Genomic Education Development Guide
The Process
Introduction
If designed using best practices in adult learning, educational efforts will be more effective in helping people acquire new knowledge and skills that they can then put into practice immediately.
Some of the most important points to consider:
DO
Critically evaluate what the audience NEEDS to know.
Gear content to the audience.
Define terms/provide a glossary.
Focus your content on a few key points.
Think about the organization of the material (presentation, handout,
website) before writing content.
Consider providing or linking to materials that providers can use in
their office or give to their patients.
DO NOT
Put a long document on the web that is formatted for print media.
Write in genetics lingo, unless absolutely necessary.
Try to turn your audience into genetics professionals.
Try to cover everything in a single web page, handout, or
presenta-tion.
Include topics without planning where it goes in relation to other
con-tent.
Getting the most from this resource
Purpose. The information in this guide is designed to support you as you develop educational materials. You will be able to:
• Determine your instructional goals • Create and sequence a topic outline
• Identify audience characteristics that effect learning outcomes • Write specific and measurable objectives
• Determine the best instructional methods to support your objectives • Link your objectives to your evaluation
• Craft relevant, clear and brief instructional messages • Format content for delivery on the Web
Audience. This resource is for people who provide genetics education to patients and healthcare providers.
How this resource is structured. This resource is designed to take you through a step-by-step process for designing educational materials including pre-sentations, handouts, and websites. Most sections contain a worksheet to help you organize and produce your materials, and additional resources are provided if you want a deeper understanding of each topic.
Genomic Education Development Guide
The Process
Step One: Determining Instructional Goals
Before you start work on any instructional product, you need to know why the instruction is needed so you can adequately address the problem. To determine your instructional goals start with a needs assessment. In this section we will cover:
• A six-step approach for a fast needs assessment • Possible assessment questions
• Where to go for answers • Data collection methods • Validating your findings • Creating Instructional Goals
Six-Step Approach for a Fast Needs Assessment:
Needs assessment is a tool for identifying a problem and then selecting an appropriate intervention (Kaufman, Rojas and Mayer, 1993). Here is a six-step approach for a quick needs assessment:
1. Identify the problem.
2. Analyze the tasks and conditions of the job. 3. Analyze the current performance levels. 4. Identify causes of the problem. 5. Identify the desired outcome.
6. Identify the expectations of the educational product related to the desired outcome.
Possible Assessment Questions
Following is a list of questions you can use to make your assessments. You can add questions to customize it for your own project.
What should learners be doing that they are not doing now? What are learners doing now that they should not be doing?
When learners are doing what they should be doing, what does it look like?
What is preventing them from reaching the goal you have envisioned? Are the standards you want them to achieve reasonable?
Do they have the proper tools and performance support to reach the stan-dards?
What is the single, most important takeaway from this course?
Where to go for answers
You can construct and implement a needs assessment related to your topic of interest by questioning:
• members of the target audience • experts in the field
• educational experts
Data Collection Methods
There are a number of ways to collect data from these groups, such as: Advisory committees Interviews Questionnaire or survey Observation Document collection Job descriptions Performance reports
Validating your conclusions
Once you have identified your educational needs, validate them with experts and target audience members who were not part of the assess-ment at the beginning.
Identifying your instructional goals based on your needs assessment Your identified needs become the goals of the instructional product. The goals are defined as a general statement of desired accomplishment. They do not specify the details of accomplishing the goal. For example: Learners will appreciate the complexity of genomic testing.
Learners should understand the importance of pre-test counseling for genomic testing.
Once you identify your instructional goals, then you can begin the process of analyzing the factors that will influence the final product.
Summary
• Before you develop your content, clarify the goals of the program by performing a needs assessment.
• Generate a list of questions that will uncover the problem you are try-ing to solve or goal you are trytry-ing to achieve.
• Assemble a group of advisors to help you answer the questions. • Create data collection methods and collect and interpret data. • Validate your conclusions with a separate group of experts. • Create a list of instructional goals.
Learn More
Tools
Needs Assessment Job Aid: Word document based tool that suggests different ways of gathering information regarding audiences, tasks, and content while conducting a needs assessment for a web based instruc-tional product.
Genomic Education Development Guide
The Process
Step 2: Instructional Analysis
Now that you have clear instructional goals, identify the learning steps for reaching each goal. This is done through an instructional analysis, which identifies the processes and skills needed to attain the desired outcomes. You should ask, “What are all of the things the learner must know and/or
do to achieve the goal?”
In this section we will cover:
• Identifying the critical instruction that must be covered in your educa-tional product
• Organizing your content
• Developing a sequence for your content
Identifying the Critical Instruction
Create a list of all of the possible learning topics
Refer to the goals and the data you collected during needs analysis, and then brainstorm all the possible relevant information that could be cov-ered. Don’t worry about time constraints, amount of material, or structure at this point.
Determine which topics are most important
Now go through your list of information and decide which items are “need to know,” which are “nice to know,” and which you are able to drop alto-gether. Here is one method you can use:
• Group content into topics • Prioritize the topics
• Prioritize the content under each topic • Remove redundant content or topics • Combine content and topics where possible
• Identify the most critical content under each topic heading • Remove all noncritical content under each topic heading
• Estimate instructional time for each topic; if you have exceeded a rea-sonable time for your audience, re-evaluate and remove some of your lower priority content
Organizing the Course Structure
Without a solid and logical organizational foundation, your instruction will not function well even if your content is accurate, attractive, and well written.
Expanded Outlines
Start with the topics you generated from the method above and fill in all the details in an outline format. Generally you will have three levels of information: major topics, subtopics, and supporting details.
Developing a Sequence
Now that you have determined what content to include, you will develop
a sequence for your content so it is easy to use. Here are a few effective content sequences that you can consider using.
General to Specific: Start with an overview and present the whole, then
break it into its component parts.
Simple to Complex: Start with the simplest tasks and work your way up
in complexity.
Known to Unknown: Start with what the learner knows and use this as a
base to move into what they don’t know.
Problem to Solution: Start with a problem and arrange your content to
come to a solution.
With your critical instruction identified, structured, and sequenced, you are now ready to tailor your instruction to your audience’s needs.
Summary
• Create a list of all the possible topics.
• Determine what is “need to know” vs. “nice to know” and evaluate if the “nice to know” is appropriate given the time constraints, audience needs and learning objectives. Make sure the “nice to know” does not clutter the most important messages by making it optional.
• Create a detailed outline of what should be covered.
• Develop a sequence for the content so it is easy for the learner to use.
References
Piskurich, George M. (2006). Rapid Instructional Design Learning ID Fast and Right. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
Genomic Education Development Guide
The Process
Step 3: Audience Analysis
Content experts often write what they know, but they forget that the focus should be on the learner and the learning process, not just the informa-tion. If you design the information with the audience in mind, they are more likely to commit to using it. In this section we will cover:
• Audience characteristics that effect learning • General principles of adult learning
• Strategies for getting to know your audience better
Background, Context, Interest, Need
When preparing your instructional content it is important to understand, the characteristics of your audience that will influence how you present information, and what to include to best meet the needs and the goals of an your intended audience.
While there are many factors that influence how adults learn, the most important factors to address are:
Background. Most healthcare providers lack a sufficient background in
genetics to integrate genetics into their patient care.
Context. Whenever possible, frame content in the context of clinical applications that are possible for healthcare providers to implement; be aware of provider time constraints.
Interest. Healthcare providers are interested in findings related to disor-ders they commonly see, and in technologies they use in general prac-tice. Providers prefer evidence-based approaches and recommendations.
Need. Focus on information that is immediately applicable and helps pro-viders think genetically.
Healthcare Providers and Adult Learning
The literature provides significant guidance on how adults learn best. Adult learners:
• require realistic goals and objectives that are applicable to the “real world”
• need relevant, concrete experiences in which they apply the learning; they must see that professional development and their day-to-day activities are related
• prefer some control over their learning experience • require structured, helpful feedback on their efforts
• prefer to participate in activities that move beyond understanding to application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
• come to learning with a wide range of previous experiences, knowl-edge, self-direction, interests, and competencies that must be accom-modated in the learning
• have time constraints due to multiple priorities and responsibilities (Adapted from Speck, 1996)
Possible questions for your audience
Answering following questions about your target audience allows you to tailor education appropriately.
• Level of education • Years on the job
• Expected entry level knowledge or background • Pre-intervention genetics training
• Pre-intervention genetics knowledge • Motivation
• Attitude toward training in genetics and continuing ed in general • Special interests
• Specific biases
• Computer skills and confidence
• Strategies for getting to know your audience
Often, you may find yourself writing for an audience you don’t know much about. For example, you are a genetic counselor who has been asked to write content for dietitians. How can you tailor the content so it is rel-evant and meaningful? A general rule of thumb is to involve your target audience as much as possible in determining realistic goals, appealing approaches to learning, and ways to evaluate outcomes.
Here is a list of strategies you can use, depending on how much time and access you have:
Needs assessment. During the needs assessment phase, invite
mem-bers of the target audience to help define your audience’s needs.
Interview. Include potential learners and the people who initiated the
educational product.
Survey. Surveying is efficient for gathering data from a wide audience,
but the questions must be thoughtfully composed to be effective.
Focus Group. Pick people who reflect the diversity of the audience using
the education.
Scenarios of use. A scenario of use describes the tasks that you want
the learner to perform in the context of actual use. Start with your objec-tives then ask what would prompt learners to perform the task described in the objective. Take into account the work environment, pressures, inter-ruptions and other constraints the learner would encounter while trying to perform the task in the real world. These scenarios help focus your content and give you realistic examples or exercises to include in your content.
Day in the life. A day in the life is a research technique in which a
con-tent provider follows a prospective learner over the course of the day, recording the activities in a journal. Since this is usually difficult to accom-plish you can also interview a perspective learner. The key is to gain
Genomic Education Development Guide
The Process
insight into challenges and motivation that underlie the learner’s work. A good starting point is to focus on performance and helping them to do something better.
Submit your work to a perspective learner. Give a draft of the content
or an alpha version of a product to a sample of perspective learners. Ask the learners what worked and what they would change. Ask for stories of how they might use the information in improve their performance or solve a problem.
Summary
Healthcare professionals’ background in genetics is uneven and this lack of knowledge is a barrier to transfer in clinical settings.
Focus content in the context of application in clinical care, making sure that the application suggested is feasible and reasonable.
Relate education to disorders commonly seen or technologies commonly used in the target audiences’ practice.
Apply information to patient care and improved patient outcomes and provide just enough conceptual education to help learners think geneti-cally.
Information should be relevant, realistic, concrete, concise, and geared to higher order thinking such as application, analysis, synthesis, and evalu-ation.
Get to know as much as possible about your audience. Learn how they use the information in real life so you can hook your content to something relevant and authentic.
Learn More
Tools:
Audience Analysis Template (word doc for documenting learner character-istics and methods to address charactercharacter-istics in the content.
Reading:
Advanced Web-based Training Strategies: Unlocking
Instructionally Sound On-line Learning, Driscoll, M. and Carliner, S. (2005), San Francisco: Pfeiffer. (Explains strategies of audience analysis in greater detail.)
References
Coughlin, S & Thompson,T. Physician recommendation for colorectal cancer screening by race, ethnicity, and health insurance status among men and women in the United States, 2000. Health promotion practice. 01/11/200511/2005; 6(4):369-78.
Driscoll, M. and Carliner, S. (2005), Advanced Web-based Training Strategies: Unlocking Instructionally Sound On-line Learning, San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Guttmacher AE, Porteous ME, McInerney JD. Educating health-care pro-fessionals about genetics and genomics. Nature Rev Genet. 2007;8:151– 157. [PubMed]
Hsia, Y. E., Bucholz, K. E., & Austein, C. A. (1979). Genetic knowledge of pediatricians and Obstetricians (Connecticut, 1975, 1977): Implications for continuing education, In I. H. Porter and E. B. Hook (Eds.), Service and education in medical genetics. New York: Academic.
Speck, M. (1996, Spring). Best practice in professional development for sustained educational change. ERS Spectrum, 33-41.
Tessmer, M. & Richey, R.C. (1997) The role of context in learning and instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45 (2), 85-115.
Genomic Education Development Guide
The Process
Step 4: Instructional Objectives and Assessment
Remember the example learning goals from Step One? They were, learners will appreciate the complexity of genomic testing; and Learners should understand how to interpret genomic testing results in the context of the patient.
How can you measure if a person appreciates the complexity of genom-ic testing? How do you measure and observe if someone understands something? It would be very difficult. That is why you develop objectives. The objectives are outcome based, measurable, specific steps that help you determine if the user achieved the learning goal.
In this section we cover:
• The purpose of instructional objectives • Creating measurable objectives • Linking objectives to assessment • Creating assessment questions
The purpose of instructional objectives
Instructional objectives are tools for describing learner outcomes. They serve four important functions. They,
• determine the selection and organization of instructional activities and resources;
• provide a framework for assessment and evaluation;
• guide the learner by clearly defining what is expected of them and what they can expect; and
• organize and focus content.
Creating measurable objectives
Your objectives are instructions that detail what you want the learner to be able to do. The keyword here is DO, not know. Use verbs (you will find a list of action or performance oriented verbs in the Learn More section, below) and include specific conditional statements (i.e., how well or how many) that describe to what degree the students will be able to demon-strate mastery of the task. Be sure to answer these questions:
Task: What must the learner perform? Condition: How will it be performed?
Criteria for measuring success: How well must it be performed?
Let’s return to our example goal.
Learners should understand how to interpret genomic testing results in the context of the patient.
First ask, “What tasks must be performed to understand Learners should understand how to interpret genomic testing results in the context of the patient?” Those tasks might include:
Navigate the report to find the pertinent information
Assess the need for parental testing based on the result
Determine the meaning of a variant in the context of your patient’s clinical findings
Determine the meaning of a negative result in the context of your patient’s clinical findings
Notice that each of these objectives has a task that starts with an observable action and follows with a description of how it will be per-formed (conditions). However, you will also notice that the criteria for measuring success (how well the task should be performed) are missing. Often it is implicit in the skill itself or is assumed that the standard is per-fection. In the final sample objective, instead of “determine the meaning of a variant result,” which assumes mastery of the task, we could say “Correlate the variant result with other testing and the patient’s pheno-type to appropriately assess if it is causative.”
From objectives to assessment
When you start with objectives that are specific and measurable, it will be much easier to develop assessments. Remember that your assess-ment should relate back to your objectives. If you are writing content for a stand-alone course, your choices for assessment are somewhat limited, because there often is no way to validate that you have changed a behavior in a clinical setting. Therefore, include questions that help the learner check their knowledge along the way. Some measures to consid-er:
Evaluation: rubrics, critical thinking scales, and rating the quality of
argu-ments, predictions, and conclusions. For example, you might present a video of a provider doing pre-test counseling for whole exome sequencing and ask the learner to rate how well the provider did by having the user create a set of criteria and defining what made the pre-test counseling successful or what was lacking.
Synthesis: products or artifacts synthesized by learners (action plans,
reports, family history) that the user rates according to desired criteria. These criteria could be originality, organizational scheme, or appropriate use of evidence versus conjecture. For example, you could present the family and medical history of a fictitious person along with results from whole exome sequencing and ask the learner to suggest a management plan.
Analysis: debates, critiques, discussions, or case analyses that assess
the learner’s ability to extract relevant variables underlying a problem, issue, or situation. For example, you could present the learner with a
Genomic Education Development Guide
The Process
medical history and results from a targeted sequencing array and ask her to interpret the meaning of the results for the patient.
Application: word problems or experiments that assess the learner’s
ability to apply principles and theories to solve novel problems. For exam-ple, you could give the learner a medical and family history and ask them to determine what type of genomic testing the patient should have.
Comprehension: short answer questions. For example, you could ask
the learner to describe the components of pre-test counseling for genomic testing.
Knowledge: multiple choice, true-false, and matching. For example,
you could ask the learner to identify from a list the indications for clinical whole exome sequencing.
Tips for creating assessments questions
Multiple choice
Stem Construction
• Write as a direct question rather than an incomplete statement. • Pose a definite, explicit single problem.
• Do not include unnecessary or irrelevant information. • Emphasize negatives.
• Include words that might otherwise be repeated in the choices. Choice Construction
• Make them plausible.
• Make them grammatically consistent. • Make them approximately equal length. • Provide at least four choices.
• Randomly distribute the position of the correct choice.
True/False
• Base items on statements that are absolutely true or false, without qualification or exception.
• Write the statements as clearly as possible. • Express one idea in each item.
• Avoid use of negatively-stated items. • Avoid unfamiliar vocabulary.
Short Answer
• Questions should be specific and phrased in such a way that it is easy to determine what is required.
• For a lengthy response or plan of action, include an outline of infor-mation required.
Summary
• Objectives encourage effective learning by guiding the selection and organization of instructional activities and resources, providing a framework for evaluation, and guiding the learner by clearly defining what is expected of them.
• Create objectives that specify the task to be performed and how the user will perform the task. Be sure to use measurable action verbs, when possible.
• Tie your assessments directly to your learning objectives.
Learn More
Tools
List of outcome-based verbs (Word document with suggestions for verbs you might include in your objective.)
Web sites of interest
http://cs1.mcm.edu/~awyatt/csc3315/bloom.htm
(Defines Bloom’s Taxonomy and gives examples of its use in writing objectives.)
References
Kemp, J. E., Morrison, G. R., & Ross, S. T. (1996). Designing effective instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Piskurich, George M. (2006). Rapid Instructional Design Learning ID Fast and Right. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
Genomic Education Development Guide
The Process
Step Five: Instructional strategies
To accomplish your learning objectives, you will typically employ three types of instructional strategies: presentation of information, activities to put the information to use, and reflecting on how to use the information in the real world. Generally, learning is most effective when you use a combination of each type of instructional strategy. Note: if you have the budget and/or in-house expertise, consider consulting with an instructional designer, who can provide input about effective instructional strategies for your desired goals/objectives.
Start by thinking about resources, tools, texts, information, data, etc. that professionals need to carry out the tasks you want them to complete. Then choose one or more presentation strategies, and consider whether you wish to develop activity strategies and/or use reflection strategies.
In this section we will cover: • Presentation strategies • Activity strategies • Reflection strategies
Presentation Strategies
Typically presentation strategies involve watching, listening, and reading. Following are a few examples for consideration. As will be the case with all of the strategies presented in this section, we present only a few possi-bilities. The variations are only limited by your imagination.
Lecture
This could be in the form of podcasts, slideshows, video, or webinars. Storytelling
This could be fictional or anecdotal scenes to illustrate a point of concept. An example might be a patient’s experience or colleague’s stories.
Readings
This could be a journal article, online library, screening guidelines, news-paper stories, reports, or content that you write.
Expert Commentary
This could be interviews or panel discussions of experts in the field.
Demonstrations
This could be video or audio recording of procedures or processes. An example is a genetic counseling session.
Activity strategies
These strategies allow learners to apply information, discover, and explore. Some ideas include:
Practice
Learners apply information and receive feedback. An example is to have users respond to a quiz, with feedback about correct and incorrect
answers.
Guided analysis
Lead learners through an analysis of a complex situation with step-by-step instructions, and then ask questions and give feedback. An example is to lead users through care recommendations for a particular disorder, and then ask them to apply the recommendations to a case example, pro-viding feedback about correct and incorrect applications.
Case studies
Consider using case studies to teach complex knowledge that cannot be reduced to a simple formula. Cases include characters and information in a narrative format. An example is following a patient and provider through multiple visits as the provider (and learner) discovers how to incorporate genetics into clinical practice.
Simulations
These are used to show consequences of actions. Pose a series of complex decisions for learners to make, and tailor the feedback to the decision. An example is asking a series of questions about patient care and seeing what happens to the patient based on the decisions the user makes.
Reflection strategies
These activities prepare learners to apply learning in situations they encounter at work. Ideas include:
Reflection statements
Ask learners to ponder a thought-provoking question, cite examples or real-world instances of a concept, or ask them to make a value judgment about an item under study. An example is to ask users to create reflec-tion statements comprising their reacreflec-tions to an ethically-challenging case.
Stories told from learner experience
Ask learners how they might apply the information they have learned in their own practice. An example is to ask users to create a story of a time when they have disagreed with the decision that a patient has made.
Job aids
Job aids provide help to someone performing a task, right when and where they need it. An example is a questionnaire for taking a targeted family history that a provider can use at the point of care.
Research
Use research strategies to teach learners how to analyze and report information. An example is to show users a publication and ask them to evaluate it using a set of evaluation criteria and then provide a summary at the end.
Genomic Education Development Guide
The Process
Summary
• When possible and appropriate, use a combination of instructional strategies for best results.
• Presentation strategies involve watching, listening and reading. • Activity strategies allow learner’s to apply information, discover, and
explore.
• Reflect activities prepare learners to apply learning in situations they encounter at work.
References
Driscoll, M. and Carliner, S. (2005), Advanced Web-based Training Strategies: Unlocking Instructionally Sound On-line Learning,. Horton, William, (2006), E-learning By Design, San Francisco: Pfeiffer
Genomic Education Development Guide
The Process
Step Six: Formatting Content for the Web
Once all the planning and organization is complete, it is time to write the content. If you take care in organizing the course structure, the page structure, and the content, users will gain more knowledge from your content.
This section covers: • Tips for improving usability • Visual organization
• Step-by-step process for development of content
Improving Usability
The Web is a highly interactive and user-driven medium. User needs, preferences, and reading strategies should guide your writing. Usability studies have found that web users:
Are goal-driven. List goals at the beginning of each section.
Prefer succinct and to-the-point writing. Use plain language and short
sentences to maximize comprehension.
Read 25% slower from computer screens than from paper. Reduce by
half the word count from conventional paper-based writing.
Scan across pages in an F-pattern. Use headings and subheadings.
Generally people read the headlines and sub heads first to get an overall picture, then go back and scan a few sentences in each paragraph.
Rarely read whole passages. Instead, they pick out a few sentences
or even parts of sentences to get the information they want. Structure your content in the form of an inverted pyramid, with the most important information at the top and less important or supporting information farther down in the paragraph.
Visual Organizational Strategies
Include visual organizational devices such as: • bullets and outlines
• content that is “chunked” into small paragraphs • meaningful headings and subheadings • tables
• bold face or strong text for keywords
• advanced organizers, such as a table of contents or short summary at the top of the page (for example, the list at the beginning of each of the steps in this guide.)
• white space that is maximized to facilitate reading
Content Chunking
Chunking is the process of dividing information into small, clear pieces. Research suggests that most people can understand and remember no more than five to seven items of information at a time. For a concrete example of chunked content, take a look at the difference between the
two lists below:
Compose meaningful headings and subheadings
A good heading tells the learner what question the section answers. Your headings and subheadings should be:
Distinct. You should make each heading and subheading unique, so the
learner will not get confused.
Independent of context. It should make sense even standing apart from
the content it introduces.
Understandable. Be careful about using terminology that learners will
only understand after reading the content.
Scannable. Make the meaning obvious at a glance. Put the most
import-ant words near the beginning. Make them as short as possible. For example, “How to evaluate genetic risk in the family” could be changed to “Evaluating genetic risk.”
Motivational. Make sure the learner recognizes what they will get from
the section. Take the users’ motivations into account. For example, con-sider “Information required for cancer risk assessment” instead of “How to take a cancer family history.” Compare “Taking a pedigree” to “Improving Patient Care”
Genomic Education Development Guide
The Process
Write Informative Links
Links and URLs should be descriptive and identify the content to which they link. Non-descriptive links, such as ‘click here,’ are not as useful. Users will best recognize links that are blue and underlined. Because Web users expect underlined text to be a link don’t underline text unless it is a link.
Process for structuring your content
Follow these steps to structure your content for the Web. Use the same structure throughout all of your content so that users can anticipate how they will navigate your Web site.
• List objective(s). • Create an advanced organizer. • Use titles to divide major sections. • Use headings to sub-divide a major section. • Divide text body into paragraphs with plenty of white space. • Use short sentences. • pply bolding to emphasize key points/words. • Summarize the text, including all key points.
Summary
• Optimize written content to reflect how learners read on the web, including making content brief, to the point, and easily scannable. • Write in an inverted pyramid, placing most important content first and
following with supporting content.
• Use visual organizational strategies to make your content easy to scan and comprehend, including meaningful headings and subhead-ings, small discreet chunks of information, and advanced organizers. • Use a process to structure and format your content so it is consistent,
usable, and complete.
Learn More
Tools
Content Topic Organizer Template
Web sites of interest
http://www.webstyleguide.com/wsg3/9-editorial-style/2-structuring-prose. html
References
Horton, S., Lynch, P.J., (2009). Web style guide: Basic design principles for creating web sites: Yale University Press.
Kemp, J. E., Morrison, G. R., & Ross, S. T. (1996). Designing effective instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Nielsen, Jakob (1999): Designing Web Usability : The Practice of Simplicity. New Riders Publishing
Piskurich, George M. (2006). Rapid Instructional Design Learning ID Fast and Right. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
