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CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE

CAREER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN MALES WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

A graduate project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Master of Science in Counseling,

Career Counseling By

Jessica Ruiz

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The graduate project of Jessica Ruiz is approved:

___________________________________ ___________________

Gretchen Maldonado, M.S. Date

___________________________________ ___________________

Celeste Phelps, M.Ed. Date

___________________________________ ___________________

Shari Tarver-Behring, Ph.D. Date

___________________________________ ___________________

Merril A. Simon, Ph.D., Chair Date

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this thesis project to my parents, Francisca y Rodolfo Ruiz. It was because of you that I learned what it means to be part of something extraordinary. This project is dedicated to you as it was through you that I first learned of the purpose of work and the value of doing what you love, a privilege you both did not have, yet

endured your work with joy and pride. To my siblings Sandra, Erica, Steve, and Karla, it is the most powerful sentiment to feel so connected to you all. It is because of you that I have learned to love, cooperate, and fight. Thank you for your words of encouragement, for your jokes and for the love. You are all inspiring human beings that have provided me with the support to endure my graduate studies there are no dull moments with you all. I’d also like to dedicate this accomplishment to my friend and partner in crime, Alex Soltero, you provided me with support, encouragement, and allowed this project to be my boyfriend for a few months, Gracias!

I dedicate this thesis to my academic family, Claudia, Arpi and Nicole. I am so glad that I experienced this journey with you three. I can no longer picture leading a life in which all three of you are not constants. I feel so lucky to have you to share my hopes and dreams with.

Finally, I dedicate to this to the late Dr. Greg Jackson for teaching us with joy and gusto. I know that I am very fortunate to have experienced you as a person and professor.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I’d like to acknowledge the inspiration for this project. My students at Los Angeles Southwest College at the Disabled Students Program and Services, it is truly because of you that I become interested and passionate about individuals with disabilities and their career development process. Thank you for sharing with me your lives and your career aspirations.

To my wonderful invaluable evaluators: you have been my pillars of wisdom from which I have learned that to be a counselor is truly a wonderful calling and must be handled with love, joy and humor.

To my committee members: Celeste Phelps, my god, thank you for reading all of this! I am so grateful to have such a serene mentor. I would like to acknowledge Merril Simon for her mastery of providing great input and wisdom. I am glad that our paths crossed and am appreciative of the significant work that you do everyday: impacting future counselors. Finally, to Gretchen Maldonado for reminding me to breathe!

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Signature  Page:   ii  

Dedication   iii  

Acknowledgements   iv  

Abstract   vii  

CHAPTER  I   8  

Introduction 8

Statement of the Problem 9

Importance of the Problem 10

Identifying the Focus Group: AAMLD 11

African American Males 11

African American Males with Learning Disabilities 13

Characteristics of the Focus Group 14

Introduction to Theoretical Approaches 17

Consequences of the Problem for AAMLD 18

Limitations 19

Technical Terms 20

Transition 22

CHAPTER  II   23  

Review of the Literature 23

General Introduction of the Literature Review 23

Summary of General Theoretical Perspectives 24

Social Cognitive Career Theory 24

Ecological Theory 26

Critical Race Theory 27

Validation Theory 28

Racial Identity 29

Learning Disability Identity 33

Vocational Identity 34

Education 37

Intersectionality 40

Career Issues and Interventions for AAMLD 41

Career Exploration & Decision Making 41

Education 42

Career Experiences 44

Family Influence 45

Social Networks 47

Theoretical Approaches Relating to AAMLD 50

Summary  and  Transition  to  Chapter  III   53  

CHAPTER  III   54  

Procedure (Justification of the Problem) 54

Structure of the Program 55

Location and Staffing 56

Supporting Materials and Assessment 57

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Accommodations for Career Materials 59

Transition to Chapter IV 60

CHAPTER  IV:    THE  PROGRAM   61  

Career Development Program For AAMLD 61

Introduction 61

Overall Program Goals and Objectives 61

Program Outline 62

Session 1: Orientation 64

Session 2: Intake and Goal Identification 66

Session 3: VISTa Life/Career Cards 68

Session 4: VISTa Life/Career Cards De-Brief & Career Maturity 71

Session 5: Reflection 73

Session 6: Resume Workshop 75

Session 7: Interviewing Skills 77

Session 8: Networking 80

Session 9: Communicating Reasonable Job Accommodations 82

Session 10: Concluding Session 85

Chapter  V:  Evaluation  of  the  Program  by  External  Reviewers   88  

Project Evaluation 88

Evaluator Qualifications 88

Evaluator Questions and Responses 89

Conclusion 97   References     Appendices     99  

Appendix A: Program Application 106

Appendix B: Student Contract 107

Appendix C: Orientation Quiz 109

Appendix D: Intake Form 110

Appendix E: VISTa Life/Career Cards 113

Appendix F: Introduction to Resumes 117

Appendix G: Resume Sample 121

Appendix H: Cover Letters 122

Appendix I: Communicating Reasonable Job Accommodations 123

Appendix J: Mentor Contract 124

Appendix K: Interviewing Preparation 126

Appendix L: Networking 129

Appendix M: Informed Consent and Confidentiality 133

Appendix N: Program “To Dos” Handout 135

Appendix O: Evaluator Questions 136

Appendix P: Survey 137

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ABSTRACT

CAREEER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN MALES WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

By Jessica Ruiz

Master of Science in Counseling, Career Counseling

African American Males with Learning Disabilities (AAMLD) have multiple career development challenges. These challenges may begin in childhood and persist in adulthood. These challenges encompass social, career, and educational facets of their lives. Due to the large number of AAMLD lacking a significant involvement in the labor market it is necessary to develop appropriate career development programs. The career development program for AAMLD targets the needs to develop job search strategies, career maturity and self-efficacy.

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CHAPTER I Introduction

The U.S. has long held the illusion of the “American Dream.” Individuals from all over the world come to the U.S. in pursuit of that dream; meanwhile, in the U.S. many of the countries own citizens experience calamities that limit access to this so-called dream. Education has become the “way out” of these calamities, but despite the access to

education many communities experience de facto segregation and the quality of

education is not of equal standards as the education for many White individuals. African American Males (AAM) continue to lag behind their White counterparts typically

reading at an eight-grade level by the time they are in the twelfth grade and holding jobs with minimum pay (U.S. Department of Labor Statistics, 2012).

Due to the systematic inequalities that are present in the U.S., African American individuals with disabilities lag behind in the labor market. A total of 39% of African American adults are not in the labor force (Timmons, Willis, Kemp, Basha & Mooney, 2010). The career development process for these individuals may be quite crucial in a time when many members of this community are entering higher education. AAM are one of the most difficult populations to retain in the educational systems, many dropping out before receiving a degree (U.S. Department of Labor Statistics, 2012).

Additionally, the presence of AAM in the labor market is mostly in low-paying, low-status occupations. It is because of career challenges AAMLD experience that an educational program that emphasizes acknowledgment of both career development process as well that of the socio-political implications of working with the AAMLD population may be beneficial. Individuals with learning disabilities share some of the

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same statistical make-up in the labor market. Many individuals of all races with learning disabilities experience unemployment, lack access to high paying occupations, and low self-efficacy skills (Castellanos, & Septeowski 2005).

Statement of the Problem

The number of people with a disability continues to grow in the United States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). Individuals with disabilities are more likely to experience poverty, depression, and anxiety (U.S. Census, 2012) than those without disabilities. Historically, African American individuals have experienced marginalization and racism in the United States (Cornileus, 2013). Individuals with a disability also experience discrimination. In the early 1990’s, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) came into fruition, an act that was enacted in order to protect individuals with disabilities from discrimination in employment, government, public transportation and

telecommunications (Americans with Disabilities Act, 1991). Accordingly, individuals with a learning disability continue to face many challenges (Castellanos & Septeowski, 2005).

African American individuals with disabilities continue to be underemployed and earn less than their White counterparts (U.S. Census, 2013). Career resources for these individuals are limited and it is impacting their presence in the labor market (Carter, Trainor, Audrey, Cakigroglu, Orhan, Sweedeen, & Owens, 2010). Considering the challenges African American individuals with a disability face, it is vital to investigate the quantity and quality of career resources that these individuals are receiving. Career counseling professionals working with this population may need to use a variety of

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approaches in the helping process to ensure lifelong successful employment for African American individuals with disabilities.

Importance of the Problem

African American males in the U.S. have historically had low presence in the labor market and AAM in particular have experienced low wages. African American individuals exhibit difficulties in maintain employment during economic recessions (U.S. Department of Labor Statistics, 2011). Individuals from African American (AA)

population may experience unemployment. Specifically, men are more likely to become chronically unemployed. In recent years, the African American population as a whole has slowly increased its presence in both the labor market and the educational systems. For individuals with disabilities, many of the statistical information parallel that of African American male population in that they experience low wages, low-status jobs, and unemployment (DOL, 2011). It is therefore useful for career counselors to be privy to the needs and challenges that these individuals face.

In order to change the climate of these individuals’ lives by attaining career opportunities that allows them to enhance their lives through occupational attainment it would be of great use for a career development program that targets their needs. AAMLD are more likely to live in low-income urban areas and may have limited resources to access high paying employment. In recent years, African American individuals have entered the world of academia and may need specific interventions for retention and success.

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Identifying the Focus Group: AAMLD

The focus of this program is African American adult males with learning disabilities. Individuals may identify as Black and/or African American. Participants must be enrolled in a community college in California. Individuals must have had an Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) at sometime in their K-12 education; otherwise the participant may seek to be evaluated for a learning disability (LD) by the community college. Participants must have the desire to obtain a Certificate, Career Technology Education, Associates Degree or a Bachelor’s degree as their educational goal. Finally, participants must be receiving disability-related academic accommodations. In order to participate in this program, an individual must have a low-socio-economic status and be a first-generation college student.

African American Males

African American individuals make up about 11% of the labor force and their involvement in that labor force in the last four years is increasing. African American males are more likely to earn less than their White counterparts. African American individuals hold a strong presence in the public sector, often holding jobs in state, local or federal government. Historically, African American individuals have had higher rates of unemployment than White and Hispanic racial groups in the U.S. African American individuals are not well represented in sectors that have high growth and outlooks, such as manufacturing and professional and business services (DOL, 2012).

One of the challenges that unemployed African American individuals experience is that once they become unemployed, they are less likely to find jobs and, if they do not find a job, they tend to stay unemployed for long periods of time. Individuals that

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experience long periods of unemployment have a more difficult time finding jobs. The job search process becomes difficult without a steady income and the lack of access to job search resources. There have been increases for African American individuals in the education systems as well (U.S Department of Labor Statistics, 2011). The rise of AAMLD in the educational system may require educational institutions to employ strategies to assist and serve the populations career development needs.

Based on the census information, there is an average of 19% of all individuals with a disability (U.S. Census, 2013). Individuals with reported disabilities comprise less than 1% of the labor force in the United States. African American individuals account for 24% of the countries disabled population. These disparities exemplify that African American individuals with disabilities are not being afforded opportunities in the

workforce. The Census bureau website reported that 56.7 million people in the U.S. had a disability in 2010 (U.S. Census). The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that African Americans individuals are the second largest group of unemployed individuals in

America. African American individuals make up about 14% of the population in the U.S. African American families are comprised of mostly single-parent households.

Historically, African American have held low-status job in the U.S. comprising of mostly manual labor and minimum wage jobs U.S. Department of Labor, 2013).

Equally important, the African American male experience is one that has historically been subject to racism and discrimination. Social constructs have inhibited the career development of many African American males and they have habitually been denied resources, such as entrance into the labor market. According to the United States Department of Labor (2012), African American individuals continue to be

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underrepresented in the labor force and over-represented in prisons, particularly in California (Department of Labor, 2012). Overall, the literature states that African American males and individuals with a disability are in fact in great need of developing healthy career maturity, decision-making skills and building self-efficacy (Castellanos & Septeowski, 2005; Dipeolu et al., 2002).

African American Males with Learning Disabilities

African-Americans overall are more likely to be diagnosed with a learning disability (Shifrer, Muller, & Callahan, 2011). Additionally, males are more likely to be diagnosed with a learning disability than females are. Historically, individuals of color have been disproportionately diagnosed with learning disabilities. This can be attributed to many factors such as that standardized testing may have some cultural biases. Another factor attributed to testing is that most of these individuals have a low socio-economic status and therefore are not allotted quality educations (Shifer, Muller & Callahan; Coutinho, Oswald & Best, 2002).

African American males face a myriad of obstacles in the process of their career development due to learning disability diagnosis, socio-economic status, and lack of career maturity. In fact, African American males are more likely to be diagnosed with a disability than their Caucasian counterparts (McCollum 1998). It has been found that African American males, English language learners and individuals of color are more likely to be diagnosed with a learning disability.

Individuals who are diagnosed with a learning disability disproportionately face many career obstacles in their adult life (Castellanos & Septeowski, 2005; Shifrer, Muller, & Callahan, 2011). The challenges that African American males with disabilities

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experience include low self-esteem, perceived sense of discrimination, low development of career maturity, lack of work experiences, lack of self-awareness, lack of social skills, and, finally, chronic unemployment (Castellanos & Septeowski).

An additional characteristic that impacts AAMLD is the lack of social networks. Social networks provide an amount of support and information that is advantageous to have in order to succeed in the job market. Social networks are connections an individual has with others such as peers, mentors, information, and advice. African American males often experience inaccessibility to such networks in cases when they do hold highly esteemed jobs (Cornileus, 2013). By this same lens, individuals with disabilities face a lack in social networks that provide the appropriate amount of support needed to for career advancement (Kulkarni, 2012).

Characteristics of the Focus Group

Individuals with disabilities face many challenges. These challenges may begin in grade school and continue into adulthood. In adulthood these challenges may persist in academia, career and social life (Castellanos & Septeowski, 2005). Many individuals with a learning disability (LD) may not have the experiences to have appropriate career maturity skills to facilitate their own career process (Castellanos & Septeowski, 2005). Career maturity is defined as having enough information concerning the self and the world-of-work in order to be ready make an informed decision. Career maturity allots an individual with the ability to make a decision about their career/educational goals

(Savickas, 2011).

There are additional problems that may be faced by individuals with a disability such as not having a sense of control. Individuals with a disability may have certain

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feelings and ideas about their own sense of control over the outcomes of their career development. These feelings about their own career process may impact their exploration of career interests, strengths, and challenges. Career thoughts may also affect the career decisions an individual makes. Career thoughts are considered an internal process of how individuals may believe they may or may accomplish career tasks. Individuals may have career thoughts that are they are inadequate and may develop depression and feelings of inadequacy (Dipeolu, Reardon, Sampson, & Burkhead, 2002).

According to Dipeolu et al. (2002), individuals with disabilities have become more likely to experience negative thoughts concerning the career development process. Individuals with disabilities often maintain a view concerning career process as

something that is outside of themselves, that is to say that they hold beliefs that their career process is not in their own hands, but in the hands of others thus developing an external locus of control. (Castellanos & Septeowski, 2005; Dipeolu et al., 2002).

The literature overwhelmingly suggests that African American individuals, and males in particular, experience similar characteristics that play a role in their career development process. One of the key characteristics is the self-efficacy and personal agency these individuals may feel they do not hold (Cornileus, 2013). These individuals additionally lack a network of people that may assist in this process. Upon entering academic life these individuals may not have the self-advocacy skills needed to succeed. Additionally, many of these individuals are first generation college students and do not have a family member that may be a guide in the educational and career endeavors. The results of these elements may impede the ability for some individuals to traverse through the challenges that racial and disability identity possess, they may often become isolated

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and work under hostile environments due to discrimination (Gysberg, Heppner, & Johnston, 2003).

The experience of many African American individuals in the educational system has been one that exhibits the racist formula that creates this societal discrimination. African American males are more likely to be diagnosed with a learning disability. This is often related to the assessment process that may not serve some multicultural

populations Additionally, AAMLD may be “ill-prepared” by the educational system in order to become competitive individuals in the job market (Cheatham, 1990, p. 4). Brown (1995) found that about 80% percent of African American children are not prepared for elementary school at the time they enter. Academic, career and social challenges may begin in the early school years and may continue through adulthood (Castellanos & Septeowski, 2005). Therefore, AAMLD are at risk of becoming chronically unemployed and are at risk of not receiving degrees.

The literature has also suggested that AAMLD often do not hold the appropriate skills for transition planning and schools do not hold the resources necessary to

streamline a transition process for AAMLD. The lack of transition planning may lead AAMLD to enter and seek services at community colleges and therefore it is significant that community colleges implement resources for the AAMLD adult population. In fact, individuals with learning disabilities are twice as likely to enroll in a community college after high school (Van Noy, Heidkamp, & Kaltz, 2013).

Finally, one of the most significant findings is that AAMLD face challenges in the decision-making process. They are often not equipped the information necessary to make

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career decisions and may need to be educated in the making informed career decision-making.

Introduction to Theoretical Approaches

The career development program for African American males with learning disabilities (AAMLD) encompasses theoretical considerations that are based on the needs found in the literature (Chapter II). Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) has been implemented within the program as a means of reaching the needs that the literature has suggested for this population. This theoretical approach considers an individual’s self-efficacy and the role it plays in their career decision-making process (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994). African American Males with Learning Disabilities have career thoughts that lead them to questioning their ability to carry out tasks and impact the belief that they will succeed at such task.

Ecological framework will be considered in working with AAMLD due to the all-encompassing framework of an individual’s environment. There are many variables working at once for AAMLD. The ecological model functions effectively for individuals with disabilities in that it addresses the role that family, school, disability, race and much more affect the career development process of an individual.

Critical Race Theory (CRT) also addresses a social-political component of the challenges of these individuals, as the ecological framework does, but in a different, more microscopic lens of the impact of racism. The first basic tenent in CRT, that is, that racism is not only embedded in society, but it is considered a “normality” of it and intrinsic to its interwoven makeup (Delgado & Stefanic, 2001). Based on this tenent it appears that people in a system in which racism is a normal part of the machine

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individuals such as African American males will experience career development challenges due to these social constructs.

The implementation of Validation theory will be discussed in order to counteract the messages that individuals with learning disabilities may receive or falsely believe about themselves. Validation theory proposes that validation as an intervention may potentially shift the thoughts from “success is not possible” to “success is possible” and validate individual’s experiences through involving them in the academic and social aspects of their education (Rendón, 1994). This involvement in their educational setting may assist in developing a community that provides AAMLD with social networks that may provide support and connections in the career process.

Consequences of the Problem for AAMLD

The career development process for African American males with learning disabilities requires a focus on providing networks, access to labor market, career

information, self-information, and career maturity. It is therefore necessary for the career development program to implement appropriate interventions that target these needs in order to impact the chronic unemployment, poverty, and racial discriminations that they face in the U.S. labor market and academic settings (National Center for Learning Disabilities).

As there has been a great lack of these resources for AAMLD, they have not gained access into the labor market. It can be noted that in the statistical information pertaining to African American males and individuals with learning disabilities, may experience depression due to unemployment, many receive financial government assistance and be faced with discrimination based on both disability and race.

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Limitations

Limitations of the career development program vary in the inclusion of family as part of the career development process. The worldview of many AAMLD maintains a focus on the collectivity with their primary groups. This program does not implement a focus in involving the family of an AAMLD individual. Another limitation of this study is that learning disabilities vary greatly for individuals and impact them in different ways. Therefore, it is difficult to encompass all different strategies into the program and it cannot appease all of the potential needs, such as developing strengths and learning styles.

The focus of this program is to provide exposure, not expertise, to the skills necessary to enter the job market, therefore it may not provide individuals with full-fledged knowledge of these skills and may need further interventions. It is expected that some of the additional support services, such as programs for students with disabilities, will provide resources to further enhance these individuals self-efficacy and career maturity.

Limitations may also exist in that the career development program, although guided by theoretical implications for a multicultural population, does not address the socio-political issues that surround these individuals. Career counselors are expected to process these elements with participants it would be of utility to provide these individuals with the information in order to empower and encourage self-advocacy

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Technical Terms

In the following section significant terms that pertain to the career development program and AAMLD population are defined. Definitions for terms have been compiled from several theoretical resources and are specific to this program.

Black/African Americans – these two words will be used interchangeably in this project and are in reference of individuals with African ancestry that involuntarily was brought to the United States. (Parham, 1988).

Career Maturity – the degree to which an individual is ready to make a decision based on knowledge they have about themselves and potential occupations. (Super, 1984). Career Exploration- a process in which individuals explore themselves and the world of work in order to take an active role in their career decision making process.

Career Self-Efficacy - are beliefs about ones own ability to successfully perform an occupationally relevant behavior and that these expectations determine one’s actions, effort and persistence in regard to vocational behavior (Brown, 1995).

Disability - limitations in one or more tasks of daily living. (ADA, 1991)

Learning Disability - a neurological disorder that affects they way an individual processes information in order to read and write.

Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities - a wide range of disabilities that may be deficits in cognitive, developmental, intellectual, and/or abilities (Carter, Trainor, Audrey,

Cakigroglu, Orhan, Sweedeen, & Owens, 2010).

Holland Code – a code that classifies work environments based on personality and interests. (Holland, 1973).

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Intersectionality- defined as the examination of race, sex, class, national origin, and sexual orientation and how their combination plays out in various settings.

Nigrescence - the process of becoming black (Cross, 1971).

Occupational Choice Strategies - an intervention created for individuals in the career planning process, it uses several assessment instruments.

Racial identity - refers to an individual’s beliefs and attitudes about his or her membership in a racial group (Cross, 1985, 2001; Helms, 1990, 1995).

Racial identity development - the process through which an individuals examines the “Psychological” (sense of belongingness and commitments, “cultural” (awareness, knowledge, and acceptance of cultural and social traditions), “physical” (acceptance of physical features of racial group), and "sociopolitical” (attitude toward being a member of one’s racial group along with the value and emotional significance associated with that membership (Sanders-Thompson, 1992; Tajfel 1981).

Self-Concept – the concept of the self in reference to the “I” and “me” (Super, Savickas, & Super, 1984).

Social Networks - the relationships individuals may hold with those at work and outside of work. The relationship is reciprocal and may offer opportunities in the work place that would otherwise not be available (Kulkarni, 2010).

Transition - the process individuals with disabilities experience when going from the High School System to the adult world of college and work.

Validation – a process in which an individuals experiences support from an agent in-and-out of the classroom in order to facilitate academic and interpersonal development (Rendón, 1994).

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Vocational Identity - the possession of a clear and stable picture of one’s goals, interests and talents. (Savickas, 1985; Holland, Gottgredson & Power, 1980).

Vocational Rehabilitation - a process in which individuals with disabilities are assisted with vocational/career planning.

Worldview – “…a frame of reference through which one experiences life. It is the foundation of values, attitudes, and relations” (Foud & Bingham, 1995, p.335).

Transition

In summary, African American Males with a learning disability have an array of needs concerning their career development. Educational and social systems in place have limited the attainment of work in the job market for AAMLD. African American

individuals with learning disabilities are beginning to enter educational settings at larger rates it is imperative that systems in place address their career/educational needs.

A review of the relevant literature will be discussed in the following chapter. The literature will discuss the formation of racial and disability identity, the intersectionality of these two concepts and the connection to vocational identity, and self-concept

pertaining to self-efficacy for the AAM population. The discussion will include the educational challenges and strategies that may be useful when working with AAMLD. Additionally, the review of the literature will discuss the theoretical frameworks that will be used as interventions for this population.

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CHAPTER II Review of the Literature

General Introduction of the Literature Review

In Chapter II, theoretical perspectives will be discussed at length and their relevance to the AAMLD population. Theoretical perspectives include Social Cognitive Career Theory, ecological theory, Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Validation Theory.

Additionally, Chapter II will include the exploration of the career development process as it pertains to identity and self-concept, both concepts are important in the career development process. They are of particular importance when working the

AAMLD population because so much of the career process involves beliefs about the self and the ability to achieve certain career goals.

The AAMLD population may have beliefs that guide them into thinking that there are career/major paths that they cannot enter. It is because of this they have developed a career maturity that needs further exploration of the self and the world of work.

Vocational Identity will be discussed particularly as it applies to the LD population. Additionally, the experience of identity formation for African American individuals with Learning Disabilities (AAMLD) will be discussed.

The discussion will include a brief overview of the AAM in the higher education and the recent increased presence of this population in community colleges. The research that pertains to the AAM will be included in the description of what variables have insured success for this the AAM population.

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Summary of General Theoretical Perspectives

The career development program for AAMLD will include four theoretical perspectives, the perspectives are Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), Ecological theory, Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Validation Theory. In the following section a summary of each perspective will be discussed.

Social Cognitive Career Theory

SCCT discusses the significance of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy as defined by Bandura (1986), suggest that it is belief that an individuals believes she\he is capable of achieving a task successfully. The beliefs that surround self-efficacy are developed through four different sources. The sources are accomplishment, learning through others (vicarious), social persuasion and physiological states and reactions (Lent & Brown 1996).

The three variables that SCCT surmises that individual’s regulate their career behavior based on the interaction of their self-efficacy beliefs, the outcome expectations and their personal goals. SCCT derived from Albert Bandura’s social learning theory. Bandura (1986) discusses personal agency as being an influential variable in the development of career interests. Personal agency is about implementing goals and believing those goals can be achieved. Self-efficacy can be thought of as the belief or thought that an individual has about their own ability to achieve a particular task. Outcome expectations refer to the consequences of taking action in a task (Bandura, 1986).

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SCCT regards self-efficacy as a variable that is highly important to individuals with disabilities. SCCT theorizes that individuals have a level of self-efficacy that may dictate their willingness to perform certain activities. If an individual believes they are likely to be successful at something they will be more likely to attempt it. If success is the result, than individuals are more likely to continue or repeat the behavior. The notion of goals, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations are linked to learning.

SCCT considers several factors in their theoretical perspective that may be significant in working with the AAMLD population. An individual’s gender, socio-economic status, and genetic endowment are all variables that may influence career interests. SCCT recognizes that in childhood individuals are exposed to certain activities that expose them to career possibilities. Reinforcement may come from parents, teachers and peers; eventually the individual will begin to self-reinforce.

Reinforcement is significant because it is assumed by SCCT that if individuals engage in a task and they are successful and others see them as successful in those tasks than the person will continue to engage and repeat that task. This also leads to the

development of goals. This process is often lifelong and individuals traverse through life taking action in activities they believe or perceive they are capable of completing

successfully. This process will build self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986).

SCCT recognizes that socio-economic status, genetics, ethnicity, values and abilities play a significant role in the influence self-efficacy and outcome expectations beliefs. SCCT recognizes these variables as social constructs that affect the psychological process of an individual and they need to be recognized. These variables influence

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tasks. Overall these processes become important because they influence the perceptions individuals have about themselves (Lent & Brown, 1996). If individuals doubt their abilities to master a task they may develop lowering expectation or goals and suffer from anxiety pertaining to their preforming particular tasks. Therefore, individuals may not have the resiliency skills to continue to perform.

According to SCCT career choice is often influenced by economic need, family expectations, discrimination, and educational considerations. Individuals often pursue tasks in which there appear to be no barriers or the barriers may be overcome. This is particularly important for the African American individuals because they often have had to negotiate with the barriers of discrimination and may need more social support system as they pursue career choices (Lent & Brown 1996).

Ecological Theory

The ecological perspective recognizes the importance of the environment and its effect on the development of an individual. The environment that surrounds an individual is considered important because it has a direct influence on the behavior. The variables that ecology accounts for consists of political, economic, physical, interpersonal and cultural components that affect individuals. The variables in an individual’s life will have a direct influence on the experiences of a person. The world in which individuals develop directly relate to the choices they make about their lives and particularly important to this discussion career choice (Heft, 2013).

The ecological perspective provides attention to how the environment is connected to the complexity of human behavior. The world in which one lives in will have an effect on the identity they create for themselves. These social constructs may

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influence an individual’s career decisions. Gender and race may provide particular understanding of what careers and work is available to an individual. The availability of resources is also influenced by environment, individuals may have a plethora of career resources and information while others may have limited to none (Heft, 2013).

The ecological perspective is related to career choices and career development. The environment may potentially effects individuals in their career choices, in their work environments, unemployment, job dissatisfaction and conflicts at work. The ecological perspective additionally takes into consideration the legislative policies that effect individuals. Economy and politics influence an individual’s availability to career resources and information (Heft, 2013).

Critical Race Theory

Critical Race Theory (CRT) was founded based on the laws in place of the government systems in the Unites States. The theoretical approach is critically placed in the concepts that these systems hold overt and covert laws that place individuals of color at a disadvantage. CRT is a movement that distinguished the connection between race, power and racism. A movement primarily influenced by the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960’s and Feminist Theory. CRT separates from other theories in that it questions the premise of liberal order and equality theory. CRT began in law but has since penetrated the basis of pedagogies. Finally CRT may be thought of as not only an analytical theory of the racist social and political implications but also is concerned with changing those social contracts for the better (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001).

CRT is comprised of five tenents. The first tenent is the assumption that racism is normal and part of the ordinariness of our society and therefore not easily changed. The

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embedded forms of racism therefore, have been normalized and somewhat accepted in out society. The second tenent suggest that change has occurred only to serve the dominant White culture; therefore changes made socially have made strides in a way serve the self-interest of elite white. The third tenent identifies that race and races are not objective constructs but subjective forms of identifying differences between individuals. This tenent identifies that race is a socially constructed idea and does not hold any objective premises. Race categories have been invented by society and have no scientific premise. The fourth tenent of CRT is concerned with differential racialization, which surmises that at any given time dominant culture is actively racist toward particular groups because of the state of flux pertaining to the labor market. The final tenent of CRT is that individuals of color have a unique story that they are able to share with their white counterparts in order to educate and inform (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001).

Validation Theory

Validation theory functions under the assumption that validating individual’s experiences provides a significant transformation in college student’s experiences.

Validation theory is focused on non-traditional populations of color. Validation is defined as an “…enabling, confirming and supportive process” (Rendon, 1994, p. 12). The

process of providing individuals with validation is often in the hands of faculty and staff on college campuses. Faculty and staff are considered agents that may provide students with experiences that validate and straighten their beliefs in themselves. These agents may help student navigate through a system that they are not familiar with. Validation is considered a process that occurs within and outside of the classroom. In-class validation involves peers and faculty. Outside validation may come from family, friends and

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significant others. Validation affords individuals with the acceptance and comfort and may manifest individuals with a sense of community. One of the most significant components is the process of providing it early into the educational experience.

In the research by Rendon (1994) non-traditional students participants were investigated and interviewed. Individuals were asked about their college experiences. The finding suggested that African American students often felt that they did not have the necessary skills to succeed. The interviews also suggested that non-traditional population needs active interventions to support students as they become are learning about

educational institutions. Involvement was another significant variable in the development of the student’s success. Non-traditional student may not become as involved in college and validation may facilitate their involvement.

In conclusion, validation theory affords non-traditional student with the support that will encourage and facilitate learning. Validation provides students with the sense of community and affirmation that education and success is a possibility for them.

Racial Identity

One of the pioneers in the development of racial identity formation models was that of Cross’s (1971), theory of racial identity formation. According to Cross (1971), racial identity is considered a developmental process in which an individual traverses several stages. The stages of racial identity formation lead an individual to reach what is considered to be a healthy racial identity. The stages are considered to be a natural process of developing a self-actualized self. According to Cross (1971, 1978), this process is described as a shedding from an old identity to a new identity. According to Cross (1971), the four stages of racial identity formation are:

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Pre-encounter: the stage where an individual does not see the world

through a racial lens.

Encounter: the stage in which an individual is first exposed to a racially

challenging experience (i.e., discrimination or racism) that prompts a questioning of their previous worldview.

Immersion-emersion: the stage in which an individual becomes empowered and

immersed in the traditions of their racial identity and rejects the dominant race.

Internalization: the point in which a person of color has developed a healthy and

positive outlook about the people of their race and people of other racial backgrounds.

The four stages are what form the idea of racial identity. Parham (1985)

introduced the idea of re-cycle and racial identity. Parham’s (1985) concept introduces the possibility that racial identity formation does not occur linearly as explained by Cross Model (1971), but instead it is possible for an individuals to traverse through the stages at several points in their life and more than once (Alston & Bell, 1996). Parham (1989) suggested that an individual may enter identity formation either by moving through the stages of the model as they are, they may experience a stage, but not move forward and remain stuck in a stage, and finally an individual may experience all stages by going forward and backwards and entering a stage of re-cycle. The possibilities here are that individuals may in reality become stuck in the stages of their racial identity formation. The ultimate process according to Parham’s (1989) model, is that individuals experience these stages more than once in their lives and work through the crisis’ in a ways that facilitate the development of finding a way to identify with one’s reference

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group as well as hold positive attitudes about other ethnic groups. Therefore, Parham argues that racial identity formation is a lifelong process. Finally, Parham suggested that an individuals does not have to experience racism or discrimination in order to enter the racial identity process, as proposed by the Cross (1971) model, an individual must experience a discriminatory crisis that ignites the stages of the racial identity process.

The definition of a racial identity is a concept that distinguished an individuals beliefs and attitudes about their racial group. The racial identity of an individual may defined as the following concepts (Cross, 1985):

Racial identity salience is the degree to which a person feels their race is part of

their self-concept.

Race centrality is whether a person’s racial identity is considered a primary part

of their self-definition.

Racial ideology is considered the beliefs and expectations of what is considered

appropriate behavior for individuals who share one’s own race.

Racial regard is how a person feels about people of their own racial group.

As career counselors assist AAMLDs, it will be significantly important for career counselors to be aware of the impact the stage of development influences an individual’s self-concept. For example an individual in the pre-encounter stage may feel as though they are navigating in two different worlds. This stage of the process may create a detachment from ones reference group and unaccepted from the dominant culture (Parham, 1989).

In a study of AA individuals, it was found that individuals in the Pre-encounter stage and internalization stage began to rule out certain career options were cast-off

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(Helms & Piper, 1994). In fact, there was more likelihood of an individual foreclosing on career choice (Marcia, 1980). Meanwhile, the Immersion/Emersion stages provided individuals with a level of attitudes that are characteristic of career maturity.

In the literature, the AA experience is in fact a historical one that involves the Afrocentric worldview as well the as Eurocentric worldview (Gynsberg, Heppner, & Johnston, 1998). As career counselors work with this population there is significant necessity to

understand the historical, social and political lens that surrounds the African American experience. Cheatham (1990) demonstrates how the elements of these two worlds become part of a significant component in understanding the career development of African American individuals. One of the key points made concerning career

development is that both the Eurocentric and Afrocentric worldviews are not working against each other, but are reciprocal and complementary (Cheatham, 1990).

The Eurocentric worldview differs from that of the Afrocentric worldview in that it emphasizes an individualistic values, competition, and autonomy. Afrocentric

worldview emphasizes collectivity, family, cooperation and obedience. In consideration of these differences individuals navigating in a Eurocentric world may be characterized as being “ill-prepared” and “developmentally delayed” to be competitive individuals in the American labor market. Additionally, AAMLD face the historical racial stratification system that has devised several impediments for the AAMLD to gain vocational

opportunities that are of higher status (Cheatham, 1990).

With regards to the process of career counseling, it has been researched that once an individual has reached a healthy racial identity, they often show greater resistance to discrimination and work challenges. A healthy racial identity enhances an individual’s

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self-concept and the understanding of what makes him or her an asset in the workplace. A healthy and positive self-concept may also be possible for individuals with a disability. An individual may then have more positive feelings about their disability and themselves. Due to empowering thoughts and feelings about racial and disability identity, individuals may develop a greater ability to combat the challenges that may arise in the workplace related to racial or disability discrimination (Mpofu & Harley, 2006). In particular, racial identity formation and disability identity formation are two important aspects to consider when working with African American individuals with disabilities and their career development process (Mpofu & Harley).

Learning Disability Identity

Disability identity is defined as the self-concept an individual has about

themselves in relation to their disability and their position in the world at large (Mpofu & Harley, 2006). For individuals with a disability, it is possible that their disability identity will become more significant than that of their racial identity. In other words, having a disability may overshadow the formation of racial identity and an individual’s self-concept (Mpofu & Harley).

An individual who has a disability may develop a worldview through the lens of their disability and their racial identity may not be addressed. For example, if the majority of an individual’s interactions are with other individuals with disabilities, then their disability identity may become more significant than their racial identity (Mpofu & Harley, 2006). Additionally, it is possible that if an African American individual with a disability experiences the majority of his/her interactions with other African Americans, then their disability will not be as significant as their racial identity (Mpofu & Harley).

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The necessity for career counseling professionals to consider identity formation is evident. It is important to note, though, that not all individuals consider their disability a focal point of their identity, such as some do with other identity markers such as gender and race (Mpofu & Harley).

Counselors should address their client’s worldview based on their racial and disability identity experiences (Mpofu & Harley, 2006). Exploring a client who is African American with a learning disabilities’ worldview will give the counselor an idea of how the client identifies with both their racial identity and disability identity.

Disability and racial identity may also contribute to the thoughts and feelings individuals may have about themselves and their career possibilities. Considering the challenges this population experiences due to socio-political problems, it is important that as

practitioners work with this population the worldview must be considered in relation to disability, race and career (McCollum, 1998).

Vocational Identity

Yanchak, Lease and Strauser (2005) conducted a study on identity and

cognitions, specifically vocational identity and the career thoughts of individuals with disabilities. In this study, researchers were interested in examining if there is a difference in vocational identity and the type of disability an individual may have.

Vocational identity can be described as the level of understanding an individual has about their interests, goals, personality and values. Vocational identity assists

individuals in the career decision-making process by facilitating how an individual with a disability explores career and makes informed decisions (Yanchuck et al., 2005). There are several variables that contribute to career thoughts. These variables are: the level of

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self-understanding an individual possesses, access to job search strategies, and clear career goals (Yanchuck et al.).

Career thoughts can be described as the cognitions individuals have about their own self-efficacy in relation to a career or job. In deliberation of the many variables that influence career decisions, this study formulates that it is possible that individuals may have different vocational identities based on their disabilities. Individuals with a cognitive disability may have different perspectives on their vocational identity than individuals that have physical disabilities. This study used Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) theory in order to investigate the way individuals with a disability perceived their career decision-making process and their vocational identity (Yanchuck et al., 2005). According to CIP theory career decisions have four domains: 1)

self-knowledge, 2) occupational knowledge 3) decision-making and 4) execution processing. A flaw in any of the four domains may cause the career decision-making process to be interrupted. In the past, studies have had mixed results on whether individuals with disabilities have a self-concept with self-limiting thoughts that results in poor career decision-making (Yanchuck et al., 2005).

The study conducted by Yanchak et al., (2005) found that there were differences between career thoughts based on physical and cognitive disabilities. Individuals with cognitive disabilities often have overprotective caretakers and are more likely to become dependent of their caregivers (Yanchuck et al., 2005). Dependency on caretaker may limit the amount of career-related experiences an individual with a disability may experience.

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Individuals with a physical disability may experience feelings of embarrassment about their disability. Experiences of embarrassment and dependency often hinder the career development process for individuals and results in having a poor vocational identity. Yanchuck et al. (2005) found that individuals with cognitive disabilities were more likely to have more dysfunctional thoughts about their career decisions than do individuals with a physical disability. Instead, individuals with a physical disability had lower self-esteem and were more self-conscious about their disability. Individuals with a physical disability had a difficult time creating an image of themselves that they felt was marketable in the work place. Individuals with physical disabilities may have self-identity trepidations rather than decision-making concerns. Individuals with cognitive disabilities may have more dysfunctional thoughts about their vocational identity. Individuals with cognitive disabilities may question their abilities to enter the workforce.

Overall, career counselors should be aware that in the process of helping individuals with a cognitive disability, they should be assisting in cultivating decision-making skills. Individuals with physical disabilities may need self-identity assistance, specifically in becoming their own advocates as well as knowledgeable of what are the work place limitations of the individual person’s specific disability (Yanchuck et al., 2005). Vocational identity and career thoughts are not the only variables that research has identified as significant components of the career process for African Americans with a disability. The degree to which these individuals are ready to enter the workforce is additionally significant.

Given the thoughts that surround African American individuals with disabilities, it is crucial to investigate how career interventions alter career development process. A

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study conducted by Strauser et al., (2011) investigated individuals receiving government vocational assistance and career preparation. The participants were between the ages of 18 to 61, and most respondents were African American individuals. The participants had an array of disabilities and had limited work experience. The study used two assessments in order to investigate career readiness. The first was “My Vocational Situation” by Holland, Daiger and Power (1980). The second instrument was the Career Thought s Inventory (CTI), which measures thoughts and feelings about career and work. The result of the study concluded that African American individuals who receive career

interventions are more likely to be ready to enter the workforce (Strauser, et al., 2011). CIP theory was used in order to understand the elements that are involved in the career process for individuals with a disability. Past research (Strauser, et al.) has demonstrated that individuals with a disability experience lower levels of career readiness. In the Strauser et al. study, individuals with a disability who were provided with career resources and strategies were more likely to have higher levels of vocational readiness (Strauser et al.). Strausser recommended that counselors could use the CIP perspective to gauge how much help the client needs in order to apply the appropriate interventions. These findings are significant to the field of vocational rehabilitation especially in an age where evidence-based practices are mandatory (Strauser et al.). Education

African American males have been subject of much research particularly

concerning their educational attainment. The research has often pointed out the difficulty in retaining African American males in higher education. Many African American males, who do enter college, do complete their educational goals (Harper & Davis, 2012). Much

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of the research conducted has been heavily focused on the deficits of the African American male in the educational system some researchers suggest that it just as

significant to discuss the factors that have influenced successful African American males in higher education (Harper, 2010).

A study was conducted on African American males in the educational system in order to get their perspectives and ideas about education. It was found that individuals had strong feelings about the inequities in education; they reported that their education had been under resourced. Additionally many of the individuals felt that education was the “great equalizer” and would open the doors to better opportunities and that it would contribute to “uplift society. (Harper & Davis, 2012). In many instances individuals felt that education was a way out of poverty, drugs and escaped the cycle of their

communities. Additionally, these individuals faced entering education systems in which the majority of their teachers did not share their same reference group and their

navigation through this system involved living in systems where they did not have role models that held their same racial identity (Harper & Davis, 2012).

Individuals with learning disabilities also experience disparities in their education. Particularly they face the impact of their disability on their career development, the impact of disability on education, and the need for access and accommodations in career services. The educational experience of individuals with disabilities may sometimes no be included the social fabric of a school system. They are often segregated and

occasionally put in special education classrooms (Enright, Conyers & Szymanski, 1996). In post-secondary education individuals with disabilities face new challenges such as transition from high school to college, adjusting to college life and transitions from

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college to work. Individuals with disabilities are often not ready for the demands of higher education. Overall, it is clear that individuals with disabilities are in need of services that may assist in the transitional planning of these phases of educational life. The social life of a student is also significant; studies show that individuals that are able to make a social connection on a campus are more likely to complete their intended degree/goals. These connections include peers and faculty (Enright, Conyers & Szymanski, 1996).

In terms of educational systems in place it is clear that African American individuals and individuals with Learning Disabilities are in need of interventions that will ensure their resilience in educational settings. Considering that many individuals with a LD are more likely to enter community colleges it is of particular interests that these system attempt to make services available to both these populations (Van Noy, Heidkamp & Kaltz, 2013).

Currently, the state of California is undergoing changes in the educational setting with the implementation of the Student Success Act of 2012 (U.S. House, 2012). One of the most significant aspects of the bill is to implement career interventions for individuals in the high school setting transitioning to a community college. As it has been

demonstrated through the previously discussed literature is that there is a continual lack of career resources pertaining to this population. The lack of resources for this specific community it is possible administrators will be required to design effective methods of providing career resources. This may develop of a need for career professionals in the state of California who have expertise in the career development process for special populations, such as African American individuals with a disability.

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Intersectionality

Race and disability development are interlinked in an individuals life. There is no real way of separating the way these two variables play a role in an individual’s

development. This is particularly true if individuals acquire a disability at birth or an early age. Learning Disabilities are one that individuals are born with (although,

excluding the possibility of head injuries), therefore the implications for individuals with learning disabilities identity formation will develop based on disability and race. Late onset of a disability may interrupt the development of social explorations of AA identity. One of the significant findings suggests that individuals may suffer from low self-esteem in the pre-encounter and the immersion stages. Therefore, it is necessary for career counselors to be aware of such stages in order to address significant challenges (Alston & Bell, 1996).

The CRT theorists developed the concept of intersectionality and it connects several components of a person’s identity. They recognized the role that two or more variables may play in an individual’s life. These factors may often be thought of as disadvantages to an individual, such as being an African American Male with a Learning disability. Intersectionality recognizes that individuals are comprised of many factors and separating these factors is not of use. Recognizing how these variables intersect and effect the individual is necessary for change and social justice. Intersectionality aims at focusing at the elements of social life of an individual and that institutions will be transformed and address these problems (Delgado & Stefanic, 2001).

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Career Issues and Interventions for AAMLD

The AAMLD population faces many career development issues. The career interventions suggested by the literature are outlines in this next section.

Career Exploration & Decision Making

There is very little known of what racial and ethnic minority individuals with a disability take into consideration when they are making career decisions (Mpofu & Harley, 2006). There are certain challenges that individuals with a disability encounter in the workforce. As noted previously, this population has historically experienced

significant prejudice and discrimination (Koch, 2000). Individuals with a disability often encounter difficulties when they are employed; often they find it difficult to receive promotions in the work place (Koch).

In an article by Koch (2000), there are several interventions suggested for

assisting individuals with a disability. These Suggestions are career exploration, decision-making strategies, career planning, job development and placement and career

maintenance. This study investigated how firsthand experiences may assist individuals in the transition from high school to college and work (Koch, 2000). Firsthand experiences can be considered volunteer work, student assistant at the high schools, and part-time jobs.

The focus of firsthand experiences may be useful for individuals with disabilities in order to enhance their career exploration, career decision-making, career planning, job strategies and career maintenance (Koch, 2000). The framework used in this article was a person-in-environment perspective (Koch). The model involved information gathering about the self, one’s environment (e.g., family, school, location etc.), the world-of-work

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and the process of goal setting. One of the key aspects of this model was for individuals with a disability to learn about career maintenance. Career maintenance is the process in which a person continuously develops strategies to remain employable. Career

maintenance as an intervention will assist individuals in the lifelong process of career development. Career maintenance may assist individuals with a disability to take active roles in their career process (Koch). Individuals with a disability who are taught the strategies of career maintenance will gain control of their career process. Although these interventions are effective for disabled individuals, they are not receiving access to these interventions in order to have a positive and successful work-related experience (Mpofu & Harley, 2006).

Education

In reviewing the literature, it is evident that there is a pattern of deficits in educational systems that provide individuals with disabilities access to the career

exploration process (Carter et al., 2010). Research was conducted to investigate a variety of career programs being offered in an educational setting (Carter et al.). In this study, the researchers investigated the school programs that are provided to students. These programs provided students access to career resources.

The Carter et al. (2010) study focused on examining the possible career resources that may be missing in the school settings. The research included 26 different school districts, with 34 overall high schools. The researchers looked for a population that would offer a diverse perspective ranging from different socio-economic backgrounds and rural to suburban areas. The focus was on adolescents in their high school years with

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Emotional and Behavioral disabilities, which are a wide range of disabilities that may create deficits in cognitive, developmental, and intellectual abilities.

The participants were the administrators in the school system. The administrators were asked to declare what resources in career exploration/planning their school offered. Further, they reported how many of their students with a disability accessed those

resources. The results indicated that individuals with disabilities had the least amount of work-related experiences in school a setting (Carter et al., 2010). Cobb and Alwell (2009) reported similar results concerning the limited career resources and the limited use of these services by students with disabilities.

The Cobb and Alwell (2009) study gathered information in which it was

concluded that individuals with disabilities take limited roles in the possibilities of work experiences. Cobb and Alwell contend that the school administrators need to begin to engage students in the activity of planning their classes and school activities. In addition, the study found that individuals with disabilities that had a mentor or peer advocate had better chances of having successful future work experiences (Cobb & Alwell). Another significant intervention for this population’s success was focusing on the individual’s strengths. The alternative is to have students with disabilities attempt to compete with other students that do not have the challenges of a disability. Overall, this study concluded that individuals with disabilities are not being exposed to career planning resources when it is clear that career interventions are effective. A similar study was conducted on an older population that was receiving vocational rehabilitation resources.

The Occupational Choice Strategy (OCS) demonstrated utility for individuals in vocational rehabilitation process (Farley, et al., 1988). The Occupational Choice

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