ARM Lecture 2

(1)

Company Logo Company Logo

Scientific Method and

Overview of Research in

Management

Lecture - 2

Advanced Research Methods (ARM)

(2)

Objectives of Research



_{Make contribution to scientific knowledge by}

gaining a better

gaining a better understanding and explanation

understanding and explanation

of organizations (basic / fundamental research)



_{To make a contribution to a}

_{To make a contribution to a real-world situation}

_{real-world situation}

by solving problems (practical or applied

research)

(3)

Research Steps

1. Statement of Problem

2. Design Research Study

3. Measurement

4. Data Analysis

5. Conclusions

R R e e p p l l i i_c_c a a t t _e_e

(4)

Journey from Fundamental to

Applied research



Fundamenta

l research (FR) is

based on theories and

abstract concepts



Going from fundamental to applied research (AR),

concepts and their interrelationships must be

operationalized



Both researches have different starting points:



 In FR, In FR, research questions research questions arise from arise from theory or theory or scientificscientific literature

literature



 In AR, research questions often stem from a particularIn AR, research questions often stem from a particular client

(5)



_{Both researches have different end points. AR}

pays more attention to questions like:



 What is the use of What is the use of this study?this study?



 For whom is this study interesting?For whom is this study interesting?



(6)

Methodological Requirements



_{FR must meet a number of requirements}



 Researchers must have a good knowledge of whatResearchers must have a good knowledge of what already has been found out wrt the

already has been found out wrt the research topicresearch topic



 A researcher cannot therefore, just come up with a A researcher cannot therefore, just come up with a research question, but has to take into

research question, but has to take into account all theaccount all the

findings from previous research



 Researchers must stick to a number of methodologicalResearchers must stick to a number of methodological rules, reflect on them explicitly and answer for

rules, reflect on them explicitly and answer for theirtheir

use



 Requirements of objectivity, preciseness, replicability,Requirements of objectivity, preciseness, replicability, publicity, ethics, simplicity, and generalizability

(7)

Research Process

Orientation to the Orientation to the problem: social and problem: social and

scientific scientific Aim Aim Research Question / Research Question / sub questions sub questions Literature Review Literature Review Design and Design and planning planning research model research model and variables and variables Hypotheses Hypotheses Operationalization Operationalization Research Research strategies strategies Data Data collection collection Data Data Analysis Analysis Report and Report and Presentation Presentation

(8)

Problem Orientation

Orientation to the Orientation to the problem: social and problem: social and

scientific scientific Aim Aim Research Question / Research Question / sub questions sub questions Literature Review Literature Review

(9)

Overview of Problem Orientation



_{First step to take when conducting scientific}

research is to establish the aim of

the research

and formulate main research question



 But how? Through literature review. You shouldBut how? Through literature review. You should determine what is already known about the topic

determine what is already known about the topic by by

studying the published literature



_{Then determine what type of research you}

should conduct in order to formulate your

research question and answer it

(10)

How to establish aim of the

research?



_{You must make clear:}



 Why you are doing the Why you are doing the research?research?



 What you want to achieve and for whom you want to What you want to achieve and for whom you want to achieve this?

achieve this?



(11)

Theoretical vs practical aim



_{Theoretical aim usually involves}

_{Theoretical aim usually involves a contribution}

_{a contribution}

to scientific knowledge:



 Developing or testing a specific Developing or testing a specific theory abouttheory about absenteeism

absenteeism



_{Practical aim usually involves a solution to any}

problem:



 Helping to solve a problem from the daily practice of Helping to solve a problem from the daily practice of controlling absenteeism

controlling absenteeism



 Developing an instrument to measure the tendency of Developing an instrument to measure the tendency of employees to be absent

(12)

Examples of research objectives



_{Acquiring more insight into the causes of}

absenteeism within the company



_{Investigating the nature of differences in culture}

between organizations and developing a

classification system for these differences



_{Developing an accurate performance}

management for departments in an organization



_{Developing and testing a method with which}

administrative procedures can be described and

classified

(13)

Formulating the research questions



_{Research question is the central, briefly worded}

question that you are going to answer in your

research: what exactly are you going to do?



_{You must define the domain:}



 The set of all objects to be studies (e.g. individualThe set of all objects to be studies (e.g. individual

employees of an organization) employees of an organization)



 Attributes of the objects (e.g. tendency to be absent or Attributes of the objects (e.g. tendency to be absent or

job satisfaction) job satisfaction)



 Expected relationships b/w attributes of the objectsExpected relationships b/w attributes of the objects

(e.g. low satisfaction is related to high tendency towards (e.g. low satisfaction is related to high tendency towards absenteeism)

(14)



_{It is not the objects themselves that vary, but the}

attributes of these objects



_{Attributes of the objects that you are interested in}

are defined as variables in the research



_{In the research question, you relate the variables}

from a specific domain (the set of research units

or objects) to each other



 Dissatisfaction leads to more absenteeismDissatisfaction leads to more absenteeism



_{Sometimes, research question is called as}

problem statement

(15)

Example:

Historical analysis of performance Historical analysis of performance

measurement and management in

measurement and management in operations management operations management



_{Purpose – This paper seeks}

_{Purpose – This paper seeks to take a historic}

_{to take a historic}

perspective on performance measurement and

management (PMM) within operations

management (OM) across all sectors

(manufactur

(manufacturing, service and public) in

ing, service and public) in

order to

reflect on and undercover relevant lessons and

issues about PMM in OM.

(16)



_RQ1

_{RQ1. How has PMM within operations}

_{. How has PMM within operations}

management evolved and developed?



_RQ2

_{RQ2. How have the}

_{. How have the measures and the}

_{measures and the}

management of them changed?



_RQ3

_{RQ3. How can PMM be defined within}

_{. How can PMM be defined within}

operations management?



_RQ4

_{RQ4. Finally, considering an historical analysis}

_{. Finally, considering an historical analysis}

can any conclusions be drawn about the future

and, importantly, the challenges of PMM in OM?

(17)

Other examples



_{What are the effects of management development}

programme on organizational performance?



_{Does management development programme have}

an effect on organizational performance?



_{Is maximum organizational performance}

achieved after 40 hours of management

development programme?

(18)

Relationship b/w Research Questions &

Research Methods



_{If you are exclusively interested in the}

occurrence of objects (or

occurrence of objects (or characterist

characteristics /

ics /

attributes thereof), then this would be defined as

a descriptive research



 What is (…)? What is (…)?



 What does (…) look like? What does (…) look like?



(19)



_If

_{you su}

_{you suspect t}

_{spect t}

_hat

_{hat there a}

_{there are possib}

_{re possible causes}

_{le causes or}

_or

influencing factors for attributes of objects, this

is defined as exploratory research



 This is concerned with the tentative foThis is concerned with the tentative formulation of rmulation of relationship between phenomena and explanations of

relationship between phenomena and explanations of

them



 There is still no theory and / or hypothesis present:There is still no theory and / or hypothesis present: the aim is to develop these.

the aim is to develop these.



 E.g. What is the link / E.g. What is the link / relationship between (…) andrelationship between (…) and (…)? Why is (…)? How is

(20)



_{If you want to explicitly evaluate a relation or a}

difference based on a number of criteria, this

is

defined as empirical

defined as empirical testing research

testing research



 You statistically test whether certain explicitly You statistically test whether certain explicitly formulated relationships or correlations between

formulated relationships or correlations between

phenomena exist and whether specific explanation

indeed apply



 Is there a significant positive Is there a significant positive correlation betweencorrelation between (…)? Is it true that (…)?

(21)



_{Advisory and prescriptive research questions can}

occur specifically with applied

occur specifically with applied organizat

organizational

ional

research



 Is the implementation (…) desirable? If yes, how canIs the implementation (…) desirable? If yes, how can this best be done?

(22)

Feasibility



_{Check to see whether it}

_{Check to see whether it is theoretically possible}

_{is theoretically possible}

to research the question which is

under

consideration.

Is it

Is it possible

possible to

to collect

collect the

the

empirical data?



_{Example: as part of a study of absenteeism:}



 Is the frequency and degree of absenteeism properly Is the frequency and degree of absenteeism properly recorded?

recorded?



 Is it possible to Is it possible to measure the variables like tendency measure the variables like tendency towards absenteeism, and work satisfaction?

(23)

Example



_{Should people be allowed to call in sick if}

they are dissatisfied with their work?



_{It is difficult to answer in empirical}

research.



_{Solution: Focused group discussions}

among the stakeholders like trade unions,

employers, the government and experts in

labour laws and etics

(24)

Sub Questions



_{Researchers can develop a number of sub}

questions from a research question?



_{Answers to sub questions should contribute to the}

solution of the main research question.



_{The sub-questions are independent i.e. one sub}

question can be answered w/o knowing the answer

to another sub-question.



_{They often concern the distinct attributes of the}

main research question

(25)



_{Sub-questions should not enlarge the domain of}

the research topic but should make it more

specific



_{Sub-questions often define the structure of the}

report

(26)

Example



_{Research Question}

_{Research Question: What factors cause the}

_{: What factors cause the}

high rate of return?



_{Sub-questions}

_{Sub-questions:}

_:



 Is there a high rate of Is there a high rate of absenteeism?absenteeism?



 What exactly is What exactly is absenteeism?absenteeism?



 How do I determine whether the rate of How do I determine whether the rate of absenteeismabsenteeism is high?

(27)

Example



 _{The purpose of this paper is to}_{The purpose of this paper is to}_{identify the main problems}_{identify the main problems} that can be encountered during the

that can be encountered during the implementation and useimplementation and use

of a performance management system (PMS).



 _{Research Question:}_{Research Question:}



 What are problems organizations can expect when implementing a What are problems organizations can expect when implementing a PMS?

PMS?



 _{Sub-research questions:}_{Sub-research questions:}



 How often has a particular problem How often has a particular problem been encountered during PMSbeen encountered during PMS implementation and use?

implementation and use?



 What is the impact of this problem on What is the impact of this problem on the implementation and use of the implementation and use of the PMS?

the PMS?



(28)

Example



 _Title:_Title: _{Performance measurement: a remedy for}_{Performance measurement: a remedy for}

increasing the efficiency of public services?



 _Purpose_Purpose _{– Promoters of performance measurement are}_{– Promoters of performance measurement are}

convinced that performance measurement can greatly

contribute to an efficiency boost in the field of public

services. The purpose of this article is to treat this as a

hypothesis and examine this hypothesis from various

theoretical perspectives.



 _{Research Question:}_{Research Question:} _{Is performance measurement a}_{Is performance measurement a}

driver for making public service delivery more efficient?

(29)

Hypothesis

(30)

Hypothesis



_{A tentative theory that has not yet}

_{been tested.}



Hypotheses

are propositions which are

empirically testable. They are

usually concerned

with the relationships between variables



 Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double theExample: Increasing salary by 10% will double the

production



 If basic If basic needs needs are not met, are not met, then motivation then motivation level amonglevel among

the employees will be low

(31)

The Role of the Hypothesis



_{Guides the direction of the}

_{Guides the direction of the study}

_study



_{Identifies facts that are relevant}



_{Suggests which form of research design is}

appropriate



_{Provides a framework for organizing the}

conclusions that result

(32)

What is a Good Hypothesis?



_{A good hypothesis should fulfill three conditions:}



 Must be adequate for its purposeMust be adequate for its purpose



 Must be testableMust be testable



(33)

Types of Hypotheses



_{Descriptive Hypotheses:}



These describe properties



Example:



Current turnover in Pakistan telecom

industry is greater than 15 per cent per

annum

(34)



_{Relational Hypotheses:}



 These describe relationship between two variablesThese describe relationship between two variables



 Example:Example:



_{CEOs with higher education spend more on}_{CEOs with higher education spend more on}

training and development of their employees



_{The greater the employees welfare measures}_{The greater the employees welfare measures}

provided by the management of a

provided by the management of a company, thecompany, the

smaller the labour turnover of skilled workers

(35)



_{Explanatory Hypotheses:}



 These indicate a cause-effect relationshipThese indicate a cause-effect relationship



 Direction of the relationship is Direction of the relationship is important and shouldimportant and should be interpreted properly

be interpreted properly



 Example:Example:



_{When the salaries of government employees}_{When the salaries of government employees}

increase, their families spend more on their

clothing.

(36)

Example

Example: A universalistic perspective for: A universalistic perspective for

explaining the relationship between HRM practices and

firm performance at different points in time



_{According to the universalistic perspective,}

organizatio

ns from

ns from different sectors, across

different sectors, across

industries, and through different time periods

should use a series

should use a series of select human resource

of select human resource

management practices (HRMP).



_{The main purpose of this paper}

_{The main purpose of this paper is to investigates}

_{is to investigates}

whether there is any difference in

the

relationship between HRMPs and

organization

organizational

al

performance across time (stable or not).

(37)



_H1

_{H1. Training and perceived}

_{. Training and perceived}

_organizati

_{organizational}

_onal

performance are related to each other

performance are related to each other and are

and are

not time-specific.



_H2

_{H2. Employee participation and perceived}

_{. Employee participation and perceived}

organizatio

nal performance are

nal performance are related to each

related to each

other and are not

other and are not time-specific.

time-specific.



_H3

_{H3. Compensation and}

_{. Compensation and perceived organizational}

_{perceived organizational}

performance are related to each other

performance are related to each other and are

and are

not time-specific.

(38)



_H4

_{H4. Internal labor market and perceived}

_{. Internal labor market and perceived}

organizatio

nal performance are

nal performance are related to each

related to each

other and are not

other and are not time-specific.

time-specific.



_H5

_{H5. Selection and}

_{. Selection and perceived organizational}

_{perceived organizational}

performance are related to each other

performance are related to each other and are

and are

not time-specific.

(39)

(40)

(41)

(42)

Should we kill the performance

a

(43)

(44)

(45)

(46)

(47)

A Survey of Research

Methods

(48)

Research Methods

Exercises

1.

1. AvailablAvailable data stie data still suggll suggest that on est that on average, waverage, women receiomen receiveve lower pa

lower pay than y than men. men. A profeA professor decided ssor decided to desigto design an a program to train c

program to train college women to negotiate higher salaries.ollege women to negotiate higher salaries. To assess the effectiveness of the program, 30

To assess the effectiveness of the program, 30 collegecollege women were randomly assigned to attend either a

women were randomly assigned to attend either a 12-hour 12-hour salary negotiation skill training course or to

salary negotiation skill training course or to be on a be on a waitingwaiting list for th

list for the course. e course. After the After the first group first group attended attended the trainithe training,ng, both groups were tested on their negotiation skills by a

both groups were tested on their negotiation skills by a trained individual(a grad student) role-playing as an

trained individual(a grad student) role-playing as an employer ma

employer making a king a job offejob offer. r. The indThe individuals ividuals that had that had salarysalary negotiation trainin

negotiation training negotiated a higher salary in g negotiated a higher salary in the role-the role-playing exercise.

(49)

Exercise 1.



_{Research method?}



 Answer: Answer: Lab Lab experimentexperiment



_{Independent variable?}



 Answer: TrainingAnswer: Training



_{Dependent variable?}



 Answer: Answer: Salary Salary negotiatednegotiated



_{Confounds (}

_{To cause to become confused or perplexed)}_{To cause to become confused or perplexed)}

_?



 Answer: Answer: Did Did negotiator negotiator know know intent intent of studof study?y?

Exercises

(50)

2. A researcher wants to understand to what extent 2. A researcher wants to understand to what extent

variables such as

variables such as financial difficultiefinancial difficulties, employments, employment

commitment (how much work means to a person), social commitment (how much work means to a person), social support, and an individual’s ability to structure his

support, and an individual’s ability to structure his or her or her time and keep busy have an impact on mental and

time and keep busy have an impact on mental and physical

physical health health during during unemploymenunemployment. t. In order In order toto

answer this question, 100 unemployed executives are answer this question, 100 unemployed executives are asked to complete a

asked to complete a questionnaiquestionnaire that asks re that asks questionsquestions about financial difficulties,

about financial difficulties, employment commitment,employment commitment, social support, time structure, mental health, and

social support, time structure, mental health, and physical

physical health. health. Forty of Forty of the 10the 100 questi0 questionnaires onnaires givengiven out are returned.

out are returned.

Exercises

(51)

Exercise 2.



_{Research method?}



 Answer: SurveyAnswer: Survey



_{Independent variable(s)?}



 Answer: Answer: Financial Financial difficulties, difficulties, employmentemployment

commitment, social support, and time structure commitment, social support, and time structure



_{Dependent variable?}



 Answer: Answer: Mental Mental and and physical physical healthhealth



_Confounds?



 Answer: Answer: Are thAre the 40e 40% who % who returned threturned the surve surveyseys

representative of that

representative of that populatiopopulation?n?

Exercises

(52)

3. The

3. The ScandinaviScandinavian Sweets Factory an Sweets Factory recently implementedrecently implemented shift work.

shift work. The factory iThe factory is now s now open 24 open 24 hours a hours a day, andday, and employees either work an early shift, a late shift, or

employees either work an early shift, a late shift, or aa night shi

night shift. ft. The manThe manager planager plans to compas to compare each re each shift inshift in six months to assess whether there are

six months to assess whether there are differences indifferences in the groups on productivity and turnover.

the groups on productivity and turnover.

Exercises

(53)

Exercise 3.



_{Research method?}



 Answer: Answer: Field Field experimentexperiment



_{Independent variable(s)?}



 Answer: Answer: Shift Shift workedworked



_{Dependent variable?}



 Answer: Answer: Productivity Productivity and and turnover turnover



_Confounds?



 Answer: Answer: How How were were shifts shifts assigned?assigned?

Exercises

(54)

4. A researcher

4. A researcher wanted to examine whether anew machinewanted to examine whether anew machine would lead to increased productivity on an

would lead to increased productivity on an assembly lineassembly line at Sam’

at Sam’s Office s Office Supply Supply Factory. Factory. He randHe randomly assiomly assignedgned ten workers to the new machine and ten workers

ten workers to the new machine and ten workers to theto the old ma

old machine. chine. The woThe workers in rkers in the two the two groups weregroups were carefully matched in terms of

carefully matched in terms of their ability and experience.their ability and experience. The researcher monitored the total number of products The researcher monitored the total number of products produced and the amount of product rejects on the two produced and the amount of product rejects on the two machines

machines over a over a period operiod of two f two weeks. weeks. Results shoResults showedwed the workers on the new machine had higher levels of the workers on the new machine had higher levels of productivity.

productivity.

Exercises

(55)

Exercises

Exercise 4.



_{Research method?}



 Answer: Answer: Field Field experimentexperiment



_{Independent variable(s)?}



 Answer: MachineAnswer: Machine



_{Dependent variable?}



 Answer: Answer: Products Products produced produced and and rejectsrejects



_Confounds?



(56)

5. In a study of

5. In a study of bias in work performance ratings, blackbias in work performance ratings, black and white undergraduate psychology students were and white undergraduate psychology students were assigned the task of

assigned the task of providinproviding work g work performanceperformance ratings for videotaped “employees” (really grad ratings for videotaped “employees” (really grad

students pretending to be employees) who differed in students pretending to be employees) who differed in terms of

terms of their race their race (black or (black or white). white). Level Level of of performance was held constant on the

performance was held constant on the videotapevideotape.. Results showed that white raters

Results showed that white raters tended to give slightlytended to give slightly higher work performance ratings to the

higher work performance ratings to the whitewhite employees

employees on the on the videotape. videotape. Black rateBlack raters, on rs, on the othethe other r hand, tended to give slightly higher work performance hand, tended to give slightly higher work performance ratings to the black

ratings to the black employees on the videotape.employees on the videotape.

Exercises

(57)

Exercise 5.



_{Research method?}



 Answer: Answer: Laboratory Laboratory experimentexperiment



_{Independent variable(s)?}



 Answer: Answer: Race Race of of rater rater and and rateeratee



_{Dependent variable?}



 Answer: Answer: Work Work performance performance ratingsratings



_Confounds?



 Answer: Answer: Was gWas gender ender a factoa factor or r or experience experience of of