Industrial psychologists as consultants : clients' ethics expectations

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(1)INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGISTS AS CONSULTANTS: CLIENTS’ ETHICS EXPECTATIONS By Terri Lee Miller Minor dissertation SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE Magister Commercii in Industrial Psychology in the Faculty of Management: Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management at the University of Johannesburg Supervisor: Mrs Xenia Goosen Co-supervisor: Professor Leon Van Vuuren November 2010.

(2) 1 i.. Acknowledgements. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Industrial Psychologist Consultants that shared their clients’ details, to the participants that gave up their valuable time to take part in the study, to the professional ethics project team for their support, and most importantly to Mrs Xenia Goosen and Professor Leon Van Vuuren, my supervisors, for their constant patience, assistance and guidance..

(3) 2 ii.. Affidavit.

(4) 3 iii.. Abstract. The key objective of this qualitative study was to identify clients’ ethics expectations of the consulting psychologist, so as to enhance consulting psychologists’ ability to engage ethically with their clients. The Delphi technique allowed for the design and validation of an exploratory model, encompassing ethical components perceived to be integral to the ethical dimension of the client-consultant ethical relationship and process. A total of 24 clients of consulting psychologists participated in the study, and content analysis was used to interpret the data. Findings indicated that ethical conduct based on specific ethical values and ethical principles are expected of the consulting psychologist within the consulting relationship. An exploratory model was produced which outlines the ethics expectations clients have of the consulting psychologist.. The model may be applied by both consulting. psychologists and their clients in their consulting engagements. This awareness and understanding could inform and promote ethical behaviour in consulting practices, as well as encourage consulting psychologists to strive for the highest standards of professionalism and ethical excellence.. Keywords: client-consultant ethical relationship model, ethical values, ethical principles, consulting psychologist, industrial psychology.

(5) 4 iv.. Table of contents: Page. Chapter 1: Introduction.......................................................................................................... 7 Chapter 2: Literature Study................................................................................................... 9 2.1 Industrial Psychologists as Consultants ...................................................................... 9 2.2 The Client-Consultant Relationship .......................................................................... 10 2.3 Context.......................................................................................................................... 12 2.4 Ethics Expectations ..................................................................................................... 12 2.4.1 Ethical values. ....................................................................................................... 12 2.4.2 Ethical principles. ................................................................................................. 13 2.5 Outcomes of Ethical Conduct..................................................................................... 15 2.6 Research Question and Aim ....................................................................................... 17 Chapter 3: Research Method ............................................................................................... 18 3.1 Research Design........................................................................................................... 18 3.2 Interpretive Research Paradigm................................................................................ 19 3.3 Qualitative Research ................................................................................................... 19 3.4 Phenomenological Research Strategy........................................................................ 20 3.5 Data Gathering Method: Delphi Technique ............................................................. 20 3.6 Process .......................................................................................................................... 22 3.7 Participants .................................................................................................................. 24 3.8 Content Analysis.......................................................................................................... 25 3.9 Quality Assurance ....................................................................................................... 25 3.10 Ethical Considerations .............................................................................................. 26 Chapter 4: Results and Discussion: Implementation and Findings of The Delphi Technique ............................................................................................................................... 28 4.1 Round 1......................................................................................................................... 28 4.1.1 Context................................................................................................................... 28 4.1.2 Values..................................................................................................................... 29 4.1.3 Principles. .............................................................................................................. 30 4.1.4 Process. .................................................................................................................. 32 4.1.5 Outcomes. .............................................................................................................. 33 4.1.6 Structure and flow................................................................................................ 33 4.1.7 General comments. ............................................................................................... 34 4.2 Round 2......................................................................................................................... 37 4.3 Data Integration and Finalisation of Model.............................................................. 39 Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations .................................................................. 42 5.1 Research Limitations................................................................................................... 42 5.2 Recommendations........................................................................................................ 42 5.2.1 Future research..................................................................................................... 42 5.2.2 Industrial psychology profession......................................................................... 42 5.2.3 Consulting psychologists. ..................................................................................... 43 5.2.4 Clients. ................................................................................................................... 43 5.3 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 43 .

(6) 5 v. Table 1: Ethical Values Table 2: Ethical Principles Table 3: Explanatory notes. List of Tables.

(7) 6 vi.. List of Figures. Figure 1. Steps in consulting process. (Derived from Church & Waclawski, 2008; Lippitt & Lippitt, 1986; and Veldsman, 2010) Figure 2. Model 1: Client-consultant ethical relationship (literature based). Figure 3. Research design. Figure 4. Model 2: Client-consultant ethical relationship (Derived from Delphi Round 1). Figure 5. Model 3: Client-consultant ethical relationship (Derived from Delphi Round 2)..

(8) 7 Chapter 1: Introduction Since “ethics is at the core of every discipline” (UDEPP, 2008, p. 2), the nature and components of ethics in all professions should be explored and emphasised. Ethics refers to the study of moral values that determine whether conduct is right or wrong (Werner, 2003), or as Harrison (1982) suggests; the standards and norms that ought to guide human behaviour and decisions, based on moral courses of action. Such an ethical orientation applies to the profession of industrial psychology as a branch of psychology. The industrial psychology profession is “a field of both scientific research and professional practice that aims to further the welfare of people by: understanding the behaviour of individuals and organizations in the workplace; helping individuals pursue meaningful and enriching work; and assisting organizations in the effective management of their human resources” (CSIOP, 1996). In other words, industrial psychology refers to the study of human behaviour in the work context, and its association with organisational productivity and effectiveness (Cascio, 2001). From these definitions it is clear that the industrial psychology profession focuses on improving individuals’ well-being and quality of work-life, as well as enhancing organisational effectiveness. In carrying out their function, industrial psychology practitioners serve different internal and external stakeholders. Stakeholders are those individuals or groups who can affect the industrial psychologist’s work, or who are affected by the industrial psychologist’s work (cf. Freeman, as cited in Rossouw & Van Vuuren, 2010; cf. Fritzsche, 1991).. Internal. stakeholders may be the industrial psychologist’s company of employ, and external stakeholders may be the clients of the industrial psychologist. According to Rossouw and Van Vuuren (2010), every professional, and by implication the professional’s organisation, has a “relatively unique set of stakeholders whose ethical expectations have to be gauged and satisfied” (p. 225). As a result, in order for industrial psychologists to be effective in their professional role, it is important that they are aware of their ethical obligations and stakeholders’ ethics expectations. These ethical obligations and expectations are commonly outlined in a profession’s code of ethics, and the industrial psychology profession is no different. In South Africa, this code of ethics exists in the form of a regulation enforced by the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA), and provides industrial psychologists with guidelines and standards for ethical conduct. This code is, however, of a generic nature, and, as such, provides an ethical framework for all branches of psychology..

(9) 8 Since industrial psychologists can take on many different work-related roles, including but not limited to that of coach, training and development practitioner, assessor, human resource (HR) specialist, and consultant, many ethical challenges that are unique to the practice of industrial psychology may arise. In particular, significant ethical challenges may surface for industrial psychologists when functioning in the role of consultant at any point in the consulting process. For this reason, the distinct ethical dimension of the client-consultant relationship needs to be explored. In order to explore the ethical dimension of the client-consultant relationship, this study will specifically focus on industrial psychologists in the consultant role. The particular ethical challenges that such a role poses for industrial psychologist consultants and their clients will be addressed, to inform the design of a model that may explain the dynamic aspects of the client-consultant ethical relationship (cf. Mouton & Marais, 1990). Since such a model does not exist, the findings are expected to make a contribution in guiding, informing, and aiding industrial psychologist consultants in acquiring and embodying an ethical orientation so as to deliver on clients’ ethics expectations..

(10) 9 Chapter 2: Literature Study 2.1 Industrial Psychologists as Consultants Consulting has evolved and expanded into a significant and well established practice, resulting in a wide variety and increased numbers of consulting companies and consulting practitioners (McLarty & Robinson, 1998; Smith, Van Vuuren & Visser, 2003). Hellkamp (1996) states that consulting refers to a client, whether in the form of an organisation, group, or individual, utilising an independent expert specialist (the consultant) for a specific need. One such form of consulting is management consulting, which is defined as a consulting service made available to leaders or managers within an organisation in order to assist in identifying and rectifying management needs (IMC USA, 2010; Smith et al., 2003). Although other types of consulting practices exist, there is considerable overlap between these different types as well as the generic foci that span the consulting field. In general, all types of consulting practices are situation-specific (Hagenmeyer, 2007). As a result, clients make use of consultants when a specific need is identified, whether it is in the form of a problem or an opportunity, for which the client’s capabilities and the appropriate expertise are lacking (Kovar & Mauldin, 2007). Consultants can also be utilised by a client when impartial and objective insight is needed, based on particular issues and challenges that the client is experiencing (Appelbaum & Steed, 2005; Kovar & Mauldin, 2007). Either way, it is important that consulting be viewed as a learning and developmental process whereby the consultant empowers the client to operate independently (Hagenmeyer, 2007). One such consultant is the industrial psychologist consultant. Industrial psychologists mainly involve themselves in macro-organisational problems such as organisational design, organisational climate, assessment centres, performance appraisal methods, job analyses, and other related and similar areas that involve systems and measurement (Kraut & Korman, 1999). Industrial psychologist consultants thus specialise in these areas, and engage and interact with their clients in order to meet their clients’ needs, resulting in a client-consultant relationship.. There are, however, non-industrial psychologists such as clinical and. counselling psychologists who also function as consultants to organisations. The clientconsultant ethical relationship is thus not limited to industrial psychologists.. For the. remainder of this paper, the term consulting psychologist will be utilised to refer specifically to industrial psychologists functioning in the consultant role..

(11) 10 2.2 The Client-Consultant Relationship As a result of the client and the consulting psychologist working together, a relationship between the client and the consulting psychologist is formed (Appelbaum & Steed, 2005; Smith et al., 2003). For this relationship to be mutually beneficial and successful, the consulting psychologist and the client generally engage in a consulting process. In order to understand the client-consultant relationship, it is important to understand the steps in this consulting process. Church and Waclawski (in Hedge & Borman, 2008), Lippitt and Lippitt (1986), and Veldsman (2010) offer models for and insights into generic consulting processes. Figure 1 presents an integration of information derived from these sources, and thus reflects a combination of all three generic models. The construction of Figure 1 was based on the common stages and steps identified in the three models, as well as the sequential order of the phases observed. For the purpose of this study, Figure 1 illustrates the consulting process in which consulting psychologists and their clients engage.. Step 1: Need Identification Step 2: Client-Consultant Engagement Step 3: Contracting. Step 4: Action Planning. Step 5: Implementation. Step 6: Evaluation. Step 7: Conclusion. Step 8: Follow-up. Figure 1. Steps in consulting process. (Derived from Church & Waclawski, 2008; Lippitt & Lippitt, 1986; and Veldsman, 2010).

(12) 11 Figure 1 illustrates that the consulting process is initiated when a need is identified within a client system. ‘Need Identification’ thus refers to the initial reason for which the client contacted a consultant, whether it was as a result of a problem or an opportunity for which the client did not possess the necessary expertise or resources (Veldsman, 2010). Step 2, ‘ClientConsultant Engagement’, involves the first meeting between the client and the consultant, in which both parties make an effort to get to know each other. They also consider the ‘need’ at hand and assess whether the consultant has the necessary expertise for the project (Church & Waclawski, 2008). Once the client and the consultant agree to work together, they enter into the ‘Contracting’ phase. In this phase, the parameters of the project are defined, and the scope of the project is drawn up in terms of resources, deliverables, cost, time lines, and so on (Church & Waclawski, 2008). Possible actions and solutions are then designed especially for the client to address the specific problem at hand. These solutions and interventions are proposed in the ‘Action Planning’ phase (Lippitt & Lippitt, 1986). The best course of action is selected and ‘Implementation’ of the agreed-upon intervention is applied. On completion of the ‘Implementation’ phase, the client and the consultant enter into Step 6, ‘Evaluation’. In this step, the consultant evaluates and assesses whether the implemented intervention has addressed the client’s needs (Church & Waclawski, 2008). Feedback and suggestions for changes may follow to improve the functioning of the intervention (Lippitt & Lippitt, 1986).. The project then draws to a close in the ‘Conclusion’ phase as the. consultant’s services are no longer needed and the deliverables as per the contract have been met (Lippitt & Lippitt, 1986). ‘Follow-up’ is important in order to ensure ongoing learning, renewal, and support for the client (Lippitt & Lippitt, 1986; Veldsman, 2010). Information that emanates from the follow-up may trigger further client needs, resulting in the process starting over again. Although this is a generic consulting process, it is also assumed to be applicable to consulting psychologists. The consulting process sets the boundaries for expectations to develop between the client and the consulting psychologist (Ulvila, 2000). Such expectations include ethics expectations - expectations that the consulting psychologist is expected to recognise and address (Pellegrinelli, 2002). These ethics expectations can be grouped into ethical values and ethical principles (Kenyon, 1999), and are informed by certain contextual factors. Those consulting psychologists that are able to adhere to clients’ ethics expectations throughout the consulting process may benefit from positive outcomes as well as successful consultancy projects (Kakabadse, Louchart, & Kakabadse, 2006). On the contrary, if clients’ ethics expectations are not met, the reputation of the industrial psychology profession may be.

(13) 12 compromised, and clients and other key stakeholders may be alienated or harmed. These ethical components that impact on the client-consultant ethical relationship were identified as the main components in the literature, and will be discussed in more detail in the sections that follow. 2.3 Context Based on the literature consulted, ethics is informed by certain contextual factors. By implication, these contextual factors have an impact on the client-consultant ethical relationship.. That is, the consulting psychologist is ethically obliged to adhere to the. applicable laws, regulations, and codes of ethics (Kenyon, 1999; Lefkowitz, 2006). These codes of ethics refer to adhering to one’s professional code of ethics, as well as being mindful of the client’s code of ethics. In addition, it is important that the consulting psychologist is aware of the clients’ policies and norms (Lefkowitz, 2006). Corporate governance is another prominent influential factor, as a “close link between corporate governance and ethics” exists (Rossouw & Van Vuuren, 2010, p. 116). Corporate governance thus acts as a control to governing and managing ethics (Rossouw & Van Vuuren 2010; King III, 2009). Each of these contextual factors impacts on ethics, and informs clients’ ethics expectations of the consulting psychologist within the client-consultant ethical relationship. 2.4 Ethics Expectations Ethics plays a role in all client-consultant interactions, and thus in each step of the consulting process (Newman, Robinson-Kurpius, & Fuqua, 2002). As a result, certain ethics expectations are implicated in the client-consultant relationship.. For this reason it is. important that the consulting psychologist understands the client’s needs and ethics expectations, and delivers accordingly (Kovar & Mauldin, 2007; Ulvila, 2000). In order to deliver on clients’ ethics expectations, there are certain ethical values and ethical principles that ought to be identified, which, in turn, are expected to govern the consulting psychologist’s conduct within the client-consultant relationship. 2.4.1 Ethical values.. According to the South African Board for People Practices. (SABPP), “sound moral character is almost universally accepted as a value of major, if not the highest importance for a professional” (2010, p. 31). Values can be defined as the core beliefs and attitudes one displays in terms of what is good or desirable (Kenyon, 1999; Smith et al., 2003).. Certain values are fundamental in promoting the goals of the industrial. psychology profession, and offer consulting psychologists guidelines for ethical and professional conduct. Based on an extensive literature search, these values may include integrity, trustworthiness, respect, fairness, honesty, loyalty, transparency, accountability,.

(14) 13 consistency, and reliability (APA, 2010; HPCSA, 2006; Hedge & Borman, 2008; Kenyon, 1999; King III, 2009; Lefkowitz, 2006; Lowman, 2008; Rossouw & Van Vuuren, 2010; Smith et al., 2003). Each of these values is defined in Table 1. Table 1 Ethical Values Ethical value. Definition. Reference. Integrity. Quality of displaying and maintaining high standards. Oxford Dictionaries Online,. of moral character and behavior.. 2010. Trustworthiness. Deserving of trust; development of credibility.. Hedge & Borman, 2008. Honesty. Truthful, straightforward, and sincere in terms of. Oxford Dictionaries Online,. intentions and motivations.. 2010. Transparency. Openness and ability to disclose information.. Cf. King III, 2009. Fairness. Refers to just and appropriate actions; Justice, equity,. Lefkowitz, 2006; Oxford. and equality; Treating all people equally and avoiding. Dictionaries Online, 2010. favouritism and or discrimination. Reliability. Being dependable; ability to ‘come through’- results in. Hedge & Borman, 2008. an effective working relationship. Loyalty. Showing commitment and constant support.. Oxford Dictionaries Online, 2010. Consistency. Acting in a consistent and accurate manner, free of. Oxford Dictionaries Online,. contradictions.. 2010. Respect. Honouring and protecting people’s rights and dignity.. APA, 2002; Kenyon, 1999. Accountability. Acknowledging responsibility and being answerable. Cf. King III, 2009. for results and or consequences.. The ethical values presented in Table 1 ought to be embodied by the consulting psychologist, as “consultants are expected to adhere to a set of high personal values that maintain and exemplify ethical behaviour” (Smith et al., 2003, p. 85). Such an ethical and moral character on the part of the consulting psychologist, based on the aforementioned values, is thus fundamental, as it enables the consulting psychologist to meet clients’ ethics expectations. Furthermore, certain ethical principles offer additional guidelines for ethical and professional conduct. Ethical principles will therefore also be considered and addressed in order to further promote the ethical dimension of the client-consultant relationship. 2.4.2 Ethical principles. Ethical principles are built on one’s core values, and refer to “statements of humans’ obligations or duties” (Kenyon, 1999, p. 8). Based on existing.

(15) 14 literature and many international codes of ethics of the profession (APA, 2010; CSIOP, 1996; HPCSA, 2006; IMC USA, 2005; Kenyon, 1999; Kubr, 2002; Lefkowitz, 2006; Lowman, 2008; Smith et al., 2003; UDEPP, 2008), it seems that the most common ethical principles that underlie the client-consultant relationship include: professional competence, privacy and confidentiality, informed consent, non-discrimination, prevention from harm, beneficence, non-maleficence, value for money, professional boundaries, and preventing conflicts of interest. These ethical principles are defined and briefly discussed in Table 2. Table 2 Ethical Principles Ethical. Definition. Explanation. Reference. Having the necessary expertise; Being appropriately qualified and skilled in the appropriate areas required by the client for the job at hand; Includes pertinent knowledge of theory, strategies and methods, mastery of specific information, and certain behavioural skills.. Consulting psychologists are expected to recognise the boundaries of their own expertise and be aware of the services and activities they are able to provide based on their areas of strength, knowledge, and experience, and only accept jobs in line with such capabilities.. Appelbaum & Steed, 2005;. “Bear responsibility for protecting information disclosed...in the context of a professional relationship” (cf. Bersoff, 1999, p. 149).. Such professional confidentiality/ discretion is especially relevant in the case where the consulting psychologist works with competitors of previous clients.. principle Professional competence. Privacy and confidentiality. Informed consent. Prevention from harm/ Beneficence and nonmaleficence. Individuals involved voluntarily agree to participate once the nature and details of events have been disclosed.. The client is expected to voluntarily agree to the consulting psychologist’s recommendations, based on the nature and details of the interventions, so as to make an informed decision whether to participate in the interventions or not. Beneficence refers to one’sConsul Consulting psychologists are aware obligation to do good at all of using privileged information that times; Non-maleficence is may benefit themselves or another associated with refraining from client. They are thus obliged to causing harm. Both principles ensure that no harm is inflicted on involve protecting the wellany party by only doing what is in being of the organisation and the best interest of the client. the individuals concerned.. Freedman & Zackrison, 2001; Hagenmeyer, 2007; Kubr, 2002. Kubr, 2002; Parsons, 1996. Kenyon, 1999; Parsons, 1996. Appelbaum & Steed, 2005; Lefkowitz, 2006.

(16) 15. Nondiscrimination. Value for money. Conflicts of interest. Fairness and equal treatment of all individuals, despite race, age, gender, colour, sexual orientation, social status, religion, and disability; Respecting diversity.. As a result of the multi-cultural/ diverse nature of South African companies, non-discrimination is vital. Discrimination can be avoided through cultural awareness and sensitivity.. Refers to fair compensation; One is expected to charge fair and reasonable fees for one’s services.. The consulting psychologist is ethically obliged not to exploit the client when charging them for their work and related expertise.. Concerned with opposing interests; When the consultant has some other interest, personal or otherwise, than that of the client.. “Consultants have a duty not to allow personal interests to damage their judgement when acting on behalf of one’s client” (Meyers, 2007, p. 35). Consulting psychologists are thus obliged to do what is in the best interest of their client at all times during the clientconsultant relationship, even when opposing interests exist.. Kenyon, 1999; Lowman, 2008; Parsons, 1996. Kubr, 2002. Kenyon, 1999; Kubr, 2002. The ethical principles presented in Table 2 form part of the ethics expectations clients may have of consulting psychologists. By identifying and defining these ethics expectations, consulting psychologists are better able to demonstrate professional and ethical conduct and responsibility (Appelbaum & Steed, 2005). This display of ethical and professional conduct and responsibility has implications and outcomes for consulting psychologists, their reputation and credibility, as well as the industrial psychology profession overall (cf. Rossouw & Van Vuuren, 2010). 2.5 Outcomes of Ethical Conduct It is important that “organizations and society at large recognize that ethically and socially responsible behavior plays a crucial role in good business practices” (Nicholson & DeMoss, 2009, p. 217). Furthermore, adhering to such ethical conduct may result in positive outcomes for the consulting psychologist, as well as the industrial psychology profession as a whole (cf. Joseph, 2000). Being responsive to clients’ ethics expectations, demonstrating the appropriate ethical values, as well as adhering to the appropriate ethical principles may result in consulting psychologists being recognised for their ethical awareness. As a consequence of an ethical awareness, a good reputation for individual consulting psychologists as well as the.

(17) 16 industrial psychology profession may ensue (cf. Rossouw & Van Vuuren, 2010). Ethically responsible behaviour may also lead to individual clients and society at large placing trust in the industrial psychology profession (Hagenmeyer, 2007; Lefkowitz, 2003). Since “clients choose consultants, based, primarily on reputation” (Pellegrinelli, 2002, p. 347), such a reputation may foster future business opportunities as well as client referrals. This positive and professional reputation will enhance the industrial psychology profession’s significance and value in terms of its members embodying an ethical identity (cf. Kubr, 2002). As a result, it appears crucial that consulting psychologists build an honourable reputation and credible professional image, based on integrity-driven consulting practices and high standards of conduct within the client-consultant relationship. Model 1 was designed based on the literature explored. The model illustrates that the consulting psychologist operates within a specific context, and for this reason the model is informed by certain contextual factors. Furthermore, the consulting process is influenced by the consulting psychologist’s ethical values and ethical principles. It demonstrates that if the consulting psychologist exhibits such values and principles during the consulting process, positive outcomes are expected to result for the individual consulting psychologist as well as for the industrial psychology profession as a whole. The arrows are indicative of the different aspects influencing one another: the context informing the ethics expectations in terms of values and principles, and the values and principles impacting on the consulting process, resulting in the outcomes.. Figure 2. Model 1: Client-consultant ethical relationship (literature based)..

(18) 17 2.6 Research Question and Aim In order to address the research question of what ‘clients’ ethics expectations of the consulting psychologist’ are, the aim of this study was to develop an exploratory model. This model is expected to explain the ethics expectations that clients may have of the consulting psychologist. Using the Delphi technique, Model 1 was presented to clients of consulting psychologists to refine the conceptualisation of the client-consultant ethical relationship. The existence and application of such a model could inform consulting psychologists of the ethical dimension that exists within the consulting process, as well as assist them in accounting for ethical obligations they have towards their clients. The following research design was utilised to facilitate the exploration and confirmation of these ethics expectations..

(19) 18 Chapter 3: Research Method 3.1 Research Design According to Flick (2009), a research design is important as it “addresses the questions of how to plan a study” (p. 128) in terms of the methods used to collect, analyse, and interpret the data. In order to answer the relevant research question on clients’ ethics expectations, the methods and processes that constitute the research design as applied in this study are outlined in Figure 3.. Interpretive research paradigm and Exploratory research intent. Qualitative research methodology. Research strategy: Phenomenology. Broad researchmethod: methodology: Data gathering Delphi technique Exploratory qualitative research Sampling technique: Purposive. E t h i c a l r i g o u r. Data analysis technique: Content analysis. Figure 3. Research design. Figure 3 illustrates that, within the interpretive paradigm, the intent of this study was to explore the ethics expectations clients have of consulting psychologists. Qualitative research was the method used to achieve this research objective. Within the broad methodology of qualitative research, a phenomenological research strategy was utilised to comprehensively describe the phenomenon of clients’ ethics expectations of consulting psychologists. As a specific focus of this strategy, the Delphi technique was used as a data collection technique. For the purpose of applying this technique, participants were purposively sampled. The Delphi technique consisted of two rounds of implementation, and after each round, in this study, content analysis was applied as the data analysis technique. Lastly, it should be noted that ethical rigour was exercised throughout the research process by accounting for ethical.

(20) 19 research considerations. Strategies to ensure quality research were also applied. Each of the components in Figure 3 will now be discussed in more detail. 3.2 Interpretive Research Paradigm Since reality is socially constructed, exploring and interpreting people’s subjective experiences and the meanings they assign to certain situations improves subsequent understanding (Niewenhuis, 2007).. An interpretive and exploratory approach was thus. adopted for this study as both methods allowed for more detailed descriptions and understandings of the client-consultant relationship and the associated ethics expectations to materialise. Furthermore, “the ultimate aim of interpretivist research is to offer a perspective of a situation, and to analyze the situation under study to provide insight into the way in which a particular group of people make sense of their situation or the phenomena they encounter” (Niewenhuis, 2007, p. 60). As such, it was possible to thoroughly explore clients’ ethics expectations of the consulting psychologist within the consulting process. 3.3 Qualitative Research Research can be either quantitative or qualitative, or a combination of both. “Quantitative research methods are primarily concerned with gathering and working with data that is structured and can be represented numerically” (Matthews & Ross, 2010, p. 141). Such methods focus on quantities and numerical data that can be measured, counted, and statistically analysed (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010; Matthews & Ross, 2010). On the other hand, according to Strauss and Corbin (1990), qualitative research is defined as “any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification” (p. 17). Qualitative research involves a process of inquiry into participants’ experiences of central phenomenon for the purpose of exploring, interpreting, and gaining an understanding of the phenomenon under study (Creswell, 2005). That is, qualitative research is exploratory in nature and allows for the collection and exploration of participants’ understanding and experiences surrounding certain events (Matthews & Ross, 2010). Such a method facilitates the exploration of naturally occurring, multifaceted, and complex phenomena in the social world. Furthermore, this exploration may facilitate an in-depth understanding of human behaviour, as well as comprehending the meaning of people’s experiences.. For these. reasons, qualitative research designs produce findings using research pertaining to people’s interactions, emotions, and life experiences. A qualitative research methodology was applied, as it allowed for an in-depth exploration of the potential ethical components that govern the ethical dimension of the client-consultant.

(21) 20 relationship, which could not have been comprehensively understood through the interpretation of quantitative statistics. This method allowed for rich information and insight surrounding clients’ ethics expectations of the consulting psychologist to be uncovered. 3.4 Phenomenological Research Strategy Research strategies within the qualitative method that may be applied to research include grounded theory, ethnography, case study research, and phenomenology, to name a few. Phenomenology was employed for the purpose of this study as it is “a qualitative method that attempts to understand participants’ perspectives and views of social realities” (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010, p. 108). Since phenomenology is an interpretive approach that addresses social phenomena from the point of view of the people involved (Walker, 2007), it allowed clients to express their ethics expectations when making use of consulting psychologists’ services.. According to Walker (2007) and Welman, Kruger and Mitchell (2005),. phenomenology is a strategy used to gain a better understanding of human beings’ perceptions, opinions, judgements, attitudes, and, most importantly, their experiences and perceived meanings of specific events. According to Welman et al., “what the researcher observes is not the reality as such, but an interpreted reality” (2005, p. 191). 3.5 Data Gathering Method: Delphi Technique Within phenomenology, there are several methods that can be used to collect data. These methods can include focus groups, interviews, observations, case studies, the Delphi technique, and others. For the purpose of this study, the Delphi technique was chosen. This technique gets its name from the Greek oracle at Delphi (Simoens, 2006). The Delphi oracle was a shrine in Greece that answered questions about the future. Therefore, the purpose of creating the Delphi Technique was to develop a means of gaining consensus from experts in a specific field so as to be able to seek advice and answer questions about the future (Simoens, 2006; Venter & Barkhuizen, 2005). The Delphi technique is defined as “a method for structuring a group communication process so that the process is effective in allowing a group of individuals, as a whole, to deal with a complex problem”, while at the same time remaining anonymous (Linstone & Turoff, 1975, p. 3). The intention of this technique is to develop a means of gaining majority consensus on the phenomenon being explored from those individuals who are able to provide valuable opinions in the specific field of study (Briedenhann & Butts, 2006). For the purpose of this study, the focus of the Delphi technique was on the ethical dimension of the clientconsultant relationship, based on clients’ ethics expectations of consulting psychologists..

(22) 21 Since ethics expectations are influenced by an individual’s personal morals and values, a personalised method of data gathering was needed - a method that would allow for individuals to share rich information regarding their personal ethics expectations when interacting with consulting psychologists. The Delphi technique was believed to be the best option to identify, describe, order, and prioritise the ethics governing the client-consultant relationship. The Delphi technique was also appropriate for the study as it allowed for the judgements of multiple clients of consulting psychologists to materialise, which are more valuable and reliable than the judgement of one client (cf. Lang, 1995). Another characteristic of the Delphi technique is that participants are approached individually and do not have contact with one another.. Therefore, while the required. framework of themes is explored in each round of the Delphi technique, discussions unfold in an open and anonymous fashion (Simoens, 2006). The Delphi technique allows participants to give their opinion on the topic at hand, while at the same time considering the opinions of other participants without pressure to conform (Venter & Barkhuizen, 2005). This may facilitate “the opportunity to seek opinions of experts on the opinions of other experts and so, strengthen the validity of the end findings” (Miller, 2001, p. 239). “The Delphi technique consists of consecutive rounds of consensus building interspersed by controlled feedback of information to participants” (Simoens, 2006, p. 520). Feedback received after each round of the Delphi technique is incorporated into each new round of the Delphi technique, based on the participants’ responses to the previous round of exploration. This process continues until majority consensus among participants is reached. According to Sharkey and Sharples (2001), the Delphi technique is believed to have high face, content, and concurrent validity. This is as a result of a research effort’s conclusions being based on the group judgements of experienced individuals on the phenomenon under study while seeking to gain majority consensus on the topic at hand. Cognisance should be taken of the observation that researchers who utilise the Delphi technique but do not make use of pre-existing information in the first round of the Delphi technique, are known as Delphi purists (Venter & Barkhuizen, 2005). Such purists believe that participants’ opinions should unfold freely and should not be informed by pre-existing information. On the other hand, non-Delphi purists are those researchers who prefer to make use of existing information on the topic being studied when starting their research. According to Green, Hunter, and Moore (as cited in Briedenhann & Butts, 2006) “the initial issues to be included in a Delphi survey are better identified by a thorough literature search.

(23) 22 than by input from panellists” (p. 178). The approach taken in this study thus followed that subscribed to by the non-Delphi purists. For the purpose of this study, only two rounds of the Delphi technique were used as majority consensus, and data saturation was reached by the second round. Even so, using more than one round of the Delphi technique gave participants the opportunity to change their responses in consecutive rounds, based on others’ opinions and responses, while maintaining anonymity and avoiding group dominance. This process eventually led to the building of consensus regarding clients’ ethics expectations of consulting psychologists. According to Walker and Selfe (1996), applying two or three rounds of the Delphi technique is adequate for consensus building. Pan et al. (in Briedenhann & Butts, 2006) suggest that a minimum of two rounds is acceptable. For this reason, the approach adopted in the current study is deemed acceptable. 3.6 Process Clients of consulting psychologists were approached to take part in the study.. An. industrial psychologist at a university in Johannesburg was utilised as a collaborator in identifying potential participants for the study. The collaborator assisted in telephonically contacting a number of consulting psychologists, requesting that they share clients’ names and contact details in order for their clients to take part in the study. However, the consulting psychologists were required to meet the following selection criteria when identifying clients for participation: (a) Clients comprehend the importance of research on the particular topic. (b) Clients are sufficiently experienced in engaging with consultants to provide an informed and sufficiently substantial opinion. (c) Clients have used consulting psychologists’ services on multiple occasions. (d) Clients are willing to contribute. The consulting psychologists then alerted their selected clients to the fact that they would be contacted to participate in a research project aimed at identifying clients’ ethics expectations of consulting psychologists. Thereafter, the clients were contacted via e-mail to establish if they were willing to participate in the study. In order for the clients to make an informed decision of whether or not to participate in the research study, they were sent a cover letter explaining the background and nature of the research. The cover letter outlined the purpose of the study and the potential value-add of its results, and also highlighted important ethical considerations pertaining to confidentiality and the likes. The process was explained to the participants in terms of the Delphi technique, as.

(24) 23 well as their role in the research. The participants were then sent a preliminary model based on the literature consulted, Model 1 (see Figure 2), as well as six open-ended questions. The questions posed to the participants in Round 1, based on the preliminary model of the clientconsultant ethical relationship, were as follows: 1. What is your general opinion on the model? 2. Please comment on the flow of the model: To what extent is it acceptable and understandable? 3. In terms of the values included in the model: To what extent do these accurately reflect the ethical values that you would expect the industrial psychologist consultant to embody? Why? 4. In terms of the principles included in the model: To what extent do these accurately reflect the ethical principles that you would expect of the industrial psychologist consultant within the client-consultant relationship? Why? 5. Are there any other concerns that you have regarding the consultants’ ethics that you would like to see incorporated into the model? 6. Please list any further comments or additional components that you would like to add to the model. The feedback from Round 1 was then analysed and incorporated into the model. The revised model, Model 2 (see Figure 4), as well as a summary of the changes that were incorporated based on Round 1’s feedback and suggestions, were sent to the participants. This formed part of Round 2 of the Delphi technique. In Round 2, the participants were again requested to answer questions based on the model. The questions posed in Round 2 allowed for further clarification and confirmation, as well as affording participants the opportunity to share any additional comments. The questions accompanying Model 2 of the client-consultant ethical relationship were as follows: 1. To what extent does the revised model capture the ethics expectations that govern the client-consultant relationship? 2. Do you recommend any further changes to be made to the model to better reflect the ethics expectations you have of the industrial psychologist consultant? The feedback received after Round 2 was collected and prepared for analysis, and Model 3 of the client-consultant ethical relationship was designed accordingly. In both rounds, participants were informed that they had to submit their responses by a specific date. Leading up to this date, several follow-up emails were sent to the participants as reminders to participate in the study. The reason for choosing e-mail as the means to.

(25) 24 contact the participants was due to its ability to reach several individuals in a short space of time. In spite of using e-mail, anonymity was maintained as messages were sent individually and not in multiple addressee form. 3.7 Participants Purposive sampling was used to select participants to take part in the study. Purposive sampling is defined as “a sample of selected cases that will best enable the researcher to explore the research questions in depth” (Matthews & Ross, 2010, p. 154). It is a purposeful and deliberate process of selecting individuals that are representative of the population relevant to the study, as a result of the particular purpose of the study (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000; Leedy & Ormrod, 2010; Welman et al., 2005). Since “qualitative researchers tend to select a few participants who can best shed light on the phenomenon under investigation” (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010, p. 96), purposive sampling was selected as the appropriate sampling technique. In addition, such a sampling technique is “generally associated with small, indepth studies with research designs that are based on the gathering of qualitative data and focused on the exploration and interpretation of experiences and perceptions” (Matthews & Ross, 2010, p. 167). Purposive sampling thus allowed for clients’ ethics expectations of consulting psychologists within client-consultant relationships to be explored. The Delphi technique requires that participants selected for a study have experience in the area under investigation (Martino, 1983). This is done so that the participants are able to provide rich and valuable information in the area on which they are being questioned. This makes sense from the point of view that the participants have an informed interest in the research, as the findings of the study may eventually be of value to them. Phenomenological studies also require that participants are carefully selected, as they require exposure and/or experience in the phenomenon under study (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). Based on these views, clients of various consulting psychologists were approached to take part in the study. Clients’ experiences and perceptions were of primary interest, as these clients have dealt with consulting psychologists in the past. As a result of their past dealings with consulting psychologists, these clients may have formed ethics expectations within their clientconsultant interactions.. These participants were thus able to inform and provide the. necessary insight to answer the questions pertaining to the phenomenon. The sample for the study was comprised of 24 clients of various consulting psychologists, and were employed by organisations of different sizes and different industries, such as the banking sector, retail sector, and mining sector, to name a few. Of the 24 participants, 16 were male and 8 were female..

(26) 25 Delbecq, Van de Ven, and Gustafson (in Briedenhann & Butts, 2006) state that 10-15 participants are adequate in a Delphi study, while Yong, Keng, and Leng (in Briedenhann & Butts, 2006) state that a minimum of 15-20 participants is required. Furthermore, according to Creswell (1998), phenomenological studies typically make use of between 5 and 25 participants. Based on all three sets of authors’ viewpoints, the sample for the study is deemed satisfactory. 3.8 Content Analysis Within the qualitative method, “data analysis is based on the values and meanings that the participants perceive for their world” (Ivankova, Creswell, & Plano Clark, 2007, p. 14). In order to best capture the values and meanings that the participants place on the clientconsultant relationship in terms of ethics expectations, content analysis was used. “Content analysis is perhaps the fastest-growing technique in qualitative research”, and is defined as “the systematic, objective, quantitative analysis of message characteristics” (Neuendorf, 2002, p. 1).. Content analysis refers to analysing data in detail, and examining and. interpreting data in an effort to summarise participants’ responses. This, in turn, allows for the identification of key themes and/or patterns from the participants’ feedback. As such, it allowed for rich and relevant answers to emanate from clients’ perceptions of their ethics expectations of consulting psychologists. For the purpose of this study, the data was content analysed after each of the two rounds of the Delphi technique. Within the analysis phase, data was analysed per participant, and data gathered under each question were clustered into themes based on the components of Model 1 (see Figure 2).. Each participant’s responses to the questions were read and. examined so that common themes and pertinent suggestions for amendments could be noted, as well as to prevent theme overlap. Additional comments were noted and categorised under the appropriate themes. Changes were then made to the model after each round, based on the themes and suggestions identified in the content analyses. 3.9 Quality Assurance As a result of the perceptions surrounding the reliability and validity of social research and its subjective nature, certain strategies were employed to ensure the production of meaningful client ethics expectations. In order to optimise the quality of the study and ensure trustworthiness of the findings, credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability were the strategies applied (Matthews & Ross, 2010). Credibility refers to the degree of trustworthiness pertaining to a particular study and the presentation of accurate conclusions based on the data (Durrheim & Wassenaar, 2002)..

(27) 26 Credibility was ensured through data saturation and verification, respectively, as Round 2 of the Delphi study carried increasing consensus among participants, which reinforced the credibility of the study. Furthermore, verification of Model 2 in Round 2 of the Delphi technique ensured that the representation and understanding of the participants’ ethics expectations were accurately reflected, and in the way that they were experienced and perceived. Transferability contributes to the trustworthiness of a study, as it assesses whether the conclusions of the study can be transferred to another context or setting, or a wider population, and still yield similar findings (Durrheim & Wassenaar, 2002; Schwartzel, 2008). A comprehensive and detailed description of the research process was given for other researchers to follow. Furthermore, the fact that purposeful sampling was used, in its own right ensured some transferability, albeit limited, as such a sampling technique renders a sample that is representative of the population under study. Establishing dependability in a study ensures that if the study is repeated with similar participants in a similar context, the findings would be similar and thus replicable (Babbie & Mouton, 2001). In order to meet this requirement of dependability, participants were selected for the study through being referred by credible consulting psychologists. This ensured that the participants selected were in a position to share their ethics expectations of consulting psychologists, based on past dealings and experiences.. Detailed documentation of the. research process was also provided to enable future researchers to follow and reconstruct the process through which the inquirer reached his/her conclusions. Confirmability is established when the audience for whom the research is intended is able to assess the adequacy of the research process and judge whether the findings are directly from the data (Goosen, 2004). In this study, confirmability was ensured by providing a detailed description of the research process, thereby enabling the audience to judge the methodological and theoretical decisions of the study. 3.10 Ethical Considerations When human participants are involved in a study, certain ethical issues need to be considered and included. This will ensure that participants’ dignity and rights are protected, that all procedures are fair, and that information and responses are safeguarded (Flick, 2009). Accounting for ethical issues also results in improved quality of data (Walker, 2007). “Ethical behaviour goes further than simply assuring the confidentiality of the data and involves a mutual understanding of the reasons and the expected outcomes driving the research project” (Kakabadse et al., 2006, p. 448). The ethical issues that were considered in.

(28) 27 this study included: voluntary participation, confidentiality, informed consent, anonymity, fairness, respect, and prevention of and protection from any harm (Flick, 2009). Furthermore, all sources used for the purposes of this study were acknowledged. In terms of the ethical issues that were addressed, participation was voluntary, as the participants contacted were given the option of whether to participate or not. Informed consent to disclose results was obtained from all the participants in the study. Anonymity and confidentiality were guaranteed in that no names of participants or their employing organisations would appear in any published literature. In terms of informed consent, the participants were informed at the start of the process that their responses would only be used for the research purposes explained. They were not deceived in any way concerning the research aims, and were informed from the outset of the goals of the research.. The. participants were not subjected to risk or personal harm, and respect was practised throughout the process. Every procedure, method, and process used was explained in a cover letter beforehand. Furthermore, the participants were informed that, once the study was complete, they would receive a copy of the completed research paper..

(29) 28 Chapter 4: Results and Discussion: Implementation and Findings of The Delphi Technique Due to the unique nature of the Delphi technique, the findings obtained are presented per round of the Delphi study. Since two rounds were utilised in this specific study, feedback received in Round 1 and Round 2, the changes proposed, as well as the general comments were all considered and are reported on in the sections that follow. 4.1 Round 1 Feedback was received from 24 participants (labelled P1-P24 in the remainder of the discussion), and their responses totalled 6493 words. Qualitative research usually yields much higher word counts, however, unlike some other qualitative research data-gathering techniques, the Delphi technique does not necessarily allow for totally unstructured and ‘boundary-less’ responses. Thus, as a result of utilising specific questions, participants were not probed on their responses. Therefore, although participants provided rich, valuable, and relevant feedback, the amount of data could not be enhanced. Within the first round of data collection, feedback was analysed according to each component of the model: context, values, principles, process, and outcomes, and was recorded as such. General comments were also considered. Each component is substantiated with supporting quotes from the participants’ comments. 4.1.1 Context. The majority of participants were of the opinion that the stated contextual factors do, in fact, inform the expected ethics that govern the consulting process. However, a number of participants (P1, P6, P13, P16, and P19) made suggestions regarding other components that may contribute to the broader context of ethics expectations, such as international best practices. One participant also expressed a concern about grouping and separating some of the contextual factors (P19). Two participants (P1 and P6) also stated that the client’s context should also be considered within the client-consultant ethical framework. These comments are supported by the following quotations respectively: I think that you need to consider cultural context (company and society). Sometimes something may be legal and ethically correct within the consultant's frame of reference, but unacceptable within a cultural context (P1) Maybe you can add international best practices as part of the context (P16) It doesn’t make provision for diversity/culture(P19) Should the model possibly include a statement of the vision for the profession – i.e. Our vision is to... (P6) Consider adding “company’s requirements” to the context box (P13) Law/legal should stand alone and I think that the company’s code of ethics and company policies should be grouped together (P19).

(30) 29. I think that you need to consider the following...what is important to the client, i.e. that which the client values?(P1) ‘Client reality’ could be part of context (P6). In order to accommodate these comments, the context was subsequently categorised into four contextual areas: regulatory, professional, organisational, and individual. The regulatory context consists of broader legal and governance-related requirements; the professional context specifically focuses on the rules and guidelines set for the industrial psychology profession; the organisational and individual contexts make provision for both the clients’ and the consultant’s company policies, as well as their respective worldviews and expectations. The sub-contextual factors were grouped under the appropriate contextual area headings. 4.1.2 Values. Participants (P2, P8, and P23) mostly agreed that the stated values should be embodied by consulting psychologists. Examples of comments are: The cited values are relevant and almost non-negotiable (P2) The values listed are the values that I would expect from an Industrial Psychologist. These values should enable the client to build a long-term relationship with an Industrial Psychologist (P8) Agree with it. In order for the consultant to act as a change agent/instrument, he must portray ethical values that project a high moral standard. The mere fact that the consultant is providing assistance and support to the organisation and is trusted with the inner culture, procedures, and employees, it is not only expected but required that he/she portrays the values as indicated (P23). Although the majority of the participants agreed with most of the values with which they were presented, some participants commented on the values of ‘Loyalty’ and ‘Transparency.’ Certain participants (P1, P3, and P4) suggested that the client-consultant relationship does not allow for loyalty, and that loyalty as a value should thus be removed.. In terms of. transparency, a small number of participants (P3, P11, and P13) were of the opinion that transparency may result in confidential information being exposed. The following quotes elaborate on these comments: I just had a question mark around why you had included loyalty...Not sure that you can be independent (under principles) and be loyal at the same time (P1). The value of loyalty looks out of place; the client-consultant relationship is a professional one and loyalty isn’t a normal aspect of the deal (at least as far as I’m concerned). The relationship is normally terminated upon delivery/payment, I find it hard to see where loyalty comes into it (other than professional commitment during the period of payment and perhaps confidentiality subsequently). Certainly, as a client, I might re-use the services of a particular psychologist but between each such event there is no presumption of ‘loyalty’ (P3). I am not sure why loyalty is there – as the industrial psychologist is a consultant, and will be involved in a.

(31) 30 business relationship. If the other values are followed, the relationship will be transparent and ethical, but I don’t feel loyalty has a role to play in a business relationship (P4). Transparency may well not be possible if that consultant works with a direct competitor and has relevant experience as a consequence (P3). Often a person or a company “exposes” themselves to an industrial psychologist due to the nature of their work. I need to have certainty that you will not abuse the fact that I have opened up ‘secrets’ (P11). No inside business/trade secrets will ever be divulged to competitors, or even to other businesses who are not necessarily in competition with the client. Knowledge gained by the consultant through assignments with the client will not be used in any detrimental manner against the client – should the consultant wish to use the client’s inside information when consulting another client, he/she must at all times obtain the original client’s permission to do so (P13).. In order to reassure participants that their concerns were addressed, ‘Transparency’ was replaced with the term ‘Ethical transparency’, that is, transparency within ethical boundaries, and the value ‘Loyalty’ was removed. Furthermore, ‘Consistency’ and ‘Fairness’ were also removed from the listed values. Consistency was removed as one participant (P9) suggested that integrity in itself incorporates a number of values (such as fairness), and only when these values are exhibited in a consistent manner, is the value of integrity validated. Since fairness is included in the definition of integrity, the value of ‘Fairness’ was also removed so as to prevent repetition and overlap of values. Another participant (P3) expressed the opinion that fairness is not actually a value: I have a conceptual understanding of integrity as being inclusive of values such as trustworthiness, honesty, respect, reliability, and fairness. In other words, where the consultant exhibits all these values consistently, only then do I view the consultant as being a person of integrity (P9). I do wonder about fairness; the contracting is a commercial agreement and each party is intent upon maximising value, suggesting that fairness in that respect is as an issue of each party’s competence and not a value per se (P3).. 4.1.3 Principles.. On the whole, participants’ (P20 and P23) ethics expectations. supported the principles contained in the model, as is reflected in their comments: I agree with it. Ethical consultants are expected to have a set of principles which defines ethical behaviour and guides the consultant’s actions towards those behaviours. This set of principles will enable the consultant to align with the majority of organisations regarding ethics and accompanied expectations and therefore will add value that is built on a similar foundation (P23). Principles are well reflected and what one would expect to guide the relationship (P20)..

(32) 31 However, a number of participants questioned two principles: ‘Value for money’ and ‘Independence’. Participants (P10, P13, and P20) highlighted the importance of offering value to the client, rather than value for money, as value for money was perceived as being related to the consultant’s fees only. The principle of independence was questioned, as participants (P1 and P14) suggested that it is not possible to be unconditionally independent when the consulting relationship exists for the benefit of the client. Examples of comments are: One of the principles for the IP Consultant is to deliver real value to the client. Not just value for money, but real expertise specific to the industrial psychology profession (P10). Value for money is important from a financial point of view, but the consultant must never lower professional standards in order to obtain a contract – the client would prefer to pay more and obtain a superior result, rather than paying less for sub-standard result (P13). Perhaps use cost/value effective instead of value for money (P20). How independent can one be when you receive payment from the client? How do you ensure that an industrial psychologist remains independent when s/he receives money from the client? Independence could therefore at times be a farce as it can be difficult not to tell the client what s/he wants to hear (P1). To what extent may the industrial psychologist work independently, yet keep the other principles in mind?(P14) I do think that objectivity is an element that is missing (P1). I expect the industrial psychologist to be absolutely objective. (I think it is covered by independence in your model) The recommendations should be based on their professional assessment and not be influenced by what they know about the leader of the organization they are consulting to, to the point that they are not truly objective (P7).. Therefore, ‘Value for money’ was replaced with ‘Cost-benefit effectiveness’, highlighting the importance of charging fair fees, but at the same time, delivering real value to the client. ‘Independence’ was removed and replaced with ‘Objectivity’, as it is still fundamental that the consulting psychologist has an objective stance. That is, it is crucial that consulting psychologists work together with their clients, yet still be independent in their judgements and recommendations. In other words, they must not be biased. Since participants (P9 and P17) proposed that empathy is an important quality for the consulting psychologist to exhibit, ‘Empathy’ was included in the list of principles: Include, compassion, dignity, empathy and warmth (P17). Sensitivity and empathy may be two further important principles that may be considered (P9)..

(33) 32 The principle of ‘Interdependence’ was also included in the list of principles, as one participant (P16) stated that both parties in the consulting relationship share responsibility and work together in the consulting process: Is another principle not also interdependence? You want the client and the industrial psychologist to be independent, you do not want to create dependency, but you need all the inputs from both sides (P16).. One participant (P17) offered an interesting comment: Non-discrimination is a positive principle formulated in a negative way – I would rather say “respect for each individual” (P17).. Despite this comment, ‘Non-discrimination’ was not changed, as no other term was able to capture the true essence of this principle. However, in light of this comment, two other principles were re-worded in order to ensure that the rest of the principles were re-formulated positively: ‘Avoid conflicts of interest’ was changed to ‘Mindful of conflicts of interest’, and ‘Prevention from harm’ was changed to ‘Beneficence (prevention from harm).’ 4.1.4 Process. Two participants (P4 and P16) were uncertain about the inclusion of the ‘Ethics expectations in process’ component in the model and did not understand its relevance to the ethical client-consultant relationship. The heading of this dimension also seemed to cause uncertainty for participants (P4 and P6). Examples of comments were as follows: I am not sure of the purpose of the middle block, and where it fits in (P4). Not sure why the middle block is ethics (P16).. My concern is that I am not sure if the best term for the middle block is ethics expectations in process – also not sure if this is a recommended approach one should take to interventions, and why it is included as part of ethical framework (P4). Ethics expectations in process – I don’t easily see the tie up between this heading and the 8 points (P6).. In order to ensure a clearer understanding of this dimension, the heading was changed to ‘Ethical consulting process.’ A short explanation was also included in the cover letter sent in Round 2, to explain the purpose of this dimension to the participants; that is, the ethics expectations in terms of the stated values and principles are displayed by the consulting psychologist whilst engaging with the client in each phase of a typical consulting process. Furthermore, within this process, Step 1, ‘Need identification’, was changed to ‘Client need identification’ for further clarification, as one participant (P6) alluded to this not being clear:.

(34) 33 Also, point number 1 could read ‘Client need driven’ as opposed to ‘Need identification’ (P6); Industrial psychologists must be driven by client need rather than by the industrial psychologist’s need and preference (P6).. 4.1.5 Outcomes. Three participants (P9, P18, and P19) expressed their agreement with the outcomes of the whole process: Because of the professional principles and deeply held values, the outcomes (services and products) of the intervention have a high level of trust and credibility attached to them (P9). The model will contribute towards the desired outcomes (P18). These outcomes can be summarised as the result of business integrity (P19).. However, one participant (P3) commented on ‘Future business opportunities’: The issue of future business opportunities as an outcome is most decidedly out of place. The consultant may desire it but any such presumption, as an integral aspect of the relationship, is unlikely to meet with client approval (P3).. One participant (P1) indicated that the outcomes of the client-consultant ethical relationship were not in line with the rest of the model, as the consulting relationship was illustrated as a one-on-one relationship, yet the outcomes of the model were illustrated as profession-wide outcomes: I am just a little confused about the outcomes of the model. Are these the outcomes of the individual relationship or are they the outcomes of the study? It just seems a little imbalanced to me in that the four other boxes refer to the individual relationship, while the outcomes box refers to the overall profession. I’m not sure whether a good, ethical relationship with one psychologist would necessary culminate into me trusting every other psychologist (P1).. Therefore, the focus of the outcomes was changed from profession-wide outcomes to individual consulting psychologist outcomes. 4.1.6 Structure and flow. A number of participants (P4, P9, P16, P21, and P24) made comments about the arrows linking the components of the model and the resulting flow of the model: Are you saying that values and principles alone impact on the middle block, without the context and outcomes, and it does not influence any of the other aspects? If so then the model is not actually that integrated and perhaps a slightly different format will be clearer (P4). It is particularly important that the arrows flow in one direction only. This means that the values and principles are not influenced by the desired outcomes but that these rather are the determinants of such outcomes (P9)..

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