Energy Conservation and Management

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EXPERIMENT NO :- 1

Date :

AIM: - TO

AIM: - TO STUDY ABOUT ENERGY SCENARIO AND CONSERVATION

STUDY ABOUT ENERGY SCENARIO AND CONSERVATION

ENERGY SCENARIO:

Introduction

Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In the case of Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In the case of the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of the the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of the ever-increasing energy needs requiring huge investments to meet them.

increasing energy needs requiring huge investments to meet them. Energy can be classified into several types based on the

Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:following criteria:

•

• Primary and Secondary energyPrimary and Secondary energy •

• Commercial and Non commercial energyCommercial and Non commercial energy •

• Renewable and Non-Renewable energyRenewable and Non-Renewable energy

Primary and Secondary Energy

Primary

Primary energy energy sources sources areare those that are either found or those that are either found or stored

stored in in nature. nature. CommonCommon primary

primary energy energy sources sources areare coal,

coal, oil, oil, natural natural gas, gas, andand

Source

Source ExtractionExtraction Open Open

Processing

Processing PrimaPrimary ry energyenergy SecondarySecondary Energy Energy

Steam Steam biomass (such as wood). Other

biomass (such as wood). Other primary

primary energy energy sourcessources available

available include include nuclearnuclear energy

energy from from radioactiveradioactive substances,

substances, thermal thermal energyenergy stored in earth’s interior, and stored in earth’s interior, and potential energy due to

potential energy due to earth’searth’s gravity. The major primary and gravity. The major primary and secondary energy sources are secondary energy sources are shown in Figure 1.1 shown in Figure 1.1 Coal Coal Hydro Hydro Nuclear Nuclear Natural gas Natural gas or Deep or Deep Mines Mines Mining Mining Gas Well Gas Well Preparation Preparation Enrichment Enrichment Treatment Treatment Coal Coal Purification

Purification CokeCoke

Power Power Station Station Natural Natural gagass Thermal Thermal Electricity Electricity Primary

Primary energy energy sources sources areare mostly converted in industrial mostly converted in industrial utilities into

utilities into secondary energysecondary energy sources; for example coal, oil sources; for example coal, oil or

or gas gas converted converted into into steamsteam

And electricity.

Petro

Petroleumleum OiOill

Well Well Cracking Cracking an andd Refining Refining LP LPGG Petrol Petrol Diesel/fuel oils Diesel/fuel oils Petrochemical Petrochemical Thermal Thermal Steam Steam

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Primary energy can also be used directly. Some energy sources have non-energy uses, for Primary energy can also be used directly. Some energy sources have non-energy uses, for example coal or natural gas can be

example coal or natural gas can be used as a feedstock in used as a feedstock in fertiliser plants.fertiliser plants.

Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy

 Commercial EnergyCommercial Energy

The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as commercial The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as commercial energy.

energy. By far the most important By far the most important forms of comforms of commercial energy are electricity, coal amercial energy are electricity, coal and refinednd refined petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and commercial development in the modern world. In the industrialized countries, commercialized commercial development in the modern world. In the industrialized countries, commercialized fuels are predominant source not only for economic production, but also for many household fuels are predominant source not only for economic production, but also for many household tasks of general population.

tasks of general population.

Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc. Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.

 Non-Commercial EnergyNon-Commercial Energy

The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified as The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.

often ignored in energy accounting.

Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating, electricity Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating, electricity generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting water generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting water for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water and electricity generation.

for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water and electricity generation.

 Renewable and Non-Renewable EnergyRenewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible. Examples Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible. Examples of renewable resources include wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power and of renewable resources include wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power and hydroelectric power (See Figure 1.2). The most important feature of renewable energy is that it hydroelectric power (See Figure 1.2). The most important feature of renewable energy is that it can be harnessed without the release of harmful pollutants. Non-renewable energy is the can be harnessed without the release of harmful pollutants. Non-renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and

conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, which are likely to deplete with gas, which are likely to deplete with time.time.

Renewable Non-Renewable

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

Global Primary Energy Reserves

Global Primary Energy Reserves*

*

 CoalCoal

The proven global coal reserve was estimated to be 9,84,453 million The proven global coal reserve was estimated to be 9,84,453 million tonnes by end of 2003. The USA had the largest share of the global tonnes by end of 2003. The USA had the largest share of the global reserve (25.4%) followed by Russia (15.9%), China (11.6%). India was reserve (25.4%) followed by Russia (15.9%), China (11.6%). India was 4

4thth in the list with 8.6%.in the list with 8.6%.

 OilOil

The global proven oil reserve was estimated to be 1147 billion barrels by the end of 2003. Saudi The global proven oil reserve was estimated to be 1147 billion barrels by the end of 2003. Saudi Arabia had the largest share of the reserve with almost 23%.

Arabia had the largest share of the reserve with almost 23%. (One barrel of oil is approximately 160 litres)

(One barrel of oil is approximately 160 litres)

 GasGas

The global proven gas reserve was estimated to be 176 trillion cubic metres by The global proven gas reserve was estimated to be 176 trillion cubic metres by the end of 2003. The Russian Federation had the largest share of the reserve the end of 2003. The Russian Federation had the largest share of the reserve with almost 27%.

with almost 27%.

((**Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2004)Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2004) World oil and gas reserves are estimated at just 45 years an

World oil and gas reserves are estimated at just 45 years and 65 yearsd 65 years respectively. Coal is likely to last a little over 2

respectively. Coal is likely to last a little over 200 years00 years Global Primary Energy Consumption

Global Primary Energy Consumption

The global primary energy consumption at the end of 2003 was equivalent to 9741 million The global primary energy consumption at the end of 2003 was equivalent to 9741 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe). The Figure 1.3 shows in what proportions the sources tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe). The Figure 1.3 shows in what proportions the sources mentioned above contributed to this global figure.

mentioned above contributed to this global figure.

World primary ener

gy consum

ption

BP

BP Statistical Statistical Review Review of of World World Energy Energy 2004 2004 © © BPBP

Figure 1.3 Global Primary Energy Consumption Figure 1.3 Global Primary Energy Consumption

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The primary energy consumption for few of the developed and developing countries are shown The primary energy consumption for few of the developed and developing countries are shown in Table 1.1. It may be seen that

in Table 1.1. It may be seen that India’sIndia’s absolute primary energy consumption is only 1/29absolute primary energy consumption is only 1/29thth of of the world, 1/7

the world, 1/7thth of USA, 1/1.6of USA, 1/1.6thth time of Japan but 1.1, 1.3, 1.5 times that of Canada, France andtime of Japan but 1.1, 1.3, 1.5 times that of Canada, France and U.K respectively.

U.K respectively.

Table 1.1: Primary Energy Consumption by Fuel ,

Table 1.1: Primary Energy Consumption by Fuel , 20092009

In Million tonnes oil equivalent In Million tonnes oil equivalent Country

Country

Oil

Oil NaturalNatural Gas Gas

Coal

Coal NuclearNuclear Energy Energy Hydro Hydro electric electric Total Total USA USA 914.3914.3 566.8566.8 573.9573.9 181.9181.9 60.960.9 2297.82297.8 Canada Canada 96.496.4 78.778.7 31.031.0 16.816.8 68.668.6 291.4291.4 France France 94.294.2 39.439.4 12.412.4 99.899.8 14.814.8 260.6260.6 Russian Federation Russian Federation 124.7124.7 365.2365.2 111.3111.3 34.034.0 35.635.6 670.8670.8 United Kingdom United Kingdom 76.876.8 85.785.7 39.139.1 20.120.1 1.31.3 _223.2_223.2 China China 275.2275.2 29.529.5 799.7799.7 9.89.8 64.064.0 1178.31178.3 India India 113.3113.3 27.127.1 185.3185.3 4.14.1 15.615.6 345.3345.3 Japan Japan 248.7248.7 68.968.9 112.2112.2 52.252.2 22.822.8 504.8504.8 Malaysia Malaysia 23.923.9 25.625.6 3.23.2 -- 1.71.7 _54.4_54.4 Pakistan Pakistan 17.017.0 19.019.0 2.72.7 0.40.4 5.65.6 _44.8_44.8 Singapore Singapore 34.134.1 4.84.8 -- -- -- _38.9_38.9 TOTAL WORLD TOTAL WORLD 3636.63636.6 2331.92331.9 2578.42578.4 598.8598.8 595.4595.4 9741.19741.1

Energy Distribution Between Developed And Developing Countries Energy Distribution Between Developed And Developing Countries Although 80 percent of the

Although 80 percent of the world’sworld’s population lies in the developing countries population lies in the developing countries (a fourfold population increase in the past (a fourfold population increase in the past 25 years), their energy consumption 25 years), their energy consumption amounts to only 40 percent of the world amounts to only 40 percent of the world total energy consumption. The high total energy consumption. The high standards of living in the developed standards of living in the developed countries are attributable to high-energy countries are attributable to high-energy consumption levels

consumption levels. Also, . Also, the the rapidrapid population growth in the developing population growth in the developing countries has kept the per capita energy countries has kept the per capita energy consumption low compared with that of consumption low compared with that of highly industrialized developed countries. highly industrialized developed countries. The world average energy consumption The world average energy consumption per person is equivalent to 2.2 tonnes of per person is equivalent to 2.2 tonnes of

Figure 1.4: Energy Distribution Between Developed Figure 1.4: Energy Distribution Between Developed and Developing Countries

and Developing Countries

coal. In industrialized countries, people use four to five times more than the world average, and coal. In industrialized countries, people use four to five times more than the world average, and nine times more than the average for the developing countries. An American uses 32 times more nine times more than the average for the developing countries. An American uses 32 times more commercial energy than an Indian.

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Indian Energy Scenario:

Coal dominates the energy mix in India, contributing to 55% of the total primary energy Coal dominates the energy mix in India, contributing to 55% of the total primary energy production. Over the years, there has been a marked increase in the share of natural gas in production. Over the years, there has been a marked increase in the share of natural gas in primary energy production from 10% in 1994 to 13% in 1999. There has been a decline in the primary energy production from 10% in 1994 to 13% in 1999. There has been a decline in the share of oil in primary energy production from 20%

share of oil in primary energy production from 20% to 17% during the same period.to 17% during the same period.

Energy Supply Energy Supply Coal Supply Coal Supply

India has huge coal reserves, at least 84,396 million tonnes of proven recoverable reserves (at India has huge coal reserves, at least 84,396 million tonnes of proven recoverable reserves (at the end of 2003). This amounts to almost 8.6% of the world reserves and it may last for about the end of 2003). This amounts to almost 8.6% of the world reserves and it may last for about 230 years at the current Reserve to Production (R/P) ratio. In contrast, the

230 years at the current Reserve to Production (R/P) ratio. In contrast, the world’sworld’s proven coalproven coal reserves are expected to last only for 192

reserves are expected to last only for 192 years at the current R/P ratio.years at the current R/P ratio.

Reserves/Production (R/P) ratio- If the reserves remaining at the end of the year are divided by Reserves/Production (R/P) ratio- If the reserves remaining at the end of the year are divided by the production in that year, the result is the length of time that the remaining reserves would last the production in that year, the result is the length of time that the remaining reserves would last if production were to continue at that

if production were to continue at that level.level.

India is the fourth largest producer of coal and lignite in the world. Coal production is India is the fourth largest producer of coal and lignite in the world. Coal production is concentrated in these states (Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, concentrated in these states (Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Jharkhand, West Bengal).

Maharashtra, Orissa, Jharkhand, West Bengal). Oil Supply

Oil Supply

Oil accounts for about 36 % of India's

Oil accounts for about 36 % of India's _{The ever rising import bill}_{The ever rising import bill} total energy consumption. India today is

total energy consumption. India today is _Year_Year _{Quantity (MMT)}_{Quantity (MMT)} _{Value (Rs Crore)}_{Value (Rs Crore)} one of the top ten oil-guzzling nations in

one of the top ten oil-guzzling nations in _1996-97_1996-97 _33.90_33.90 _18,337_18,337 the world and will soon overtake Korea as

the world and will soon overtake Korea as _1997-98_1997-98 _34.49_34.49 _15,872_15,872 the third largest consumer of oil in Asia

the third largest consumer of oil in Asia _1998-99_1998-99 _39.81_39.81 _19,907_19,907 after China and Japan. The

after China and Japan. The country’scountry’s 1999-001999-00 57.8057.80 40,02840,028 annual crude oil production is peaked at

annual crude oil production is peaked at _2000-01_2000-01 _74.10_74.10 _65,932_65,932 about 32 million tonne as against the

about 32 million tonne as against the _2001-02_2001-02 _84.90_84.90 _8,116_8,116 current peak demand of about 110 million

current peak demand of about 110 million _2002-03_2002-03 ₉₀₉₀ _85,042_85,042 tonne. In the current scenario,

tonne. In the current scenario, India’sIndia’s oiloil _2003-04_2003-04 ₉₅₉₅ _93,159_93,159 consumption by end of 2007 is expected

consumption by end of 2007 is expected _*2004-05_*2004-05 ₁₀₀₁₀₀ _1,30,000_1,30,000 to reach 136 million tonne(MT), of which

to reach 136 million tonne(MT), of which domestic production will be only 34 MT. domestic production will be only 34 MT. India will have to pay an oil bill of India will have to pay an oil bill of

* Estimated * Estimated

Source: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas Source: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas roughly $50 billion, assuming a weighted average price of $50 per barrel of crude. In 2003-04, roughly $50 billion, assuming a weighted average price of $50 per barrel of crude. In 2003-04, against total export of $64 billion, oil imports accounted for $21 billion. India imports 70% of against total export of $64 billion, oil imports accounted for $21 billion. India imports 70% of its crude needs mainly from gulf nations. The majority of India's roughly 5.4 billion barrels in its crude needs mainly from gulf nations. The majority of India's roughly 5.4 billion barrels in oil reserves are located in the Bombay High, upper Assam, Cambay, Krishna-Godavari. In terms oil reserves are located in the Bombay High, upper Assam, Cambay, Krishna-Godavari. In terms of sector wise petroleum product consumption, transport accounts for 42% followed by of sector wise petroleum product consumption, transport accounts for 42% followed by domestic and industry with 24% and 24% respectively. India spent more than Rs.1,10,000 crore domestic and industry with 24% and 24% respectively. India spent more than Rs.1,10,000 crore

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 Natural Gas SupplyNatural Gas Supply

Natural gas accounts for about 8.9 per cent of energy consumption in the country. The current Natural gas accounts for about 8.9 per cent of energy consumption in the country. The current demand for natural gas is about 96 million cubic metres per day (mcmd) as against availability demand for natural gas is about 96 million cubic metres per day (mcmd) as against availability of 67 mcmd. By 2007, the demand is expected to be around 200 mcmd. Natural gas reserves are of 67 mcmd. By 2007, the demand is expected to be around 200 mcmd. Natural gas reserves are estimated at 660 billion cubic meters.

estimated at 660 billion cubic meters.

 Electrical Energy SupplyElectrical Energy Supply

The all India installed capacity of electric power generating The all India installed capacity of electric power generating stations under utilities was 1,12,581 MW as on 31

stations under utilities was 1,12,581 MW as on 31stst May 2004,May 2004, consisting of 28,860 MW- hydro, 77,931 MW - thermal and consisting of 28,860 MW- hydro, 77,931 MW - thermal and 2,720 MW- nuclear and 1,869

2,720 MW- nuclear and 1,869 MW- wind (Ministry of Power).MW- wind (Ministry of Power). The gross generation of power in the year 2002-2003 stood at 531 The gross generation of power in the year 2002-2003 stood at 531 billion units (kWh).

billion units (kWh).

 Nuclear Power SupplyNuclear Power Supply Nuclear

Nuclear Power contributes to about Power contributes to about 2.4 per cent of el2.4 per cent of electricity generated in India. ectricity generated in India. India has tenIndia has ten nuclear

nuclear power reactpower reactors ors at at five five nuclear nuclear power power stations stations producing producing electricity. electricity. More More nuclearnuclear reactors have also been approved

reactors have also been approved for construction.for construction.

 Hydro Power SupplyHydro Power Supply

India is endowed with a vast and viable hydro potential for power generation of which only 15% India is endowed with a vast and viable hydro potential for power generation of which only 15% has been harnessed so far. The share of hydropower in the

has been harnessed so far. The share of hydropower in the country’scountry’s total generated units hastotal generated units has steadily decreased and it presently stands at 25% as on 31

steadily decreased and it presently stands at 25% as on 31stst May 2004. It is assessed thatMay 2004. It is assessed that exploitable potential at 60% load factor is 84,000

exploitable potential at 60% load factor is 84,000 MW.MW.

 Final Energy ConsumptionFinal Energy Consumption

Final energy consumption is the actual energy demand at the user end. This is the difference Final energy consumption is the actual energy demand at the user end. This is the difference between primary energy consumption and the losses that takes place in transport, transmission between primary energy consumption and the losses that takes place in transport, transmission & distribution and refinement. The actual final energy consumption (past and projected) is given & distribution and refinement. The actual final energy consumption (past and projected) is given in Table 1.2.

in Table 1.2.

Table

Table 1.2 1.2 DDEMANDEMANDFFORORCCOMMERCIALOMMERCIALEENERGYNERGYFFORORFFINALINALCCONSUMPTIONONSUMPTION (B(BAUAUSSCENARIOCENARIO)) Source

Source UnitsUnits 1994-951994-95 2001-022001-02 2006-072006-07 2011-122011-12 Electricity

Electricity Billion Billion Units Units 289.36 289.36 480.08 480.08 712.67 712.67 1067.881067.88 Coal

Coal Million Million Tonnes Tonnes 76.67 76.67 109.01 109.01 134.99 134.99 173.47173.47 Lignite

Lignite Million Million Tonnes Tonnes 4.85 4.85 11.69 11.69 16.02 16.02 19.7019.70 Natural

Natural Gas Gas Million Million Cubic Cubic Meters Meters 9880 9880 15730 15730 18291 18291 2085320853 Oil

Oil Products Products Million Million Tonnes Tonnes 63.55 63.55 99.89 99.89 139.95 139.95 196.47196.47 Source: Planning Commission

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 Sector wise Energy Consumption in IndiaSector wise Energy Consumption in India

The major commercial energy consuming sectors in the The major commercial energy consuming sectors in the country are classified as shown in the Figure 1.5. As seen country are classified as shown in the Figure 1.5. As seen from the figure, industry remains the biggest consumer of from the figure, industry remains the biggest consumer of commercial energy and its share in the overall consumption commercial energy and its share in the overall consumption is 49%.

is 49%.

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Energy Needs of Growing Economy:

Figure

Figure 1.5 1.5 Sector Sector Wise Wise EnergyEnergy Consumption (2007-2008) Consumption (2007-2008)

Economic growth is desirable for developing countries, and energy is essential for economic Economic growth is desirable for developing countries, and energy is essential for economic growth. However, the relationship between economic growth and increased energy demand is growth. However, the relationship between economic growth and increased energy demand is not always a straightforward linear one. For example, under present conditions, 6% increase in not always a straightforward linear one. For example, under present conditions, 6% increase in India's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) would impose an increased demand of 9 % on its energy India's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) would impose an increased demand of 9 % on its energy sector.

sector.

In this context, the ratio of energy demand to GDP is a useful indicator. A high ratio reflects In this context, the ratio of energy demand to GDP is a useful indicator. A high ratio reflects energy dependence and a strong influence of energy on GDP growth. The developed countries, energy dependence and a strong influence of energy on GDP growth. The developed countries, by focusing on energy efficiency and lower energy-intensive routes, maintain their energy to by focusing on energy efficiency and lower energy-intensive routes, maintain their energy to GDP ratios at values of less than 1. Th

GDP ratios at values of less than 1. The ratios for developing countries are much e ratios for developing countries are much higher.higher.

 India’sIndia’s_{Energy Needs}_{Energy Needs}

The plan outlay vis-à-vis share of energy is given in Figure 1.6. As seen from the Figure, 18.0% The plan outlay vis-à-vis share of energy is given in Figure 1.6. As seen from the Figure, 18.0% of the total five-year plan outlay is spent on the energy sector.

of the total five-year plan outlay is spent on the energy sector.

PLANWISE

PLANWISE OUTLAYOUTLAY

Figure 1.6 Expenditure Towards Energy Sector Figure 1.6 Expenditure Towards Energy Sector

 Per Capita Energy ConsumptionPer Capita Energy Consumption

The per capita energy consumption (see Figure 1.7) is too low for India as compared to The per capita energy consumption (see Figure 1.7) is too low for India as compared to developed countries. It is just 4% of USA and 20% of the world average. The per capita developed countries. It is just 4% of USA and 20% of the world average. The per capita consumption is likely to grow in India with growth in economy thus increasing the energy consumption is likely to grow in India with growth in economy thus increasing the energy demand.

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Primary energy consumption per capita

BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2004

BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2004 ©©BPBP

Energy Intensity Energy Intensity

Energy intensity is energy consumption per unit of GDP. Energy intensity indicates the Energy intensity is energy consumption per unit of GDP. Energy intensity indicates the development stage of the country.

development stage of the country. India’sIndia’s energy intensity is 3.7 times of Japan, 1.55 times of energy intensity is 3.7 times of Japan, 1.55 times of USA, 1.47 times of Asia and 1.5

USA, 1.47 times of Asia and 1.5 times of World average.times of World average.

Long Term Energy Scenario For India:

 CoalCoal

Coal is the predominant energy source for power production in India, generating approximately Coal is the predominant energy source for power production in India, generating approximately 70% of total domestic electricity. Energy demand in India is expected to increase over the next 70% of total domestic electricity. Energy demand in India is expected to increase over the next 10-15 years; although new oil and gas plants are planned, coal is expected to remain the 10-15 years; although new oil and gas plants are planned, coal is expected to remain the dominant fuel for

dominant fuel for power generation. Despite significant increases in total inspower generation. Despite significant increases in total installed capacitytalled capacity during the last decade, the gap

during the last decade, the gap between electricity supply and demand continues to between electricity supply and demand continues to increase.increase. The resulting shortfall has had a negative impact on industrial output and economic growth. The resulting shortfall has had a negative impact on industrial output and economic growth. However, to meet expected future demand, indigenous coal production will have to be greatly However, to meet expected future demand, indigenous coal production will have to be greatly expanded. Production currently stands at around 290 Million tonnes per year, but coal demand expanded. Production currently stands at around 290 Million tonnes per year, but coal demand is expected to more than double by 2010. Indian coal is typically of poor quality and as such is expected to more than double by 2010. Indian coal is typically of poor quality and as such requires to be beneficiated to improve the quality; Coal imports will also need to increase requires to be beneficiated to improve the quality; Coal imports will also need to increase dramatically to satisfy industrial and power

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 OilOil

India's demand for petroleum products is likely to rise from 97.7 million tonnes in 2001-02 to India's demand for petroleum products is likely to rise from 97.7 million tonnes in 2001-02 to around 139.95 million tonnes in 2006-07, according to projections of the Tenth Five-Year Plan. around 139.95 million tonnes in 2006-07, according to projections of the Tenth Five-Year Plan.

The plan document puts compound annual growth The plan document puts compound annual growth rate (CAGR) at 3.6 % during the plan period. rate (CAGR) at 3.6 % during the plan period. Domestic crude oil production is likely to rise Domestic crude oil production is likely to rise marginally from

marginally from 32.03 million tonnes in 2001-0232.03 million tonnes in 2001-02 to 33.97 million tonnes by the end of the 10

to 33.97 million tonnes by the end of the 10thth planplan period (2006-07).

period (2006-07). India’sIndia’s self sufficiency in oil hasself sufficiency in oil has consistently declined from 60% in the 50s to 30% consistently declined from 60% in the 50s to 30% currently. Same is expected to go down to 8% by currently. Same is expected to go down to 8% by 2020. As shown in the figure 1.8, around 92% of 2020. As shown in the figure 1.8, around 92% of India’s

India’s total oil demand by 2020 has to be met bytotal oil demand by 2020 has to be met by imports.

imports. _{Figure 1.8}_{Figure 1.8}_India’s_India’s_Oil_Oil

 Natural GasNatural Gas

India's natural gas production is likely to rise from 86.56 million cmpd in 2002-03 to 103.08 India's natural gas production is likely to rise from 86.56 million cmpd in 2002-03 to 103.08 million cmpd in 2006-07. It is mainly based on the strength of a more than doubling of million cmpd in 2006-07. It is mainly based on the strength of a more than doubling of production by private operators to 38.25

production by private operators to 38.25 mm cmpd.mm cmpd.

 ElectricityElectricity India

India currently currently has has a a peak peak demand demand shortage shortage of of around around 14% 14% and an and an energy deficienergy deficit of8.4%.t of8.4%. Keeping

Keeping this this in in view view and and to maintain a to maintain a GDP (GDP (gross gross domestic domestic product) product) growth growth of 8% of 8% to 10%,to 10%, the

the Government Government of of India has very prudentlIndia has very prudently set a y set a target target of of 215,804 215,804 MW MW powerpower

Table 1.3

Table 1.3India’sIndia’s_{Perspective Plan For Power For}_{Perspective Plan For Power For Zero Defici}_{Zero Deficit Power By 2011/12}_{t Power By 2011/12}

(Source Tenth And Eleventh Five-Year Plan

(Source Tenth And Eleventh Five-Year Plan Projections)Projections)

Thermal Thermal (Coal) (MW (Coal) (MW Gas / LNG / Gas / LNG / Diesel (MW) Diesel (MW) Nuclear Nuclear (MW) (MW) HydroHydro (MW) (MW) Total(MW)Total(MW) Installed Installed capacity as on capacity as on March 2001 March 2001 61,15761,157 Gas: 10,153 Gas: 10,153 Diesel: 864 Diesel: 864 27202720 25,11625,116 100,010100,010 Additional Additional capacity capacity 53,33353,333 20,40820,408 93809380 32,67332,673 115,794115,794 Total capacity Total capacity March 2012 March 2012 114,490 114,490 (53.0%) (53.0%) 31,42531,425 (14.6%) (14.6%) 12,100 12,100 (5.6%) (5.6%) 57,789 57,789 (26.8%) (26.8%) 215,804215,804

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Energy Conservation and its Importance

Coal and other fossil fuels, which have taken three million years to form, are likely to deplete Coal and other fossil fuels, which have taken three million years to form, are likely to deplete soon. In the last two hundred years, we have consumed 60% of all resources. For sustainable soon. In the last two hundred years, we have consumed 60% of all resources. For sustainable development, we need to adopt energy efficiency measures.

development, we need to adopt energy efficiency measures.

Today, 85% of primary energy comes from Today, 85% of primary energy comes from non-renewable, and fossil sources (coal, oil, non-renewable, and fossil sources (coal, oil, etc.). These reserves are continually etc.). These reserves are continually diminishing with increasing consumption diminishing with increasing consumption and will not exist for

and will not exist for future generations (seefuture generations (see Figure 1.13).

Figure 1.13).

What is Energy Conservation? What is Energy Conservation? Energy

Energy Conservation and Conservation and Energy Efficiency Energy Efficiency are separate, are separate, but related but related concepts. Energyconcepts. Energy conservation is achieved when growth of energy consumption is reduced, measured in physical conservation is achieved when growth of energy consumption is reduced, measured in physical terms. Energy Conservation can, therefore, be the result of several processes or developments, terms. Energy Conservation can, therefore, be the result of several processes or developments, such as productivity increase or technological progress. On the other hand Energy efficiency is such as productivity increase or technological progress. On the other hand Energy efficiency is achieved when energy intensity in a specific product, process or area of production or achieved when energy intensity in a specific product, process or area of production or consumption is reduced without affecting output, consumption or comfort levels. Promotion of consumption is reduced without affecting output, consumption or comfort levels. Promotion of energy efficiency will contribute to energy conservation and is therefore an integral part of energy efficiency will contribute to energy conservation and is therefore an integral part of energy conservation promotional policies.

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Energy efficiency is often viewed as a resource option like coal, oil or natural gas. It Energy efficiency is often viewed as a resource option like coal, oil or natural gas. It provides

provides additional additional economic economic value value by by preserving preserving the the resource resource base base and and reducing reducing pollution.pollution. For

For example, example, replacing replacing traditional traditional light light bulbs bulbs with with Compact Compact Fluorescent Fluorescent Lamps Lamps (CFLs)(CFLs) means you will use only 1/4

means you will use only 1/4thth of of the the energy energy to light a room. Pollution levels to light a room. Pollution levels also also reducereduce by the same amount (refer Figure 1.14).

by the same amount (refer Figure 1.14).

Nature sets some basic limits on how

Nature sets some basic limits on how efficiently energy efficiently energy can can be be used, used, but but in in most most cases cases ourour products

products and and manufacturing processes manufacturing processes are are still still a a long long way way from from operating operating at at thisthis theoretical

theoretical limit. Very simply, energy efficiency means using less energy to perform the samelimit. Very simply, energy efficiency means using less energy to perform the same function.

function.

Although, energy efficiency has been in practice ever since the first oil crisis in 1973, it has Although, energy efficiency has been in practice ever since the first oil crisis in 1973, it has today assumed

today assumed even more importance because of being the most even more importance because of being the most cost-effective and reliablecost-effective and reliable means of mitigating the global

means of mitigating the global climatic change. Recognition of that potential has led to highclimatic change. Recognition of that potential has led to high expectations for the control of future CO

expectations for the control of future CO22 emissions through even more energy efficiencyemissions through even more energy efficiency improvements than have occurred in the past. The industrial sector accounts for some 41 per improvements than have occurred in the past. The industrial sector accounts for some 41 per cent of global primary energy demand and approximately the same share of CO

cent of global primary energy demand and approximately the same share of CO22 emissions. Theemissions. The benefits of Energy conservation for various players are given in

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EXPERIMENT NO :- 2

Date:

AIM:

AIM: STUDY OF THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF EXISTING BUILDING.

STUDY OF THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF EXISTING BUILDING.

Heat loss and Heat Gain:



Heat Loss :

The typical home owner would like the inside of their house to be around 72º on the inside in the The typical home owner would like the inside of their house to be around 72º on the inside in the winter. This is called the Winter Inside Design Temperature. However, because it is cold outside, winter. This is called the Winter Inside Design Temperature. However, because it is cold outside, heat travels through the building envelope, the walls, windows and ceilings to the outside. This heat travels through the building envelope, the walls, windows and ceilings to the outside. This heat is lost by conduction. Also, cold

heat is lost by conduction. Also, cold winter air leaks into the house and winter air leaks into the house and warm air leaks out. This iswarm air leaks out. This is called infiltration.

called infiltration.

There is a continuous movement of heat from the inside to the outside, which is measured in units There is a continuous movement of heat from the inside to the outside, which is measured in units called BTUs (British Thermal Units). The speed of the movement of heat is called the Heat Loss called BTUs (British Thermal Units). The speed of the movement of heat is called the Heat Loss and is measured in BTUH, which means

and is measured in BTUH, which means BTUs per Hour.BTUs per Hour.

If it is 72º inside the house and 52º outside then the 20º temperature differential will cause a If it is 72º inside the house and 52º outside then the 20º temperature differential will cause a certain num

certain num ber of BTUs to leave the house each hour, let’s say that that number is 9,768 BTUH. ber of BTUs to leave the house each hour, let’s say that that number is 9,768 BTUH. The heat loss of this house at 52º is 9,768 BTUH. This means that your heating system needs to The heat loss of this house at 52º is 9,768 BTUH. This means that your heating system needs to produce 9,768 BTUs each hour to keep the house at 72º, when it is 52º outside.

produce 9,768 BTUs each hour to keep the house at 72º, when it is 52º outside.

If it is even colder outside, then the house will lose more heat each hour, the heat loss will be If it is even colder outside, then the house will lose more heat each hour, the heat loss will be higher. When selecting a heating system, at what outside temperature do you need to know the higher. When selecting a heating system, at what outside temperature do you need to know the heat loss? Well, this of course depends on where you live, how cold your winters are. The heat loss? Well, this of course depends on where you live, how cold your winters are. The temperature to use as an outside temperature is called the Winter Outside Design Temperature. temperature to use as an outside temperature is called the Winter Outside Design Temperature. This is the temperature, say 10º for instance, at which only 2 ½% of the time is colder than 10º. This is the temperature, say 10º for instance, at which only 2 ½% of the time is colder than 10º. The heat loss of the house when calculated with an outside temperature of the Winter Outside The heat loss of the house when calculated with an outside temperature of the Winter Outside Design Temperature is called the

Design Temperature is called the Design Heat LossDesign Heat Loss. Because the heat loss at any temperature. Because the heat loss at any temperature other than the design temperature is not really a relevant number, we usually just say Heat Loss, other than the design temperature is not really a relevant number, we usually just say Heat Loss, rather than Design Heat Loss.

rather than Design Heat Loss.

So, to recap, the Heat Loss of the house is the number of BTUs lost each hour when the house is at So, to recap, the Heat Loss of the house is the number of BTUs lost each hour when the house is at the Inside Design temperature inside and the outside

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Fig: 1 Fig: 1 The factors affecting heat loss:

The factors affecting heat loss: 1.

1. Temperature difference : Reducing the inside temperature and Temperature difference : Reducing the inside temperature and moving to a warmer climate aremoving to a warmer climate are two ways to reduce heat loss

two ways to reduce heat loss 2.

2. Area of the building envelope: Area of the building envelope: Smaller houses have lower heat losses than larger onSmaller houses have lower heat losses than larger ones.es. 3.

3. Thermal Resistance: Adding insulation to the walls and ceiling (increasing Thermal Resistance: Adding insulation to the walls and ceiling (increasing R-value) slows theR-value) slows the movement of heat, thus reducing heat loss.

movement of heat, thus reducing heat loss. 4.

4. Tightness: Better window frames, sealing cracks particularly around doors reduces infiltrationTightness: Better window frames, sealing cracks particularly around doors reduces infiltration as does better fireplaces

as does better fireplaces



Heat Gain:

Heat loss is made up of the

Heat loss is made up of the heat lost by conduction through the heat lost by conduction through the building envelope and infiltration.building envelope and infiltration. Heat Gain occurs in the summer time. Heat Gain i

Heat Gain occurs in the summer time. Heat Gain is made up of s made up of 1.

1. Heat gained by conduction (through walls, windows, ceilings etc)Heat gained by conduction (through walls, windows, ceilings etc) 2.

2. Heat gained by infiltration (warm outside air coming in, cHeat gained by infiltration (warm outside air coming in, c ool inside air leaking out)ool inside air leaking out) 3.

3. Moisture gained by infiltration (moist outside air coming in, dryer air leaving)Moisture gained by infiltration (moist outside air coming in, dryer air leaving) 4.

4. Radiation from the sun, either direct or indirect, through Radiation from the sun, either direct or indirect, through windows, glass doors and skylights.windows, glass doors and skylights. 5.

5. Heat and moisture given off by people.Heat and moisture given off by people. 6.

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Fig:2 Fig:2 So you can see that h

So you can see that heat gain is a little more complex. eat gain is a little more complex. Notice that items 1 and 2 are directlNotice that items 1 and 2 are directly relatedy related to the temperature of the outside air, just like their cou

to the temperature of the outside air, just like their cou nterparts in winter heat loss calculations, butnterparts in winter heat loss calculations, but items 3, 4, 5 and 6

items 3, 4, 5 and 6 occur no matter what the outside temperature is.occur no matter what the outside temperature is. To make things a little more complex,

To make things a little more complex, heat gain calculations take moisture into account heat gain calculations take moisture into account as part of as part of the Design Heat Gain. Fortunately, a compute

the Design Heat Gain. Fortunately, a computer program like HVAC-Calc handles this complexityr program like HVAC-Calc handles this complexity for you.

for you.



Sensible Gain and Latent Gain

The heat gain associated with the temperature of the air is called the Sensible Heat Gain. The heat The heat gain associated with the temperature of the air is called the Sensible Heat Gain. The heat gain associated with the water in the air that leaks in due to infiltration and the water that gain associated with the water in the air that leaks in due to infiltration and the water that evaporates from people

evaporates from people’’s skin as well as the moisture in their breath is s skin as well as the moisture in their breath is called the Latent Heat Gain.called the Latent Heat Gain. If you add up the Sensible Gain and the Latent Gain you get the Total Heat Gain.

If you add up the Sensible Gain and the Latent Gain you get the Total Heat Gain.

There is a Total Heat Gain at every outside design condition however the one of interest is the There is a Total Heat Gain at every outside design condition however the one of interest is the Total Design Heat Gain at the outside

Total Design Heat Gain at the outside Summer Design Conditions.Summer Design Conditions.

The Summer Design Conditions consist of more than just the outside temperature. They consist of The Summer Design Conditions consist of more than just the outside temperature. They consist of the Summer Design Temperature (only 2½ % of time warmer than this) and Summer Moisture the Summer Design Temperature (only 2½ % of time warmer than this) and Summer Moisture Content (measured in grains of water per pound of air, typical Houston 113, New York 98), Daily Content (measured in grains of water per pound of air, typical Houston 113, New York 98), Daily Temperature Range (High, Medium or Low). The daily range is a measurement of how the Temperature Range (High, Medium or Low). The daily range is a measurement of how the temperature varies during the day. A high daily range means temperatures start cool in the temperature varies during the day. A high daily range means temperatures start cool in the morning, hot in midday and cool down at night. A high daily range will result in a lower heat gain morning, hot in midday and cool down at night. A high daily range will result in a lower heat gain than a low daily range wh

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With a computer program such as HVAC-Calc, the

With a computer program such as HVAC-Calc, the Summer Design Conditions and Winter DesignSummer Design Conditions and Winter Design Conditions for hundreds of cities are built in to the program. You select them once and then forget Conditions for hundreds of cities are built in to the program. You select them once and then forget it.

it.

There is also an additional unit of measurement that is used to describe the cooling capacity of air There is also an additional unit of measurement that is used to describe the cooling capacity of air conditioners and that is the "Ton". One Ton is 12,000 BTU per hour (BTUH). It comes from the conditioners and that is the "Ton". One Ton is 12,000 BTU per hour (BTUH). It comes from the number of BTU’s absorbed by a ton of ice melting in 24 hours. If you have a heat gain of 30,000 number of BTU’s absorbed by a ton of ice melting in 24 hours. If you have a heat gain of 30,000 BTUH then you would need to remove 30,000 BTUH in order to keep the house at the indoor BTUH then you would need to remove 30,000 BTUH in order to keep the house at the indoor design temperature of say 75.

design temperature of say 75.

You could remove the 30,000 BTUs each hour by setting up some fans to blow the inside air over You could remove the 30,000 BTUs each hour by setting up some fans to blow the inside air over a mountain of ice, being sure to completely melt 2 ½ tons each day. Or you can install a 2 ½ ton a mountain of ice, being sure to completely melt 2 ½ tons each day. Or you can install a 2 ½ ton air conditioner. Due to the difficulty of obtaining ice these days and the problems associated with air conditioner. Due to the difficulty of obtaining ice these days and the problems associated with drinking two and a half tons of ice water each day, most people will choose the 2 ½ ton air drinking two and a half tons of ice water each day, most people will choose the 2 ½ ton air conditioner.

conditioner.



Cooling and Heating Load

Cooling and Heating Load Calculation

Calculations:

s:

The calculation of the cooling and heating loads on a building or zone is the most important step in The calculation of the cooling and heating loads on a building or zone is the most important step in determining the size and type of cooling and heating equipment required to maintain comfortable determining the size and type of cooling and heating equipment required to maintain comfortable indoor air conditions. Building heat and moisture transfer mechanisms are complex and as indoor air conditions. Building heat and moisture transfer mechanisms are complex and as unpredictable as the weather and human behavior, both of which strongly influence load unpredictable as the weather and human behavior, both of which strongly influence load calculation results. Some of the factors that influence results are:

calculation results. Some of the factors that influence results are:

Conduction/convection of heat through walls, roofs, floors, doors and

Conduction/convection of heat through walls, roofs, floors, doors and windows.windows. Radiation through windows and heating

Radiation through windows and heating effects on wall and roof surface temperatures.effects on wall and roof surface temperatures. Thermal properties of buildings (Insulation, glass transmittance, surface absorbtivity. Thermal properties of buildings (Insulation, glass transmittance, surface absorbtivity. Building thermal mass and corresponding delay of indoor temperature change.

Building thermal mass and corresponding delay of indoor temperature change. Construction quality in preventing air, heat, and moisture leakage.

Construction quality in preventing air, heat, and moisture leakage. Heat added/lost with ventilation air needed to mai

Heat added/lost with ventilation air needed to maintain air quality (code compliance).ntain air quality (code compliance). Heat generated by lights, people, appliances, and equipment.

Heat generated by lights, people, appliances, and equipment. Heat added/lost by air, water, and

Heat added/lost by air, water, and refrigeration distribution systems.refrigeration distribution systems. Heat generated by air and

Heat generated by air and water distribution equipment.water distribution equipment.

Moisture added/lost with ventilation air to maintain air quality and code

Moisture added/lost with ventilation air to maintain air quality and code compliance.compliance. Moisture movement through building envelope.

Moisture movement through building envelope. Moisture generated by occupants and equipment. Moisture generated by occupants and equipment.

Activity level, occupancy patterns, and make- up (male, female, child) of people. Activity level, occupancy patterns, and make- up (male, female, child) of people. Acceptable comfort and air quality levels of occupants.

Acceptable comfort and air quality levels of occupants. Weather

Weather conditions conditions (temperature, (temperature, moisture, moisture, wind wind speed, speed, latitude, latitude, elevation, elevation, solar solar radiation,radiation, etc.)

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These many factors combine to force engineers to develop procedures that minimize the load These many factors combine to force engineers to develop procedures that minimize the load calculation complexity without compromising accuracy. A combination of measured data and calculation complexity without compromising accuracy. A combination of measured data and detailed simulations have generated techniques that can be done with a pocket calculator and a detailed simulations have generated techniques that can be done with a pocket calculator and a one-page form or more complex numerical simulations that take hours to complete using modern one-page form or more complex numerical simulations that take hours to complete using modern computers. However, many assumptions and simplifications must be made for all methods.

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

CALCULATION PROCEDURE

::

1.

1. For reference purposes, record customer’s name, address and phone number inFor reference purposes, record customer’s name, address and phone number in the spacesthe spaces provided.

provided. 2.

2. Record inside and outside design temperatures in the spaces provided and calculate theRecord inside and outside design temperatures in the spaces provided and calculate the temperature differences Use local code or practices or ACCA

temperature differences Use local code or practices or ACCA Manual J* as a guide.Manual J* as a guide. 3.

3. Measure total area of windows and doors and record for each construction in Tables A and B.Measure total area of windows and doors and record for each construction in Tables A and B. Total area at the bottom of Table A should equal total area at the bottom of Table B. Multiply Total area at the bottom of Table A should equal total area at the bottom of Table B. Multiply each area by its appropriate factor.

each area by its appropriate factor. 4.

4. Find gross wall area by multiplying total length of exposed walls by ceiling height. Use moreFind gross wall area by multiplying total length of exposed walls by ceiling height. Use more than one line, if needed, for different types of wall construction. Record on gross wall line in than one line, if needed, for different types of wall construction. Record on gross wall line in sq. ft. column of Construction Data.

sq. ft. column of Construction Data. 5.

5. Subtract total Windows and Doors area from Gross Wall area. RecoSubtract total Windows and Doors area from Gross Wall area. Reco rd under Net Walls.rd under Net Walls. 6.

6. Record exposed ceiling area.Record exposed ceiling area. 7.

7. Record exposed floor area. If floor is concrete slab or floor of heated crawl space, record linearRecord exposed floor area. If floor is concrete slab or floor of heated crawl space, record linear feet of exposed perimeter.

feet of exposed perimeter. 8.

8. Select proper heat transfer multipliers from Table C (additional U factors for heating can beSelect proper heat transfer multipliers from Table C (additional U factors for heating can be obtained from ACCA Manual J, Table 2, by using the 100° temperature difference column in obtained from ACCA Manual J, Table 2, by using the 100° temperature difference column in the manual and dividing by 100. This represents the U factor. Cooling factors can be obtained the manual and dividing by 100. This represents the U factor. Cooling factors can be obtained directly from Tables 4 and 5

directly from Tables 4 and 5 of Manual J. Record factors in their proper coof Manual J. Record factors in their proper columns.lumns. 9.

9. Multiply area by their factors and enter in Multiply area by their factors and enter in the BTUH loss and BTUH gain cthe BTUH loss and BTUH gain columns.olumns. 10.

10. Record number of people (usually based on 2 people per bedroom) and multiply by 300. EnterRecord number of people (usually based on 2 people per bedroom) and multiply by 300. Enter total in BTUH gain column.

total in BTUH gain column. 11.

11. Total the BTUH loss and gain columns and record as sensible total. Heat loss total representsTotal the BTUH loss and gain columns and record as sensible total. Heat loss total represents loss per degree temperature difference. Heat gain total represents entire sensible load not loss per degree temperature difference. Heat gain total represents entire sensible load not including latent load (moisture removal).

including latent load (moisture removal). 12.

12. Multiply heat loss by design temperature difference that Multiply heat loss by design temperature difference that you selected as your Design Conditionyou selected as your Design Condition for heating. Multiply heat gain by 1.3 latent heat factors. Record on Sub-Total line.

for heating. Multiply heat gain by 1.3 latent heat factors. Record on Sub-Total line. 13.

13. If a large percentage of ductwork is not in the conditional space, multiply the BTUH Loss andIf a large percentage of ductwork is not in the conditional space, multiply the BTUH Loss and Gain Sub-Totals by the duct loss/gain factors. This becomes your total BTUH HEAT LOSS Gain Sub-Totals by the duct loss/gain factors. This becomes your total BTUH HEAT LOSS AND HEAT GAIN for equipment selection.

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

The CLTD/CLF Method

Many engineers use some form of the Cooling Load Temperature Difference/Cooling. Load Factor Many engineers use some form of the Cooling Load Temperature Difference/Cooling. Load Factor (CLTD/CLF) method. The combined effects of convection, conduction, radiation, and thermal lag (CLTD/CLF) method. The combined effects of convection, conduction, radiation, and thermal lag for opaque surfaces are combined into a

for opaque surfaces are combined into a modification of the conduction equation:modification of the conduction equation:

q

UUAA CCLLTTDD

An array of CLTD tables are used to account for thermal mass, insulation levels, latitude, time of An array of CLTD tables are used to account for thermal mass, insulation levels, latitude, time of day, direction, temperature swing, and other variables. CLF factors are used to account for the fact day, direction, temperature swing, and other variables. CLF factors are used to account for the fact that building thermal mass creates a time lag between heat generation from internal sources that building thermal mass creates a time lag between heat generation from internal sources (lighting, people, appliances, etc.) and the corresponding cooling load. CLF factors are presented (lighting, people, appliances, etc.) and the corresponding cooling load. CLF factors are presented in a set of tables that account for number of hours the heat has been on, thermal mass, type of floor in a set of tables that account for number of hours the heat has been on, thermal mass, type of floor covering and window shading, number of walls, and the presence of ventilation hoods. A CLF covering and window shading, number of walls, and the presence of ventilation hoods. A CLF represents the fraction of the heat gain that is conv

represents the fraction of the heat gain that is conv erted to cooling load.erted to cooling load.

q

q q

q

IntLoadIntLoad CLFCLF

Solar gains through glass are computed in a similar manner with introduction of Solar Cooling Solar gains through glass are computed in a similar manner with introduction of Solar Cooling Load (SCL) factors with the units of heat rate per unit area that are tabularized by facing direction Load (SCL) factors with the units of heat rate per unit area that are tabularized by facing direction (N, E, S, W, Horz.) and latitude. The fraction of solar gain that is transmitted is accounted for with (N, E, S, W, Horz.) and latitude. The fraction of solar gain that is transmitted is accounted for with a shading coefficient (SC) to correct for transmittance and shading devices.

a shading coefficient (SC) to correct for transmittance and shading devices.

q

AA SSCC SSCCLL

All of these factors are summed and added to some estimate of the latent (dehumidification) load All of these factors are summed and added to some estimate of the latent (dehumidification) load to arrive at the cooling load. Recent publications have devoted little attention to the heating loads to arrive at the cooling load. Recent publications have devoted little attention to the heating loads in larger buildings, since they are often small even in colder climates due to the internal heat in larger buildings, since they are often small even in colder climates due to the internal heat generation of equipment. The most recent version of the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals generation of equipment. The most recent version of the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals (2001) contains a one-half page discussion of heating load which provides only minimal guidance. (2001) contains a one-half page discussion of heating load which provides only minimal guidance. More detailed discussions are provided for residential buildings in the Handbook and the parallel More detailed discussions are provided for residential buildings in the Handbook and the parallel Manual J Load Calculation published by the Air Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA). Manual J Load Calculation published by the Air Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA). However, increased attention to heating load calculations are warranted due to the growing However, increased attention to heating load calculations are warranted due to the growing awareness of the need of adequate ventilation air at all times to maintain indoor air quality (IAQ). awareness of the need of adequate ventilation air at all times to maintain indoor air quality (IAQ). The recommended ventilation rates in high occupancy buildings often exceed the heat losses from The recommended ventilation rates in high occupancy buildings often exceed the heat losses from all other components combined.

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

Factors Affecting Thermal Performance

Environmental concerns and the rising cost of fuel mean that there is an increased focus on the Environmental concerns and the rising cost of fuel mean that there is an increased focus on the minimisation of energy use during the natural occupational life of a building. The thermal minimisation of energy use during the natural occupational life of a building. The thermal performance of the building envelope can make a significant contribution to reducing the overall performance of the building envelope can make a significant contribution to reducing the overall building energy usage.

building energy usage.

Reducing operational carbon emissions from buildings is imperative in the drive to combat global Reducing operational carbon emissions from buildings is imperative in the drive to combat global warming. The European Union Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD, 2002/91/EC), warming. The European Union Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD, 2002/91/EC), published in 2002, aims to promote building energy efficiency across the whole EU, and requires published in 2002, aims to promote building energy efficiency across the whole EU, and requires energy performance to be calculated to a national standard.

energy performance to be calculated to a national standard.

In response, the 2006 revisions to Part L of the Building Regulations (Conservation of Fuel and In response, the 2006 revisions to Part L of the Building Regulations (Conservation of Fuel and Power) in England and Wales is projected to save over 1 million tonnes of carbon emissions by Power) in England and Wales is projected to save over 1 million tonnes of carbon emissions by 2010 and incorporates a new

2010 and incorporates a new National Calculation Methodology for non-domestic buildings.National Calculation Methodology for non-domestic buildings.

Enhanced thermal performance of the building envelope, both in terms of improved insulation and Enhanced thermal performance of the building envelope, both in terms of improved insulation and air-tight construction, plays a key role in minimising energy use for heating and cooling and hence air-tight construction, plays a key role in minimising energy use for heating and cooling and hence in reducing carbon emissions.

in reducing carbon emissions. 

 CO2 emissions targets can be met by a CO2 emissions targets can be met by a combination of means, such as:combination of means, such as: Efficient insulation and better detailing of the building env

Efficient insulation and better detailing of the building env elope.elope. Air-tight construction of the building envelope.

Air-tight construction of the building envelope.

Energy efficient appliances and fittings (e.g. boilers and

Energy efficient appliances and fittings (e.g. boilers and lighting).lighting). Automatic controls and building management systems.

Automatic controls and building management systems.

Use of zero-emission technologies such as solar water heating and

Use of zero-emission technologies such as solar water heating and photovoltaics.photovoltaics.

Over the years, well-proven cladding systems have been developed using pre-finished steel for the Over the years, well-proven cladding systems have been developed using pre-finished steel for the outer and/or inner skin of the building envelope. Highly insulated, air-tight cladding systems, with outer and/or inner skin of the building envelope. Highly insulated, air-tight cladding systems, with well designed junctions and interfaces can make a significant contribution to reducing the overall well designed junctions and interfaces can make a significant contribution to reducing the overall carbon emissions of a building over its lifetime.

carbon emissions of a building over its lifetime.



Refurbishment:

―Reasonable improvement‖ for the conservation of fuel and power shall be made whenever ―Reasonable improvement‖ for the conservation of fuel and power shall be made whenever building work is being carried out, where it is ―cost effective‖ according to criteria contained in building work is being carried out, where it is ―cost effective‖ according to criteria contained in ADL2B. Any extension or significant refurbishment to a building, must meet defined criteria, ADL2B. Any extension or significant refurbishment to a building, must meet defined criteria, documented within ADL2B, including improvements to