, some planning and decisions are required. Computer resources must be considered for Internet connection. This includes the type of device that connects the PC to the Internet, such as a network interface card (NIC) or modem. Protocols, or rules, must be configured before a computer can connect to the Internet. Proper selection of a Web browser is also important.
This module covers some of the objectives for the CCNA 640-801, INTRO 640-821, and ICND 640-811 exams.
Students who complete this lesson should be able to perform the following tasks:
Understand the physical connections needed for a computer to connect to the Internet Recognize the components of a computer
Install and troubleshoot NICs and modems
Configure the set of protocols needed for Internet connection Use basic procedures to test an Internet connection
Demonstrate a basic ability to use Web browsers and plug-ins
Introduction to Networking
ICNA 640-811 Exam
INTRO 640-821 Exam
1.1 Connecting to the Internet
The Internet is the largest data network on earth. The Internet consists of many large and small networks that are interconnected. Individual computers are the sources and destinations of information through the Internet. Connection to the Internet can be broken down into the physical connection, the logical connection, and applications.
A physical connection is made by connecting an adapter card, such as a modem or a NIC, from a PC to a network. The physical connection is used to transfer signals between PCs within the local-area network (LAN) and to remote devices on the Internet.
The logical connection uses standards called protocols. A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a network communicate. Connections to the Internet may use multiple protocols. The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite is the primary set of protocols used on the Internet. The TCP/IP suite works together to transmit and receive data, or information.
The last part of the connection are the applications, or software programs, that interpret and display data in an understandable form. Applications work with protocols to send and receive data across the Internet. A Web browser displays HTML as a Web page. Examples of Web browsers include Internet Explorer and Netscape. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used to download files and programs from the Internet. Web browsers also use proprietary plug-in applications to display special data types such as movies or flash animations.
This is an introductory view of the Internet, and it may seem to be a simplistic process. As the topic is explored in greater depth, students will learn that data transmission across the Internet is a complicated task.
The next page will describe some PC components.
Requirements for Internet connection
1.1.2 PC basics
Computers are important building blocks in a network. Therefore, students must be able to identify the major components of a PC. Many networking devices are special purpose computers, with many of the same components as general purpose PCs.
A computer must work properly before it can be used to access information such as Web-based content. This will require students to troubleshoot basic hardware and software problems. Therefore, students must be familiar with the following small, discreet PC components:
Students should also be familiar with the following PC subsystems: Transistor – Device that amplifies a signal or opens and closes a circuit.
Integrated circuit – Device made of semiconductor material that contains many transistors and performs a specific task.
Resistor – An electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical current in an electronic circuit.
Capacitor – Electronic component that stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field that consists of two conducting metal plates separated by an insulating material.
Connector – The part of a cable that plugs into a port or interface.
Light emitting diode (LED) – Semiconductor device that emits light when a current passes through it. Printed circuit board (PCB) – A circuit board which has conducting tracks superimposed, or printed, on one or both sides. It may also contain internal signal layers and power and ground planes. Microprocessors, chips and integrated circuits and other electronic components are mounted on the PCB.
CD-ROM drive – A device that can read information from a CD-ROM.
Central processing unit (CPU) – The part of a computer that controls the operation of all the other parts. It gets instructions from memory and decodes them. It performs math and logic operations, and translates and
executes instructions.
Floppy disk drive – A computer drive that reads and writes data to a 3.5-inch, circular piece of metal-coated plastic disk. A standard floppy disk can store approximately 1 MB of information.
Hard disk drive – A computer storage device that uses a set of rotating, magnetically coated disks called platters to store data or programs. Hard drives come in different storage capacity sizes.
Microprocessor – A microprocessor is a processor which consists of a purpose-designed silicon chip and is physically very small. The microprocessor utilizes Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) circuit technology to integrate computer memory, logic, and control on a single chip. A microprocessor contains a CPU.
Motherboard – The main printed circuit board in a computer. The motherboard contains the bus, the
microprocessor, and integrated circuits used for controlling any built-in peripherals such as the keyboard, text and graphics display, serial ports and parallel ports, joystick, and mouse interfaces.
Bus – A collection of wires on the motherboard through which data and timing signals are transmitted from one part of a computer to another.
Random-access memory (RAM) – Also known as read-write memory because new data can be written to it and stored data can be read from it. RAM requires electrical power to maintain data storage. If a computer is turned off or loses power all data stored in RAM is lost.
Read-only memory (ROM) – Computer memory on which data has been prerecorded. Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and can only be read.
System unit – The main part of a PC, which includes the chassis, microprocessor, main memory, bus, and ports. The system unit does not include the keyboard, monitor, or any external devices connected to the computer.
Expansion slot – A socket on the motherboard where a circuit board can be inserted to add new capabilities to the computer. Figure shows Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) and Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) expansion slots. PCI is a fast connection for boards such as NICs, internal modems, and video cards. The AGP port provides a high bandwidth connection between the graphics device and the system memory. AGP
provides a fast connection for 3-D graphics on computer systems. Power supply – The component that supplies power to a computer.
The following backplane components are also important:
Backplane – A backplane is an electronic circuit board containing circuitry and sockets into which additional electronic devices on other circuit boards or cards can be plugged; in a computer, generally synonymous with or part of the motherboard.
Network interface card (NIC) – An expansion board inserted into a computer so that the computer can be connected to a network.
Video card – A board that plugs into a PC to give it display capabilities.
Audio card – An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and output sounds.
Parallel port – An interface capable of transferring more than one bit simultaneously that is used to connect external devices such as printers.
Serial port – An interface that can be used for serial communication in which only one bit is transmitted at a time.
Mouse port – A port used to connect a mouse to a PC.
USB port – A Universal Serial Bus connector. A USB port connects devices such as a mouse or printer to the computer quickly and easily.
Power cord – A cord used to connect an electrical device to an electrical outlet that provides power to the device.
Think of the internal components of a PC as a network of devices that are all attached to the system bus. The Lab Activity will help students find and identify the physical components of a PC.
The next page will provide more information about NICs. 1.1.3 Network interface card
1. INTERNAL NETWORK INTERFACE CARD ( NIC ) 2. PCMCIA NETWORK INTERFACE CARD
This page will explain what a NIC is and how it works. Students will also learn how to select the best NIC for a PC.
A NIC, or LAN adapter, provides network communication capabilities to and from a PC. On desktop computer systems, it is a printed circuit board that resides in a slot on the motherboard and provides an interface connection to the network media. On laptop computer systems, it is commonly integrated into the laptop or available on a small, credit card-sized PCMCIA card. PCMCIA stands for Personal Computer Memory Card International Association. PCMCIA cards are also known as PC cards. The type of NIC must match the media and protocol used on the local network.
The NIC uses an interrupt request (IRQ), an input/output (I/O) address, and upper memory space to work with the operating system. An IRQ value is an assigned location where the computer can expect a particular device to interrupt it when the device sends the computer signals about its operation. For example, when a printer has finished printing, it sends an interrupt signal to the computer. The signal momentarily interrupts the computer so that it can decide what processing to do next. Since multiple signals to the computer on the same interrupt line might not be understood by the computer, a unique value must be specified for each device and its path to the computer. Prior to Plug-and Play (PnP) devices, users often had to set IRQ values manually, or be aware of them, when adding a new device to a computer.
These considerations are important in the selection of a NIC: Protocols – Ethernet, Token Ring, or FDDI
Types of media – Twisted-pair, coaxial, wireless, or fiber-optic Type of system bus – PCI or ISA
Students can use the Interactive Media Activity to view a NIC. The next page will explain how NICs and modems are installed.
1.1.4 NIC and modem installation 1. PC Card Modem
2. 56K External Modem 3. PCMCIA Network Cards 4. Internal NIC
5. USB 10/100 Network Adapter
This page will explain how an adapter card, which can be a modem or a NIC, provides Internet connectivity. Students will also learn how to install a modem or a NIC.
A modem, or modulator-demodulator, is a device that provides the computer with connectivity to a telephone line. A modem converts data from a digital signal to an analog signal that is compatible with a standard phone
line. The modem at the receiving end demodulates the signal, which converts it back to digital. Modems may be installed internally or attached externally to the computer using a phone line.
A NIC must be installed for each device on a network. A NIC provides a network interface for each host. Different types of NICs are used for various device configurations. Notebook computers may have a built-in interface or use a PCMCIA card. Figure shows PCMCIA wired, wireless network cards, and a Universal Serial Bus (USB) Ethernet adapter. Desktop systems may use an internal network adapter , called a NIC, or an external network adapter that connects to the network through a USB port.
Situations that require NIC installation include the following: Installation of a NIC on a PC that does not already have one Replacement of a malfunctioning or damaged NIC
Upgrade from a 10-Mbps NIC to a 10/100/1000-Mbps NIC Change to a different type of NIC, such as wireless
Installation of a secondary, or backup, NIC for network security reasons
To perform the installation of a NIC or modem the following resources may be required: Knowledge of how the adapter, jumpers, and plug-and-play software are configured Availability of diagnostic tools
Ability to resolve hardware resource conflicts
The next page will describe the history of network connectivity.
1.1.5 Overview of high-speed and dial-up connectivity
This page will explain how modem connectivity has evolved into high-speed services.
In the early 1960s, modems were introduced to connect dumb terminals to a central computer. Many
companies used to rent computer time since it was too expensive to own an on-site system. The connection rate was very slow. It was 300 bits per second (bps), which is about 30 characters per second.
As PCs became more affordable in the 1970s, bulletin board systems (BBSs) appeared. These BBSs allowed users to connect and post or read messages on a discussion board. The 300-bps speed was acceptable since it was faster than the speed at which most people could read or type. In the early 1980s, use of bulletin boards increased exponentially and the 300 bps speed quickly became too slow for the transfer of large files and graphics. In the 1990s, modems could operate at 9600 bps. By 1998, they reached the current standard of 56,000 bps, or 56 kbps.
Soon the high-speed services used in the corporate environment such as Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and cable modem access moved to the consumer market. These services no longer required expensive equipment or a second phone line. These are "always on" services that provide instant access and do not require a connection to be established for each session. This provides more reliability and flexibility and has simplified Internet connection sharing in small office and home networks.
1.1.6 TCP/IP description and configuration
This page will introduce the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). The PRIMARY FUNCTION of TCP is relability and flow control
Included in TCP header but not in UDP header is: sequence number, window size, acknowledgment number TCP/IP is a set of protocols or rules that have been developed to allow computers to share resources across a network. The operating system tools must be used to configure TCP/IP on a workstation. The process is very similar for Windows or Mac operating systems.
The Lab Activity will teach students how to obtain basic TCP/IP configuration information. The next page will introduce the ping command.
1.1.7 Testing connectivity with ping
This page will explain how the ping command is used to test network connectivity.
Ping is a basic program that verifies a particular IP address exists and can accept requests. The computer acronym ping stands for Packet Internet or Inter-Network Groper. The name was contrived to match the submariners' term for the sound of a returned sonar pulse from an underwater object.
The ping command works by sending special Internet Protocol (IP) packets, called Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Echo Request datagrams, to a specified destination. Each packet sent is a request for a reply. The output response for a ping contains the success ratio and round-trip time to the destination. From this information, it is possible to determine if there is connectivity to a destination. The ping command is used to test the NIC transmit and receive function, the TCP/IP configuration, and network connectivity. The following types of ping commands can be issued:
ping 127.0.0.1 – This is a unique ping and is called an internal loopback test. It is used to verify the TCP/IP network configuration.
ping IP address of host computer – A ping to a host PC verifies the TCP/IP address configuration for the local host and connectivity to the host.
ping default-gateway IP address – A ping to the default gateway indicates if the router that connects the local network to other networks can be reached.
ping remote destination IP address – A ping to a remote destination verifies connectivity to a remote host. Students will use the ping and tracert commands in the Lab Activity.
The next page will discuss Web browsers.
1.1.8 Web browser and plug-ins
This page will explain what a Web browser is and how it performs the following functions:
Contacts a Web server
Requests information
Receives information
Displays the results on the screen
A Web browser is software that interprets HTML, which is one of the languages used to code Web page content. Some new technologies use other markup languages with more advanced features. HTML, which is the most common markup language, can display graphics or play sound, movies, and other multimedia files. Hyperlinks that are embedded in a Web page provide a quick link to another location on the same page or a different Internet address.
Two of the most popular Web browsers are Internet Explorer (IE) and Netscape Communicator. These browsers perform the same tasks. However, there are differences between them. Some websites may not support the use of one of these browsers. It is a good idea to have both programs installed.
Here are some features of Netscape Navigator:
Was the first popular browser
Uses less disk space
Displays HTML files
Performs e-mail and file transfers Here are some features of IE:
Is powerfully integrated with other Microsoft products
Uses more disk space
Displays HTML files
Performs e-mail and file transfers
There are also many special, or proprietary, file types that standard Web browsers are not able to display. To view these files the browser must be configured to use the plug-in applications. These applications work with
Quicktime – Plays video files created by Apple
Real Player – Plays audio files
Use the following procedure to install the Flash plug-in: Go to the Macromedia website.
Download the latest flash player installer file. Run and install the plug-in in Netscape or IE.
Access the Cisco Academy website to verify the installation and proper operation.
Computers also perform many other useful tasks. Many employees use a set of applications in the form of an office suite such as Microsoft Office. Office applications typically include the following:
Spreadsheet software contains tables that consist of columns and rows and it is often used with formulas to process and analyze data.
Modern word processors allow users to create documents that include graphics and richly formatted text.
Database management software is used to store, maintain, organize, sort, and filter records. A record is a collection of information identified by some common theme such as customer name.
Presentation software is used to design and develop presentations to deliver at meetings, classes, or sales presentations.
A personal information manager includes an e-mail utility, contact lists, a calendar, and a to-do list. Office applications are now a part of daily work, as typewriters were before PCs.
The Lab Activity will help students understand how a Web browser works. The next page will discuss the troubleshooting process.
1.1.9 Troubleshooting Internet connection problems
The Lab Activity on this page will show students how to troubleshoot hardware, software, and network configuration problems. The goal is to locate and repair the problems in a set amount of time to gain access to the curriculum. This lab will demonstrate how complex it is to configure Internet access. This includes the processes and procedures used to troubleshoot computer hardware, software, and network systems. This page concludes this lesson. The next lesson will discuss computer number systems. The first page will describe the binary system
1.2 Network Math
This page will explain how computers use the binary number system to represent data.
Computers work with and store data using electronic switches that are either ON or OFF. Computers can only understand and use data that is in this two-state or binary format. The 1s and 0s are used to represent the two possible states of an electronic component in a computer. 1 is represented by an ON state, and 0 is represented by an OFF state. They are referred to as binary digits or bits.
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is the code that is most commonly used to represent alpha-numeric data in a computer. ASCII uses binary digits to represent the symbols typed on the keyboard. When computers send ON or OFF states over a network, electrical, light, or radio waves are used to represent the 1s and 0s. Notice that each character is represented by a unique pattern of eight binary digits. Because computers are designed to work with ON/OFF switches, binary digits and binary numbers are natural to them. Humans use the decimal number system, which is relatively simple when compared to the long series of 1s and 0s used by computers. So the computer binary numbers need to be converted to decimal numbers. Sometimes binary numbers are converted to hexadecimal numbers. This reduces a long string of binary digits to a few hexadecimal characters. It is easier to remember and to work with hexadecimal numbers.
The next page will discuss bits and bytes.
1.2.2 Bits and bytes
This page will explain what bits and bytes are.
A binary 0 might be represented by 0 volts of electricity. A binary 1 might be represented by +5 volts of electricity.
Computers are designed to use groupings of eight bits. This grouping of eight bits is referred to as a byte. In a computer, one byte represents a single addressable storage location. These storage locations represent a value or single character of data, such as an ASCII code. The total number of combinations of the eight switches being turned on and off is 256. The value range of a byte is from 0 to 255. So a byte is an important concept to understand when working with computers and networks.
The next page will describe the Base 10 number system.
1.2.3 Base 10 number system
Numbering systems consist of symbols and rules for their use. This page will discuss the most commonly used number system, which is decimal, or Base 10.
Base 10 uses the ten symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. These symbols, can be combined to represent all possible numeric values.
The decimal number system is based on powers of 10. Each column position of a value, from right to left, is multiplied by the base number 10 raised to a power, which is the exponent. The power that 10 is raised to depends on its position to the left of the decimal point. When a decimal number is read from right to left, the first or rightmost position represents 100, which equals 1. The second position represents 101, which equals 10. The third position represents 102, which equals 100. The seventh position to the left represents 106, which equals 1,000,000. This is true no matter how many columns the number has.
Here is an example:
2134 = (2x103) + (1x102) + (3x101) + (4x100)
This review of the decimal system will help students understand the Base 2 and Base 16 number systems. These systems use the same methods as the decimal system.
1.2.4 Base 2 number system
This page will discuss the number system that computers use to recognize and process data, which is binary, or Base 2.
The binary system uses only two symbols, which are 0 and 1. The position of each digit from right to left in a binary number represents the base number 2 raised to a power or exponent. These place values are, from right to left, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, and 27, or 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128 respectively.
Here is an example:
101102 = (1 x 24 = 16) + (0 x 23 = 0) + (1 x 22 = 4) + (1 x 21 = 2) + (0 x 20 = 0) = 22 (16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0)
This example shows that the binary number 10110 is equal to the decimal number 22.
1.2.5 Converting decimal numbers to 8-bit binary numbers This page will teach students how to convert decimal numbers to binary numbers.
There are several ways to convert decimal numbers to binary numbers. The flowchart in Figure describes one method. This method is one of several methods that can be used. It is best to select one method and practice with it until it always produces the correct answer.
Conversion exercise:
Use the example below to convert the decimal number 168 to a binary number:
128 is less than 168 so the left most bit in the binary number is a 1. 168 - 128 = 40.
64 is not less than or equal to 40 so the second bit from the left is a 0.
32 is less than 40 so the third bit from the left is a 1. 40 - 32 = 8.
16 is not less than or equal to 8 so the fourth bit from the left is a 0.
8 is equal to 8 so the fifth bit from the left is a 1. 8 - 8 = 0. Therefore, the bits to the right are all 0. This example shows that the decimal number 168 is equal to the binary number 10101000.
The number converter activity in Figure will allow students to practice decimal to binary conversions. In the Lab Activity, students will practice the conversion of decimal numbers to binary numbers.
The next page will discuss the conversion of binary numbers to decimal numbers. Please see next page!!!!!!
1.2.6 Converting 8-bit binary numbers to decimal numbers This page will teach students how to convert binary numbers to decimal numbers.
There are two basic ways to convert binary numbers to decimal numbers. The flowchart in Figure shows one example.
Students can also multipy each binary digit by the base number of 2 raised to the exponent of its position. Here is an example:
Convert the binary number 01110000 to a decimal number. NOTE:
Work from right to left. Remember that anything raised to the 0 power is 1.
0 x 20 = 0 0 x 21 = 0 0 x 22 = 0 0 x 23 = 0 1 x 24 = 16 1 x 25 = 32 1 x 26 = 64 0 x 27 = 0 __________ = 112
The Lab Activity will let students practice the conversion of binary numbers to decimal numbers. The next page will discuss dotted decimal notations
1.2.7 Four-octet dotted decimal representation of 32-bit binary numbers This page will explain how binary numbers are represented in dotted decimal notation.
Currently, addresses assigned to computers on the Internet are 32-bit binary numbers. To make it easier to work with these addresses, the 32-bit binary number is broken into a series of decimal numbers. First the binary number is split into four groups of eight binary digits. Then each group of eight bits, or octet, is converted into its decimal equivalent. This conversion can be performed as shown on the previous page. When written, the complete binary number is represented as four groups of decimal digits separated by periods. This is called dotted decimal notation and provides a compact and easy way to refer to 32-bit addresses. This representation is used frequently later in this course, so it is necessary to understand it. For dotted decimal to binary conversions, remember that each group of one to three decimal digits represents a group of eight binary digits. If the decimal number that is being converted is less than 128, zeros will be needed to be added to the left of the equivalent binary number until there are a total of eight bits.
Try the following conversions for practice:
Convert 200.114.6.51 to its 32-bit binary equivalent.
Convert 10000000 01011101 00001111 10101010 to its dotted decimal equivalent. The next page will introduce the hexadecimal number system
DOTED DECIMAL NOTATION
DOTED DECIMAL TO BINARY CONVERSATION
1.2.8 Hexadecimal
This page will teach students about the hexadecimal number system. Students will also learn how hexadecimal is used to represent binary and decimal numbers.
The hexadecimal or Base 16 number system is commonly used to represent binary numbers in a more readable form. Computers perform computations in binary. However, there are several instances when the binary output of a computer is expressed in hexadecimal to make it easier to read.
The configuration register in Cisco routers often requires hexadecimal to binary and binary to hexadecimal conversions. Cisco routers have a configuration register that is 16 bits long. The 16-bit binary number can be represented as a four-digit hexadecimal number. For example, 0010000100000010 in binary equals 2102 in hexadecimal. A hexadecimal number is often indicated with a 0x. For example, the hexadecimal number 2102 would be written as 0x2102.
Like the binary and decimal systems, the hexadecimal system is based on the use of symbols, powers, and positions. The symbols that hexadecimal uses are the digits 0 through 9 and the letters A through F. All combinations of four binary digits can be represented with one hexadecimal symbol. These values require one or two decimal symbols. Two hexadecimal digits can efficiently represent any combination of eight binary digits. The decimal representation of an eight-bit binary number will require either two or three decimal digits. Since one hexadecimal digit always represents four binary digits, hexadecimal symbols are easier to use than decimal symbols when working with large binary numbers. Using hexadecimal representation also reduces the confusion of reading long strings of binary numbers and the amount of space it takes to write binary numbers. Remember that 0x may be used to indicate a hexadecimal value. The hexadecimal number 5D might be written as 0x5D.
To convert to binary, simply expand each hexadecimal digit into its four-bit binary equivalent.
The Lab Activity will teach students how to convert hexadecimal numbers into decimal and binary values. The next page will discuss Boolean logic.
BINARY , HEXADECIMALNI AND DECIMALNI NUMBER SYSTEMS
CONVERTING BINARY TO HEXADECIMALNI
1.2.9 Boolean or binary logic
This page will introduce Boolean logic and explain how it is used.
Boolean logic is based on digital circuitry that accepts one or two incoming voltages. Based on the input voltages, output voltage is generated. For computers the voltage difference is represented as an ON or OFF state. These two states are associated with a binary 1 or 0.
Boolean logic is a binary logic that allows two numbers to be compared and makes a choice based on the numbers. These choices are the logical AND, OR, and NOT. With the exception of the NOT, Boolean
operations have the same function. They accept two numbers, which are 1 and 0, and generate a result based on the logic rule.
The NOT operation takes the value that is presented and inverts it. A 1 becomes a 0 and a 0 becomes a 1. Remember that the logic gates are electronic devices built specifically for this purpose. The logic rule that they follow is whatever the input is, the output is the opposite.
The AND operation compares two input values. If both values are 1, the logic gate generates a 1 as the output. Otherwise it outputs a 0. There are four combinations of input values. Three of these combinations generate a 0, and one combination generates a 1.
The OR operation also takes two input values. If at least one of the input values is 1, the output value is 1. Again there are four combinations of input values. Three combinations generate a 1 and the fourth generates a 0.
The two networking operations that use Boolean logic are subnetwork and wildcard masking. The masking operations are used to filter addresses. The addresses identify the devices on the network and can be grouped together or controlled by other network operations. These functions will be explained in depth later in the curriculum.
The next page will explain how network masks are used. Logic gates
Suprotan rezultat
I jedan i drugi ( obe znamenke moraju biti 1 da bi rezultat bio 1 )
Ili jedan ili drugi ( ako samo jedna znamenka je 1 onda je rezultat 1 )
1.2.10 IP addresses and network masks
This page will explain the relationship between IP addresses and network masks.
When IP addresses are assigned to computers, some of the bits on the left side of the 32-bit IP number
represent a network. The number of bits designated depends on the address class. The bits left over in the 32-bit IP address identify a particular computer on the network. A computer is referred to as a host. The IP address of a computer consists of a network and a host part.
To inform a computer how the 32-bit IP address has been split, a second 32-bit number called a subnetwork mask is used. This mask is a guide that determines how the IP address is interpreted. It indicates how many of the bits are used to identify the network of the computer. The subnetwork mask sequentially fills in the 1s from the left side of the mask. A subnet mask will always be all 1s until the network address is identified and then it will be all 0s to the end of the mask. The bits in the subnet mask that are 0 identify the computer or host. Some examples of subnet masks are as follows:
11111111000000000000000000000000 written in dotted decimal as 255.0.0.0 11111111111111110000000000000000 written in dotted decimal as 255.255.0.0
In the first example, the first eight bits from the left represent the network portion of the address, and the last 24 bits represent the host portion of the address. In the second example the first 16 bits represent the network portion of the address, and the last 16 bits represent the host portion of the address.
The IP address 10.34.23.134 in binary form is 00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110.
A Boolean AND of the IP address 10.34.23.134 and the subnet mask 255.0.0.0 produces the network address of this host:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 00001010.00000000.00000000.00000000
The dotted decimal conversion is 10.0.0.0 which is the network portion of the IP address when the 255.0.0.0 mask is used.
A Boolean AND of the IP address 10.34.23.134 and the subnet mask 255.255.0.0 produces the network address of this host:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 00001010.00100010.00000000.00000000
The dotted decimal conversion is 10.34.0.0 which is the network portion of the IP address when the 255.255.0.0 mask is used.
This is a brief illustration of the effect that a network mask has on an IP address. The importance of masking will become much clearer as more work with IP addresses is done. For right now it is only important that the concept of the mask is understood.
This page concludes this lesson. The next page will summarize the main points from the module. IP ADDRESS COMPONENT
2 CISCO MODUL 2
OVERVIEWBandwidth decisions are among the most important considerations when a network is designed. This module discusses the importance of bandwidth and explains how it is measured.
Layered models are used to describe network functions. This module covers the two most important models, which are the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model and the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) model. The module also presents the differences and similarities between the two models. This module also includes a brief history of networking. Students will learn about network devices and
different types of physical and logical layouts. This module also defines and compares LANs, MANs, WANs, SANs, and VPNs.
This module covers some of the objectives for the CCNA 640-801, INTRO 640-821, and ICND 640-811 exams.
Students who complete this module should be able to perform the following tasks:
Explain the importance of bandwidth in networking
Use an analogy to explain bandwidth
Identify bps, kbps, Mbps, and Gbps as units of bandwidth
Explain the difference between bandwidth and throughput
Calculate data transfer rates
Explain why layered models are used to describe data communication
Explain the development of the OSI model
List the advantages of a layered approach
Identify each of the seven layers of the OSI model
Identify the four layers of the TCP/IP model
Describe the similarities and differences between the two models
Briefly outline the history of networking
Identify devices used in networking
Understand the role of protocols in networking
Define LAN, WAN, MAN, and SAN
Explain VPNs and their advantages
Describe the differences between intranets and extranets 1. Network Fundametals
2. CCNA 640-801
3. ICND 640-811
