ROUTE AND AERODROME INSTRUCTIONS
AND INFORMATION
This Operations Manual is produced by Qatar Airways Flight Operations Department based on QCAR-OPS 1 regulations and national variants as they apply.
The content of this manual is accepted by the Qatar Civil Aviation Authority, QCAA. In case of conflict with the applicable national regulations, the latter apply.
Any questions with respect to information contained in this manual should be directed to the Manager Aeronautical Services.
Qatar Airways
Manager Aeronautical Services P.O. Box: 22550
Doha, State of Qatar Phone: +974 4625104
Fax: +974 4621152
CHAPTER NUMBER NAME OF CHAPTER
LEP List of Effective Pages
ROR Record of Normal Revision
RTR Record of Temporary Revisions
RH Revision Highlights
0 Administration and Control
1 Meteorology
2 Performance
3 Area Briefings
4 Drift Down Procedures
5 Adequate Airports
6 Airfield Briefings
7 Reserved
CHAPTER PAGE NO. REV. NO.
SOM 01 & 02 08P R LEP 01 to 08 08S ROR 01 & 02 08P RTR 01 & 02 08P R RH 01 & 02 08S 0 01 & 02 08P 0 03 & 04 08R / 08Q 0 05 & 06 08R / 08P U/R 0 07 & 08 08R / 08S 0 09 & 10 08R / 08P 0 11 & 12 08P 0 13 & 14 08P 0 15 & 16 08P 1 01 & 02 08P 1 03 & 04 08P 1 05 & 06 08P 1 07 & 08 08P 1 09 & 10 08P 1 11 & 12 08P 1 13 & 14 08P 1 15 & 16 08P 1 17 & 18 08P 1 19 & 20 08P 1 21 & 22 08P 1 23 & 24 08P 1 25 & 26 08P 1 27 & 28 08P 1 29 & 30 08P 1 31 & 32 08P 1 33 & 34 08P 1 35 & 36 08P 1 37 & 38 08P 1 39 & 40 08P 1 41 & 42 08P 2 01 & 02 08P 2 03 & 04 08P 2 05 & 06 08P 2 07 & 08 08P 2 09 & 10 08P 2 11 & 12 08P 2 13 & 14 08P 2 15 & 16 08P / 08R U/R 2 17 & 18 08R / 08S 2 19 & 20 08P 2 21 & 22 08P 2 23 & 24 08P 2 25 & 26 08P 2 27 & 28 08P 3 01 & 02 08P 3 03 & 04 08P R/U 3 05 & 06 08S / 08P 3 07 & 08 08P 3 09 & 10 08P 3 11 & 12 08P 3 13 & 14 08P
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N 3 135 & 136 08S N 3 137 & 138 08S 4 01 & 02 08P 4 03 & 04 08P 4 05 & 06 08P 4 07 & 08 08P 4 09 & 10 08P 4 11 & 12 08P 4 13 & 14 08P 4 15 & 16 08P 4 17 & 18 08P 4 19 & 20 08P 4 21 & 22 08P 4 23 & 24 08P 4 25 & 26 08P 4 27 & 28 08P 4 29 & 30 08P 4 31 & 32 08P 4 33 & 34 08P 4 35 & 36 08P 4 37 & 38 08P 4 39 & 40 08P 4 41 & 42 08P 4 43 & 44 08P 4 45 & 46 08P 4 47 & 48 08P 4 49 & 50 08P 4 51 & 52 08P 4 53 & 54 08Q / 08P
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5 27 & 28 08P 5 29 & 30 08P 5 31 & 32 08P 5 33 & 34 08P 5 35 & 36 08P 5 37 & 38 08P 5 39 & 40 08P 5 41 & 42 08P 5 43 & 44 08P 5 45 & 46 08P 5 47 & 48 08P / 08R 5 49 & 50 08P / 08Q 5 51 & 52 08P 5 53 & 54 08P 5 55 & 56 08P R/U 5 57 & 58 08S / 08P 5 59 & 60 08P 5 61 & 62 08P 5 63 & 64 08P 5 65 & 66 08P 5 67 & 68 08Q / 08P 5 69 & 70 08R / 08P U/R 5 71 & 72 08P / 08S 5 73 & 74 08P 5 75 & 76 08P 5 77 & 78 08Q / 08P 5 79 & 80 08P 5 81 & 82 08P 5 83 & 84 08P 5 85 & 86 08P
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6 01 & 02 08P 6 03 & 04 08P 6 05 & 06 08P / 08Q 6 07 & 08 08P 6 09 & 10 08P 6 11 & 12 08P 6 13 & 14 08P 6 15 & 16 08P 6 17 & 18 08P 6 19 & 20 08P 6 21 & 22 08P 6 23 & 24 08P 6 25 & 26 08P 6 27 & 28 08P 6 29 & 30 08P 6 31 & 32 08Q / 08P R/U 6 33 & 34 08S / 08P U/R 6 35 & 36 08P / 08S 6 37 & 38 08P 6 39 & 40 08P 6 41 & 42 08P 6 43 & 44 08P 6 45 & 46 08P 6 47 & 48 08P 6 49 & 50 08P 6 51 & 52 08P 6 53 & 54 08P 6 55 & 56 08P U/R 6 57 & 58 08P / 08S 6 59 & 60 08P
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6 121 & 122 08R / 08P 6 123 & 124 08P 6 125 & 126 08P 6 127 & 128 08P 6 129 & 130 08Q / 08P 6 131 & 132 08Q / 08P 6 133 & 134 08P 6 135 & 136 08P 6 137 & 138 08P 6 139 & 140 08P R/U 6 141 & 142 08S / 08P 6 143 & 144 08P R/U 6 145 & 146 08S / 08P 6 147 & 148 08P 6 149 & 150 08P 6 151 & 152 08P 6 153 & 154 08P 6 155 & 156 08P 6 157 & 158 08P 6 159 & 160 08P / 08Q 6 161 & 162 08P 6 163 & 164 08P 6 165 & 166 08P 6 167 & 168 08P 6 169 & 170 08P 6 171 & 172 08P 6 173 & 174 08P 6 175 & 176 08P 6 177 & 178 08P 6 179 & 180 08P
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6 241 & 242 08P 6 243 & 244 08P 6 245 & 246 08P / 08Q 6 247 & 248 08P 6 249 & 250 08R 6 251 & 252 08P / 08Q 6 253 & 254 08R / 08Q 6 255 & 256 08P 6 257 & 258 08Q / 08P 6 259 & 260 08P 6 261 & 262 08P 6 263 & 264 08P 6 265 & 266 08P 6 267 & 268 08Q / 08P 6 269 & 270 08P 6 271 & 272 08P 6 273 & 274 08P 6 275 & 276 08P 6 277 & 278 08P 6 279 & 280 08P 6 281 & 282 08P 6 283 & 284 08P 6 285 & 286 08P 6 287 & 288 08P 6 289 & 290 08P 6 291 & 292 08P 6 293 & 294 08P 6 295 & 296 08P 6 297 & 298 08P 6 299 & 300 08P
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6 301 & 302 08P 6 303 & 304 08P 6 305 & 306 08Q / 08P 6 307 & 308 08P 6 309 & 310 08P 6 311 & 312 08P 6 313 & 314 08P U/R 6 315 & 316 08P / 08S 6 317 & 318 08P 6 319 & 320 08P 7 01 & 02 08P 8 01 & 02 08P
RECORD OF NORMAL REVISIONS
Revision to this Operations Manual shall be made by all authorised users without delay. After inserting the revision enter the appropriate data in the revision sheet below. The compliance has to be signed under “Inserted By”. Revision will be issued at irregular intervals, retain this revision sheet until officially replaced.
REV. NO. REVISION DATE DATE FILED INSERTED BY
01 18 SEP 2003 02 02 MAY 2004 03 18 JAN 2005 04 02 MAR 2006 05 08 JAN 2007 06 13 JUNE 2007 07 07 JAN 2008 08 13 NOV 2008
OM PART C ROUTE AND AERODROME INSTRUCTIONS AND INFORMATION RECORD OF TEMPORARY REVISIONS
CHAPTER RTR
PAGE 1
Temporary Revisions to this manual shall be inserted by the authorised user without delay. After inserting the Temporary Revision enter the appropriate data in the revision sheet below. The compliance has to be signed under “Inserted By”. Revision will be issued at irregular intervals. Retain this Revision sheet until officially replaced.
OM PART C ROUTE AND AERODROME INSTRUCTIONS AND INFORMATION RECORD OF TEMPORARY REVISIONS
CHAPTER RTR
PAGE 2
The highlights for Revision number 08S are as follows : CHP. NO. PG. NO. CHANGE DESCRIPTION
0 8 Added : New Abbreviation.
2 18 Revised : DOW & I for A7-AED.
3
5 Editorial Changes
17 Editorial Changes
19 Added : Bahrain to Middle East Area Briefing. 21 Iraq Area Briefing brought forward under Middle East. 36 Added : UAE to Middle East Area Briefing.
38 Editorial Changes
91 Editorial Changes
136 Added : ATC - General to Area Briefing.
5
57 Revised : OITR Adequate Airport Information. 72 Revised : RFF information for VYMD and VYYY. 98 Revised : HTZA Adequate Airport.
100 Revised : DTTA Adequate Airport. 103 Added : LTCS Adequate Airport to Turkey.
6
33 Revised : Destination Alternates for Seychelles. 36 Revised : Destination Alternates for Algiers. 58 Revised : Destination Alternates for Dar-Es-Salaam. 73 Revised : Houston airfield briefing.
109 Revised : Newark airfield briefing. 117 Revised : New York airfield briefing. 141 Revised : Airfield Data for Tunis. 145 Revised : Washington airfield briefing 205 Revised : Doha airfield briefing
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 0 - ADMINISTRATION AND CONTROL
0.1
INTRODUCTION . . . 3
0.1.1 Structure and Contents . . . 3
0.1.2 Warning, Cautions and Notes . . . 3
0.1.3 Abbreviations . . . 4
0.1.4 Metric Wind / Knots / Feet - Minute. . . 10
0.1.5 Distance / Liquid / Weights / Pressure / Temperature . . . 11
0.2
SYSTEM OF AMENDMENTS AND REVISION . . . 13
0.2.1 Manual Holder Responsibility . . . 13
0.2.2 Manual Distribution . . . 13
0.2.3 Non-authorised Copies . . . 13
0.2.4 Handwritten Amendments. . . 13
0.2.5 Pagination . . . 14
0.2.6 Revisions . . . 15
0.2.7 How to Insert a Revision . . . 15
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
0.1
INTRODUCTION
The Qatar Airways Operations Manual Part C is referred to hereafter as the "Route and Aerodrome Instructions and Information" Manual. It is designed to increase the awareness of the area into which Flight Crew are flying.
Responsibility for the contents of Route and Aerodrome Instructions and Information Manual, and their proper implementation, rests with Manager Aeronautical Services.
0.1.1 Structure and Contents
To cover the administrative needs Operations Manual Part C is structured as follows : – Route and Aerodrome Instructions and Information.
Jeppesen Airway Manuals contain information concerning aerodrome, procedures and route applicable to the Qatar Airways area of operations and consists of the following parts :
• Aerodrome layout and Instrument Approach Charts • High / Low level enroute charts
• Supplementary Textual Information
0.1.2 Warning, Cautions and Notes
The following definitions apply to ‘Warnings’, ‘Cautions’, and ‘Notes’ found at the beginning of the briefings :
Warning: Operating procedures, practices, conditions ... etc, which may result in injury or accident, if not carefully observed or followed.
Caution: Operating procedures, practices, conditions ... etc, which, if not strictly observed, may damage equipment.
INTRODUCTION 0.1.3 Abbreviations
Note: Abbreviations listed represent a selection of most common abbreviations and might not represent all possible abbreviations.
A320 Family Airbus A319/A320/A321
A330 Airbus A330-200 / A330-300
A332 Airbus A330-200
A333 Airbus A330-300
A342 Airbus A340-200
A345 Airbus A340-500
A346 Airbus A340-600
B772 Boeing B777-200LR
B773 Boeing B777-300ER
AAL Above Aerodrome Level
A/C Aircraft
AGL Above Ground Level
AH Alert Height
AIP Aeronautical Information Publication
ALS Approach Landing System
ALT Altitude
ALTN Alternate
AMSL Above Mean Sea Level
AOM Aerodrome Operating Minima / Aeroplane Operating Matters
A/P Auto-Pilot
APU Auxiliary Power Unit
ASAP As Soon As Possible
ASR Air Safety Report
APCH Approach
ATA Actual Time of Arrival
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATD Actual Time of Departure
AWO All Weather Operations
AWY Airway
BC Back Course
BCM Back Course Marker
BCN Beacon
BDRY Boundary
BKN Broken
INTRODUCTION
CAT Clear Air Turbulence
CAT 1 Landing Category 1 (2 or 3)
CAT 2 Category 2 All Weather Operations CAT 3 Category 3 All Weather Operations CAVOK Ceiling and Visibility OK
C/B Circuit Breaker
CL Centerline Lights
COM Communications Equipment
CPDLC Controller Pilot Data-link Communications
CRM Crew resource Management
CRZ Cruise
D Day
DA Decision altitude
D-ATIS Digital - Automatic Terminal Information Service
DCL Departure Clearance (using data-link)
DEST Destination
Dev Deviation
DH Decision Height
DIST Distance
DME Distance Measuring Equipment
DOW & I Dry Operating Weight and Index
D-Volmet Digital - Meteorological Information for Aircraft In-flight
E East
EDP Electronic Data Processing
ELEV Elevation
EMER Emergency
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival
ETD Estimated Time of Departure
ETOPS Extended Twin Operations
ETP Equi Time Point
EXP Exit Point (ETOPS)
F Fahrenheit
Fac Facility
FIR Flight Information Region
FIS Flight Information Services
FL Flight Level
FLT Flight
FMS Flight Management System
INTRODUCTION
GA Go-around
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
GND Ground
Gnd Svcs Ground Services / Handling
GPWS Ground Proximity Warning System
G/S Glide Slope
GS Ground Speed
H Hour
H24 24 Hour Service
HF High Frequency (3 to 30 MHz)
HI High Intensity Light
Hg Mercury
hPa hecto Pascal
Hrs Hours
Hz Hertz (cycles per second)
IAL Instrument Approach and Landing Chart
IAS Indicated Air Speed
IATA International Air Transport Association
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation
IFPS Integrated Flight Planning System
IFR Instrument Flight Rules
ILS Instrument Landing System
IMC Instrumental Meteorological Conditions
in inch(es)
ISA International Standard Atmosphere
ISO International Standard Organisation
KCAS Knots Calibrated Airspeed
kg kilogram kHz kilohertz km kilometer kts knots L Light LCTR Locator (Compass) LD Landing Distance
LDA Landing Distance Available
LDG Landing
LEP List of Effective Pages
LLZ Localizer
INTRODUCTION
LMT Local Mean Time
LPC Less Paper Cockpit
LOC Localizer
LVP Low Visibility Procedures
m meter
MAP Missed Approach Point
MAX Maximum
mb Millibar
MDA/H Minimum Descent Altitude / Height
MHz Megahertz
MID Middle Runway Portion
MLW Maximum Landing Weight
mm Millimeter
MNPS Minimum Navigation Performance Specification
MOCA Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude
MORA Minimum Off-Route Altitude
MSA Minimum Safe (or Sector) Altitude
MSL Mean Sea Level
MTOW Maximum Take Off Weight
MZFW Maximum Zero Fuel Weight
N North
NA Not Applicable
NAV Navigation
NE Northeast
NM Nautical Miles
NDB Non Directional Beacon
NOTAM Notice To Airmen
NW Northwest
OAT Outside Air Temperature
OCA / H Obstacle Clearance Altitude / Height
OEW Operating Empty Weight
OM Operations Manual / Outer Marker
OPS Operations
Optg Hrs Operating Hours
PAN-OPS Procedures for Air Navigation Services - Aircraft Operations
PAPI Precision Approach Path Indicator
PAR Precision Approach Radar
PCN Pavement Classification Number
PDC Pre-departure Clearance (via airline hosted)
INTRODUCTION
PFD Primary Flight Display
PPR Prior Permission Required
QAS Qatar Aviation Services
QDM Magnetic Bearing to facility
QDR Magnetic Bearing from facility
QFE Actual atmosphere pressure at airport elevation
QFU Magnetic Orientation of Runway
QNE Sea level standard atmosphere (1013 hPa or 29.92’’ Hg)
QNH Actual atmosphere pressure at sea level based on local station
pressure
QR Qatar Airways
RA Radio Altitude / Radio Altimeter / Resolution Advisories
REF Reference
RFF Rescue Fire Fighting
RH Right Hand
RPL Repetitive Flight Plan
RNP Required Navigation Performance
ROR Record of Revision
RPL Repetitive flight plan
RTO Rejected Take Off
RTOW Regulated Take Off Weight
RVR Runway Visual Range
RVSM Reduced Vertical separation Minima
RWY Runway
S South
SAR Search and Rescue
SE Southwest
SID Standard Instrument Departure
SIGMET Information concerning en-route weather phenomena, which may affect the safety of aircraft operations
SNOWTAM Snow Notice to Airmen
SPD Speed
SRA Surveillance Radar Approach
SRE Surveillance Radar Element of Precision Approach Radar System
STAR Standard Terminal Arrival Route
STD Standard
SW Southwest
TA Traffic Advisories
TAF Terminal Aerodrome Forecast
INTRODUCTION
TAT Total Air Temperature
TBA To Be Advised
TBC To Be Confirmed
TBD To Be Determined
TBN To Be Notified
TCAS Traffic Collision Alert System
TDZ Touch down Zone
TEMP Temperature
TEMPO Temporary
T/O Take-Off
TOC Top Of Climb
TOD Top Of Descent
TODA Take-Off Distance Available
TOGA Take-Off / Go-Around
TOGW Take-Off Gross Weight
TORA Take-Off Run Available
TOW Take-Off Weight
TWIP Terminal Weather Information for Pilots
TWR Tower
TWY Taxiway
UHF Ultra High Frequency (300-3000 mHz)
Unkn Unknown
U/S Unserviceable
UTC Co-ordinated Universal Time
VASI Visual Approach Slope Indicator
VFE Maximum Speed Flaps / Slats Extended
VFR Visual Flight Rules
VFTO Speed Final T/O
VHF Very High Frequency (30-300 MHz)
VIS Visibility
VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions
VOR VHF Omni-directional Range
V/S Vertical Speed
W West
WPT Way-point
WX Weather
WXR Weather Radar
Z Zulu Time /UTC)
ZFCG Zero Fuel Centre of Gravity
INTRODUCTION 0.1.4 Metric Wind / Knots / Feet - Minute
m/sec kts ft/min m/sec kts ft/min
1 2 197 11 22 2165 1.5 3 295 11.5 23 2263 2 4 394 12 24 2362 2.5 5 492 12.5 25 2460 3 6 591 13 26 2559 3.5 7 689 13.5 27 2657 4 8 787 14 28 2756 4.5 9 885 14.5 29 2854 5 10 984 15 30 2953 5.5 11 1082 15.5 31 3051 6 12 1181 16 32 3150 6.5 13 1279 16.5 33 3248 7 14 1378 17 34 3346 7.5 15 1476 17.5 35 3444 8 16 1575 18 36 3543 8.5 17 1673 18.5 37 3641 9 18 1772 19 38 3740 9.5 19 1870 19.5 39 3838 10 20 1969 20 40 3937 10.5 21 2067
INTRODUCTION
0.1.5 Distance / Liquid / Weights / Pressure / Temperature
TO CONVERT INTO MULTIPLY BY
DISTANCE
Metres Feet 3.28
Feet Metres 0.3048
Inches Millimetres 25.4
Millimetres Inches 0.0394
Kilometres Statute Miles 0.06213
Nautical Miles 0.54
Statute Miles Kilometres 1.6093
Nautical Miles 0.869
Feet 5280
Nautical Miles Kilometres 1.852
Statute Miles 1.15
Feet 6076
LIQUID
Litres Imperial Gallons 0.22
US Gallons 0.264
US Gallons Litres 3.785
Imperial Gallons 0.833
Imperial Gallons US Gallons 1.2
Litres 4.546 WEIGHTS Kilograms Pounds 2.2046 Pounds Kilograms 0.454 PRESSURE Inches HG PSI 0.491 HPA 33.863 PSI HPA 0.0689 Inches HG 2.036 HPA PSI 14.5038 Inches HG 29.53 TEMPERATURE
Celsius Fahrenheit x1.8 and +32
INTRODUCTION
SYSTEM OF AMENDMENTS AND REVISION
0.2
SYSTEM OF AMENDMENTS AND REVISION
(QCAR-OPS 1.1040)
0.2.1 Manual Holder Responsibility
The amended and/or revised parts of the Operations Manual are issued quarterly to all manual holders. An intermediate update may be released whenever there are significant changes to the Company documentation.
The manual holder is personally responsible to collect updates of the Operations Manual from the Flight Operations Library whenever notified.
Note: If discrepancies exist between the aircraft LPC Laptop and issued updates, then the LPC Laptop supersedes.
0.2.2 Manual Distribution
The Operations Manual or its applicable parts including the necessary amendments/revisions are distributed to the authorised users by the Flight Operations Library.
0.2.3 Non-authorised Copies
Non-authorised copies shall not be used for the conduct of flight operations.
0.2.4 Handwritten Amendments
SYSTEM OF AMENDMENTS AND REVISION 0.2.5 Pagination
A vertical line indicates revised or newly published text on the pages. It will not be used to indicate format or page number changes.
The header and footer of each page contains :
– (1) - Qatar Airways Logo
– (2) - OM Part C: Route and Aerodrome Instructions and Information – (3) - Chapter and Page Number
– (4) - At top name of Chapter and bottom name of Sub Chapter. – (5) - Revision number.
SYSTEM OF AMENDMENTS AND REVISION 0.2.6 Revisions
0.2.6.1 Normal Revisions
Issued periodically to cover non-urgent corrections, changes and/or to add new data. They are accompanied by Filing instructions and an updated List of Effective Pages (LEP).
0.2.6.2 Intermediate Revisions
They are issued between normal revision to cover the changes.
They are numbered in ascending sequence e.g. 1A, 1B, 1C ... for intermediate revisions issued between normal revision 1 and 2.
They are accompanied by filing instructions and an updated list of effective pages.
0.2.6.3 Temporary Revisions
Temporary Revisions (TR), printed on yellow paper are issued to cover urgent matters arising between normal revisions. They are accompanied by filing instructions and an updated list of effective TR.
0.2.7 How to Insert a Revision 0.2.7.1 Filing Instructions Use the filing instructions as follows :
REMOVE : The Page must be removed. It may be replaced by new page if associated with an INSERT instruction. If not, the page is cancelled. INSERT : The page must be inserted. If not associated with a REMOVE
instruction, the page is new and does not replace an existing one.
0.2.8 List of Effective Pages
The manual after revision must comply with the List of Effective Pages (LEP), which lists all the pages that are in the manual. The new pages are indicated by ‘N’ and the revised pages by ‘R’.
SYSTEM OF AMENDMENTS AND REVISION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 - METEOROLOGY
1.1
WEST ASIA AND MIDDLE EAST WEATHER . . . 3
1.1.1 Winter and Spring (November to April) . . . 3 1.1.2 Summer and Autumn (May to October) . . . 41.2
EUROPEAN WEATHER . . . 7
1.2.1 Cyclonic Systems . . . 7 1.2.2 Anticyclonic Systems . . . 7 1.2.3 Winds 81.2.4 Cloud and Precipitation. . . 8 1.2.5 Visibility . . . 8 1.2.6 Ice Accretion . . . 8 1.2.7 Fog . . . 9
1.3
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 1. . . 11
1.3.1 Winter and Spring (December to June). . . 11 1.3.2 Summer and Autumn (July to November). . . 12 1.3.3 Jetstreams and Upperwinds . . . 14 1.3.4 Turbulence . . . 14 1.3.5 Thunderstorms and Tropical Cyclones . . . 151.4
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 2. . . 17
1.4.1 Winter and Spring (November – May). . . 17 1.4.2 Summer and Autumn (June to October) . . . 17 1.4.3 Area’s of Special Significance. . . 22TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.5
AUSTRALIA PACIFIC . . . 25
1.5.1 South East Asia and North West Australia. . . 25 1.5.2 Australia . . . 25 1.5.3 Stream Weather . . . 26 1.5.4 Airmasses . . . 27 1.5.5 Tropical Cyclones. . . 29 1.5.6 The Tropopause . . . 29 1.5.7 Upper Winds . . . 29 1.5.8 Aerodromes in the Region . . . 301.6
AFRICA . . . 39
1.6.1 Major Influences. . . 39 1.6.2 Winter. . . 40 1.6.3 Jetstreams and Upper Winds. . . 40 1.6.4 Tropical Revolving Storms . . . 40 1.6.5 Aerodromes in the Region . . . 41WEST ASIA AND MIDDLE EAST WEATHER
1. METEOROLOGY
1.1.
WEST ASIA AND MIDDLE EAST WEATHER
1.1.1. Winter and Spring (November to April)Cold fronts from West produce cumulonimbus and squall lines over the eastern Mediterra-nean sectors occasionally reaching as far as Tehran. The Tehran area is also affected by cold fronts from the North which produce widespread stratus, fog, drizzle and snow.
Warm fronts may affect the routes near and to Tehran. They move from Southeast to North-west and the warm air comes from the Gulf Area. They produce overcast weather with rain, drizzle and occasionally snow. East of Tehran and the Gulf Area frontal passages are rare. If they do occur, they produce layers of stratocumulus and cumulus with scattered thunder-storms. In the Gulf, fog occurs during this period, but formation is rare before 2:00 A.M., the worst month being February. Rainfall is in the form of showers or occasional cumulonimbus, normally of short duration.
Problems with dust haze are negligible, except with occasional squally winds associated with cumulonimbus.
1.1.1.1. Jetstreams and Upper Winds
Jetstreams will be found over the whole area. The main direction is from the west or occa-sionally southwest. Wind forecasts may be wrong due to the movement of the jet stream areas. Average strength 60-90 knots with the maximum 120-150 knots.
1.1.1.2. Turbulence
Clear Air Turbulence in connection with the jetstreams. Mountain wave turbulence may occur over Beirut/Ankara, Tehran and Karachi
1.1.1.3. Thunderstorms
There can be very severe cumulonimbus activity at the change over from winter to summer in March and from summer to winter in the autumn, with violent thunderstorms and associated up and down drafts and down bursts. Isolated thunderstorms may occur, especially in May, they usually have a base of around 6000 feet moving slowly to the Northeast.
1.1.1.4. Dust and Sand Storms
Found in the desert region of Egypt, Sudan, Iraq, Iran, the Gulf area and Pakistan. Often associated with gusty thunderstorms or frontal windshifts, when the surface winds are greater than 20-25 knots. In these storms the air is ruled with dust/sand particles up to at least 15000 feet. These occur at any time of the year most frequently during spring, summer and autumn.
WEST ASIA AND MIDDLE EAST WEATHER 1.1.2. Summer and Autumn (May to October)
Frontal activity over the majority of the routes is generally absent except for weak systems affecting Istanbul/Ankara. Good flying weather with mostly clear sky. In the Gulf,between May-July, dust can effect the airports at any time, and strong surface north-west winds (SHA-MAL) of 20-25 knots can seriously reduce visibility in rising sand and dust. Average visibility is 3000-4000 metres in dust, but can fall to about 1000 metres for a few hours after the onset of the SHAMAL, particularly in early June.
Easterly winds from the sea bring patchy fog or stratus at 500 to 1000 feet at Bahrain and Doha. Generally if Bahrain gets fog so will Doha; Dubai generally gets more fog than Bahrain, Northwest winds from sea can result in fog at Dubai.
Land breeze from the west-south-west and sea breeze from the east-north-east can be pro-nounced during summer and autumn.
NOTE: During summer, rapid cooling at the surface after sunset can produce a marked inversion above 400 feet, and pilots should be alert to the associated problems, as seen in the following example:
July:
– 2000 feet 40º SAT
– 1000 feet 40º SAT
– 500 feet 40º SAT
– Below 500 feetdropping rapidly to 31º on the ground.
1.1.2.1. Jetstreams and Upper Winds
Jetstreams are absent over the routes. Light westerly winds becoming variable in the Gulf Area and N-East to S-East towards Karachi.
1.1.2.2. Turbulence and Windshear
Practically no turbulence due to lower wind velocities. However, the approach path to aero-dromes in the Middle East and Gulf desert areas are subject to sometimes very strong wind-shears and/or inversion.
1.1.2.3. Tropical Cyclones
Moving in from the Arabian Sea they may very occasionally affect the Karachi area.
1.1.2.4. Dust and Sand Stands
WEST ASIA AND MIDDLE EAST WEATHER 1.1.2.5. ITCZ Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (Monsoon)
WEST ASIA AND MIDDLE EAST WEATHER
EUROPEAN WEATHER
1.2.
EUROPEAN WEATHER
1.2.1. Cyclonic Systems
The weather is determined primarily by its situation in relation to the Icelandic low, and Azores high and the alternating high and low pressure systems of Asia. The general drift of weather is from west to east and the absence of any pronounced north to south mountain barrier enables cyclonic systems from the Atlantic to penetrate far into the continent. This region is therefore one of transition between oceanic and continental conditions, the latter becomingly more dominant towards the east and south-east.
– To the north of the British Isles into the Barents Sea and thence into north Russia. – East-north-east across the British Isles or France to northwest Russia.
– From Iceland southeastwards to the Baltic Sea and thence to western Russia.
The areas to the south of the tracks are affected principally by the fronts of the depressions and by alternate warm and cold air masses. A common situation occurs with a low over north-ern Russia and the cold front trailing across Poland to central France. On approaching the Alps, the cold front often slows down and gives rise to a wide belt of cloud and rain. Waves on the front may develop into small but vigorous lows which move rapidly east-north-east. Sometimes the main low to the northeast becomes very deep and a broad current sweeps over Western Europe, carrying the cold front through to the Mediterranean.
Occasionally lows develop over the continent itself, more especially in summer and in a moist unstable air mass. These thermal lows give much rain and thunder with extensive masses of cloud, but outside the rain areas the clouds are usually isolated.
Another type of low develops chiefly in winter and spring between the Alps and the middle Danube in association with warm moist air spreading northwards from the central and east-ern Mediterranean.
The warm front is better defined in the upper levels than at the surface but it gives rise to extensive low cloud over Germany and Poland, possibly extending to the Low Countries and even to eastern England Precipitation is also widespread and may reach the ground as snow.
1.2.2. Anticyclonic Systems
The anticyclones affecting Europe are mainly of three types:
a) Extensions of the Azores high -these consist of tropical air and occur mostly in summer. b) Extensions of the Siberian high, consisting of polar continental air and occurring chiefly in
winter and early spring.
c) Those which approach from northwest following a cold front associated with a depression over northern Scandinavia or Russia. These consist of polar maritime or even Arctic air and occur in all seasons.
EUROPEAN WEATHER
Whereas anticyclones of type (c) are usually migratory, those of (a) and (b) often persist for several days or even weeks.
1.2.3. Winds
Great variability in both speed and direction is found at all levels although the prevailing direc-tion is westerly. Periods of easterly or northeasterly winds are usually associated with a west-ward extension of the Siberian high. The westerlies generally increase with height; at about 30,000 feet in the jet streams, the axis of which are often situated parallel to the surface fronts but displaced a few hundred miles towards the cold side, speeds of well over 100 knots are common. Winds in summer are generally lighter than in winter.
1.2.4. Cloud and Precipitation
With the prevalence of Cyclonic activity in winter (especially in the west and north) and of convection in summer, there is much cloud and rain throughout the year. The mean cloud amount varies only from about 6 oktas in winter to 5 oktas in summer and shows little varia-tion geographically, but the annual rainfall decreases steadily from about 1,000 millimetres in the extreme west to less than 500 millimetres in the east, except for the increased falls which are to be expected on high ground.
Away from the western coastal strips where most rain falls in winter, the wettest period is usu-ally late summer or -autumn and the driest period late winter or early spring. Precipitation is liable to fall as snow during the winter months, more especially in the east and southeast where the ground may remain snow-covered for long periods.
1.2.5. Visibility
The greatest difficulty for aviation in Europe is the high frequency of fog and very low cloud. Both of these occur readily in air masses of maritime origin, little cooling being required to produce condensation. The fog may become widespread and dense in anticyclonic condi-tions and is aggravated by smoke in industrial areas. In summer, fog is infrequent except over the sea and coast where it drifts on-shore. Cloud on the surface of hills is liable to occur at any time of year.
1.2.6. Ice Accretion
The 0ºC isotherm in winter is often at or near the surface, especially in central and Eastern Europe. Combined with the large cloud amounts, this results in high frequency of conditions favourable for airframe icing. Even in summer the risk remains high. Severe conditions occur when an unstable maritime air mass passes over a coast or over hilly country with the forma-tion of extensive convective clouds. This may occur for example over northwest and central Germany with an air supply from the North Sea. Icing is also likely to be severe in a mass of warm front cloud which develops instability on approaching a mountain range.
EUROPEAN WEATHER 1.2.7. Fog
Fog is the critical weather feature at Frankfurt, London, Milan, Munich, Paris and Manchester. The worst period for fog is from mid September to mid October, but this often extends to mid December.
EUROPEAN WEATHER
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 1
1.3.
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 1
(India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia) 1.3.1. Winter and Spring (December to June)
Fine weather season. Generally cool and dry. Generally less than 2/8 of cloud. Some excep-tions are: -
1.3.1.1. Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia
The southern part of Malaysia and Singapore are still affected by frequent towering cumulus and thunderstorms with heavy showers.
1.3.1.2. Sumatras
Heavy squalls mostly active late in the night to early morning will be found in the straits of Malacca in spring/summer and autumn. Singapore has an average of 404 thunderstorms per year.
1.3.1.3. Jetstreams and Upperwinds
December to March are the months of greatest jetstreams activity. Main axis north of Karachi -New Delhi, Kolkata- north of Yangon. Average strength 60 knots weakening towards Rangoon/Bangkok maximum around 100 knots. On the route from Colombo to Singapore the upper wind is normally from east to southeast between 10-20 knots.
1.3.1.4. Turbulence
Clear Air Turbulence associated with the jet stream, light to moderate.
1.3.1.5. Thunderstorms and Tropical Cyclones
Occasionally a depression from the Mediterranean area may move across India, south of the Himalayas giving thunderstorms and northwest surface winds up to 50 knots, in the region of Kolkata. They are called the "NORWESTERS” Tropical Cyclones have a secondary peak in May and may be found in the Bay of Bengal.
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 1 1.3.2. Summer and Autumn (July to November)
This is the monsoon season monsoon means seasonal. A monsoon is a main wind flow that persists for a long period and then undergoes a complete reversal with change of season. Winds result from the effect of uneven seasonal heating between the large landmass of Asia and warm Equatorial Seas. Summer monsoons blow towards low pressure over the heated land. Winter monsoons from high pressure over the cooled land.
The Southwest monsoon advances over Southern Indian Peninsula & Sri Lanka between 25th and 31st May every year. The monsoon advances in the form of two branches known as the Arabian Sea Current and the Bay of Bengal Current. The advance of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone or the Intertropical Front over the latitudes of India is known as the advance of the Southwest monsoon. Normally the advance of the Southwest monsoon is her-alded by thunderstorms when the equatorial maritime air replaces the continental air. The ITCZ advances as far as 27N parallel and the entire India is in the grip of Southwest mon-soon by the 15th of July when the axis of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone is located from the Northern parts of Rajasthan across the Gangetic plains into the head bay of Bengal. Along the axis of the trough thundery precipitation is the characteristic feature throughout the season. Whereas the latitudes of Bombay is characterised by steady showery precipitation. The inter tropical front or the Intertropical Convergence Zone is the boundary along which the trade wind currents of both hemispheres converge. Its position varies with the season, being located approximately 10 degrees South in January-February and 5 degrees North in July-August. The monsoon and the mean position of the ITCZ reaches Colombo and Singapore at the beginning of May, Bombay and Bangkok about 3–4 weeks later. The Inter Tropical Con-vergence Zone retreats again during October (BOM/BKK) and early November (CMB/SIN). The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone consists of squalls with cumulus and CB activity over an area of 100 NM or more in width. Top of CB’s 50-60000 feet. Best flying altitude can some-times be FL280-300 below the widespread anvil.
West Coast of India (Bombay), Trivandrum and Sri Lanka get heavy rainfall under the influ-ence of the Arabian Sea branch of the Southwest monsoon. In fact the period of May / June are the peak period of rainfall activity. Similarly in this period (July / August) Eastern prov-inces of India namely eastern parts of Bihar, West Bengal (Kolkota) and Bangladesh (Dhaka) come under the influence of the Bay of Bengal Current of the Southwest monsoon.
During July and August intense low pressure systems called monsoon depressions originate over the head bay of Bengal and travel in West to North-westerly direction ushering rainfall along their tracks. These depressions cause widespread rainfall over India. When a monsoon depression moves Northwest from the head bay and located near Central India, Bombay experiences very heavy rainfall associated with squally weather.
Even though the activity of the Southwest Monsoon season extends from June to September, the whole season is not one of continuous rainfall activity. Barring the monsoon depressions which cause heavy rainfall along the path in which they travel, the rainfall activity in general over the India Sub-Continent also depends very largely upon the position of the monsoon trough.
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 1
When this trough occupies a more northerly position it is known or called a Weak or Break Monsoon condition. The Weak or Break Monsoon occurs when the whole country is under the Westerly wind sweep. This can be seen when the Bay of Bengal branch of monsoon is not affecting the northern parts of India and when there is no easterly wind flow to the north of the axis of the monsoon trough.
During such situations, the rainfall pattern over the country undergoes a striking change. The regions of the Himalayas get very heavy rainfall. The northern parts of Assam get very heavy rain and the rivers in the northeast regions become flooded. The rainfall activity generally decreases over the rest of the country. Cloud coverage is lesser during such periods and as a consequence, the temperature rises. Pressures also rises phenomenally over the central parts of the country. However, there is an increase of rainfall more of thundery activity over the interior parts of the South Peninsula. In fact, Madras gets thundershowers during such spells.
1.3.2.1. Aerodromes in the Region 1.3.2.1.1. Mumbai (Bombay)
The monsoon precipitation occurs in the form of pulses or waves over Bombay. Series of cloud patches move inland from the sea causing heavy showers over a short period followed by short breaks. During cloud bursts the visibility reduces below 800 metres. Within a short while the visibility improves well over 3 to 4 kilometres. Occasionally it rains very heavy con-tinuously over three to four hours. Generally the intensity of rainfall is heavy during the night and early morning hours. During the active monsoon period very strong surface winds gust-ing to 30 knots exceeds crosswind condition limits. Approach to RWY 27 will be very bumpy and runway breaking action poor.
1.3.2.1.2. Kolkata, Dhaka
The months of October, November and December are called the North East monsoon sea-son and is confined to the East of India. In this seasea-son East Coast of India and Bangladesh are very vulnerable to cyclonic storms.
1.3.2.1.3. Colombo
Colombo receives rainfall during the Southwest monsoon and the east coast of Sri Lanka during the Northeast monsoon season but Colombo Airport receives more rainfall during the Southwest Monsoon Season.
1.3.2.1.4. Delhi
During July and August Delhi Airport experiences heavy thunderstorm activity and some-times dust storms.
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 1 1.3.2.1.5. Chennai
Generally Chennai is a fair weather airport throughout the year except during the months or October and November, with a cyclonic storm close to the coast. Convective thunderstorms are common during the months of March, April and May due to tropical heat. Because of the geographical features of the West Coast rainfall in the rest of the Southern Peninsula gradu-ally decreases from West Coast to East Coast. Chennai Airport is on the East Coast can therefore be used as a suitable alternate to Colombo, Hyderabad and Bombay during the peak monsoon months.
The Southwest monsoon withdraws from North India by the middle of September. When the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone passes through the latitudes of 15 to 10 North, cyclonic storms originate in the Bay of Bengal and move in a north-westerly direction during the months of October and November. These storms are severe in intensity and strike the East Coast of India. Chennai is very much vulnerable for these storms to strike. Sometime the eye of the storm could pass through Chennai City resulting in surface winds of 100 to 120 knots accompanied by very heavy rain bringing hazardous weather to Chennai Airport. It is advis-able to skip Chennai Airport when a storm is centred about 50-100nm off the coast of Chen-nai. The Northeast monsoon affecting the coast of India ceases by the end of December.
1.3.2.1.6. Kuala Lumpur (Equatorial Climate)
There are two main wet seasons associated with the passage of the sun north and south across the equator, but there is no really dry season. There is much convective cloud, and rain falls in heavy showers with frequent thunderstorms. Both temperature and humidity are high and almost uniform throughout the year. The most unpleasant months are March and September.
1.3.3. Jetstreams and Upperwinds
Westerly jet stream activity is absent. An easterly jet stream may occasionally be found over the Rangoon/Bangkok track. Generally light winds with variable direction East to Southeast. Somewhat stronger towards Singapore, up to 30 knots.
1.3.4. Turbulence
In the monsoon you may encounter anything between lights to extreme turbulence. Do not fly into CB's. Circumnavigation with radar is always possible. Avoid adverse weather gener-ously.
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 1 1.3.5. Thunderstorms and Tropical Cyclones
The thunderstorms (CB’s) seldom last longer than 30-40 minutes over an aerodrome, giving heavy rainfall with visibility well below landing minima. Delay your landing or take-off. The lowest frequency of occurrence is during the period 0600 Local time to noon, the maximum in the late afternoon and night. Tropical cyclones occur most often in this season and will be found in the Bay of Bengal. They approach the bay in a westerly direction across the Malayan Peninsula; they change to a northerly direction reaching the Bay of Bengal and frequently hit the land South- East of Kolkata (Bangladesh) with devastating effect.
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 1
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 2
1.4.
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 2
(Thailand, China, Hong Kong, Philippines, Taiwan and Japan) 1.4.1. Winter and Spring (November – May)
Cold and dry air moves from the Asiatic High over the warm South China Sea. Small sharply defined cumuli are formed, tops 4000 to 6000 feet. Fair weather prevails in the Philippines and the South China Sea. From December to February early morning fog is prevalent over Indochina, Thailand and Burma. The visibility is restricted to less than two miles. It starts 3 hours before and lasts until 2 hours after sunrise. Towards spring fog also persists at Hong Kong (May/April). In the northern area the weather is characterised by the Polar front pene-trating often as far South as 20 degrees North. The direction normally is northeast to south-west, it separates the cold air of Asia from the warm air of the western Pacific. Arctic fronts may form and tropical cyclones develop along these fronts, travelling northeast and may pass over or near South - East Japan interrupting the normally good flying weather. In the North of the Japanese Islands the winter brings a large amount of precipitation with frequent snowfall.
1.4.1.1. Jetstreams and Upper Winds
Two jetstreams are found in the area. The Polar jet stream between Korea - Tokyo and the subtropical jet stream between Hong Kong and Okinawa. The two streams may mix together from Kagoshima to Tokyo. Average westward component about 70 knots. Core velocities may reach a maximum of over 200 knots. Between Thailand - Hong Kong and the Philip-pines light westerly winds prevail.
1.4.1.2. Turbulence
Clear Air Turbulence in connection with the jetstreams is quite common (moderate- heavy).
1.4.1.3. Typhoons and Cyclones
Very rare in this season Occasional cyclones in connection with the polar front.
1.4.2. Summer and Autumn (June to October)
The ITCZ appears again in the southern part of the region (up to approximately 22 degrees North). The Polar front moves well to the North of Japan. Thus the maritime tropical air-masses invade the area and the summer starts. July is very hot and humid. The months of September and October are a transitional Period between the wet summer and dry winter. During October the characteristic winter circulation over East Asia, with the Asiatic High, the two jetstreams and the Polar front is re-established.
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 2 1.4.2.1. Jetstreams and Upper Winds
Jet stream activity is absent, but reappears in September/October. Upper winds from east to southeast 20-50 Knots between Bangkok/Hong Kong/Manila becoming westerly 10-30 knots towards Tokyo.
1.4.2.2. Turbulence
See before (Winter). Can be found within the monsoon and of course in the vicinity of a typhoon.
1.4.2.3. Typhoons and Cyclones
Typhoon’s are observed during this season, being most prevalent from July to October
1.4.2.4. The Nature of Tropical Cyclones
A tropical cyclone consists of a rotating mass of warm humid air normally between 200 and 1000 miles in diameter. The atmospheric pressure is lowest near the centre, and will be less than 990 millibars in a tropical cyclone that has developed to typhoon intensity In the northern hemisphere the winds of a Cyclonic circulation spiral inwards towards the centre in an anti clockwise direction. In the southern hemisphere the rotation is clockwise.
Well-developed tropical cyclones have widespread areas of thick cloud extending to great heights together with bands of torrential rain and very violent winds. The strongest winds, which may reach 200 knots, blow in a tight band around the eye of a tropical cyclone, a cen-tral region of light winds and lightly clouded sky, usually circular or elliptical in shape and ranging from a few miles to over 80 miles in diameter. Winds diminish rapidly with distance from the wall of the eye and it is rare for winds to exceed 60 knots more than 50 miles from the centre. Although the winds in the wall of the eye frequently exceed 100 knots, the whole system moves at a much slower speed. Near Hong Kong a typical movement would be towards West North West at about 8 knots, but other directions and speeds are common. The term tropical cyclone does not imply any particular intensity. The most intense are typhoons, which are equivalent to hurricanes in the Atlantic and cyclones in the Indian Ocean. By inter-national agreement tropical cyclones occurring in the western Pacific and the China Seas are classified according to the maximum sustained wind speeds within their circulations, as shown in the table below.
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 2 TABLE-1 below Winds Associated with Tropical Cyclones
* The figures in the last column do not form part of the international definitions and are only typical of tropical cyclones experienced near Hong Kong.
1.4.2.5. Tropical Cyclones as Heat Engines
The physical processes and energy transformations occurring in tropical cyclones are extremely complex and are not yet fully understood. Essentially, a tropical cyclone is a vast heat engine where the primary source of energy is the latent heat of condensation that is released when rain forms in ascending moist air. The heaviest rain occurs in relatively narrow spiral bands and especially in a tense ring surrounding the eye, where tremendous amounts of heat are released. It has been estimated that the efficiency of a tropical cyclone as a heat engine is only about 3%. Even so, the amount of mechanical energy generated by an aver-age tropical cyclone is of the order of half a billion kilowatt - hours per day. If this mechanical energy could be converted into electricity if could, in only one day, provide about 150 years supply of electricity for all of Hong Kong (at the rate consumed in 1969). The latent heat released is the primary cause of the warm core which forms in a tropical cyclone. Since the warm air in the core is lighter than its surroundings, the surface pressure there is lower. These differences in the surface pressure produce the familiar pattern of circular Isobars. Air starting to move towards the centre of low pressure is deflected by the rotation of the earth and spirals inwards. Note that tropical cyclones do not form on the Equator, where the earth has no vertical component of rotation.
Winds Associated With Tropical Cyclones
Class Max Sustained Wind
Speed
Tropical Gust Peak Speeds*
Tropical Depression Up to 33 knots 40 – 50 knots
Tropical Storm 34 – 37 knots 50 – 75 knots
Severe Tropical Storm 48 – 63 knots 75 – 100 knots
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 2 1.4.2.6. How Tropical Cyclones Form
The above description, although far from complete, explains the general process which main-tains the circulation of a tropical cyclone. The question of how they form and develop is more difficult to answer, but three necessary conditions are explained below. As the main driving force comes from the latent heat released when water vapour condenses, a large source of warm, moist air is required. This is to be found over warm tropical seas, and a sea surface temperature of over 26 degrees Celsius has been found to be one of the necessary pre-con-ditions for the formation of a tropical cyclone. As the circulation develops, the winds whip up the sea and the spray becomes an efficient means of feeding moisture into the air. Even though the sea may be warm a tropical cyclone will not form unless other conditions are sat-isfied. In order to produce sufficient latent heat for the circulation to grow, it is necessary for rain to develop over a very large area. For this to happen the air at low levels must converge inwards on a large scale. Although the air near the surface may be converging towards the centre of a circulation, art rising up in the warm moist core, the system will still not develop, and the central pressure will not do very much, unless the rising warm air moves away from the region at the top of the circulation. For this to happen, it is necessary to have a loft, an anticyclone, or divergent flow, superimposed upon the convergent flow at the surface. The existence of this high level divergent flow is a third condition for tropical cyclone development.
1.4.2.7. How They Dissipate
Warm moist air is the source of energy. If it is cut off, a tropical cyclone will weaken rapidly. This occurs when the circulation begins to move inland or over cool seas, or if cold dry air is drawn into it. The latter situation sometimes arises in the autumn when a surge of cold air moves S across the China coast, and is fed into a tropical cyclone centred over the South China Sea.
1.4.2.8. Occurrence of Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones can occur over the West Pacific and the South China Sea at any time of the year, although there are over 30 times as many in September as in February. The majority occurs in the summer and Autumn, with a pronounced maximum in August and September. No tropical cyclone has been known to cause gales in Hong Kong during the months Decem-ber to April. The South coast of China experiences more than 5 times as many tropical cyclones as the most vulnerable part of the coast of Florida. Many tropical cyclones form over the Pacific to the East of the Philippines. They generally start moving towards the West-North/West in low latitudes but often recurve and move towards North East somewhere between latitude 15 degrees North and 30 degrees North. The figure shows typical tracks of tropical cyclones.
On average 5 or 6 tropical cyclones, threaten Hong Kong each year and necessitate the hoisting of Number I local signal. One of these comes near enough to cause a gale with winds of 34 knots or more. Gales due to tropical cyclones have been known in Hong Kong as early as 19th May and as late as 23rd November. About once in every 10 years the centre of a fully developed typhoon passes sufficiently close to cause winds of hurricane force with speed of 64 knots or more. Although tropical cyclones weaken over land they generally do
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 2
not die out completely for several days. They usually cross the Philippine Islands with only a slight loss of intensity and have been known to travel hundreds of miles across the mainland of China.
1.4.2.9. Information Used to Locate Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones can be located and their intensity determined in a variety of ways. On a weather map the centre of a tropical cyclone can be located from the pattern of winds or from the distribution of barometric pressure. At the Royal Observatory, weather maps are prepared every 3 hours and this normally enables the movement and development of a tropical cyclone to be determined. For this to be done effectively a large amount of information must be col-lected. In 1969 about 6000 observations were received every day from land stations and over 700 from ships. In addition about 500 upper-air observations were obtained from balloon borne instruments in various countries together with numerous reports from aircraft. Never-theless there were often large blank areas in some remote parts of the Pacific with no infor-mation whatsoever. More direct methods of locating tropical cyclones have been developed in recent years. Weather satellites now orbit continuously around the world taking photo-graphs of the earth’s cloud cover during the day and measuring the radiative temperature of cloud tops at night. Some American satellites transmit these pictures for reception and direct readout at ground stations, and several pictures are received each day by the Royal Obser-vatory. These pictures show the cloud structure of weather systems and can aid in determin-ing the position and intensities of tropical cyclones.
Specially equipped U.S. Navy and U.S. Air Force reconnaissance aircraft fly into tropical cyclones and locate their centres with radar and other instruments. Sometimes as many as 4 flights are made each day. The observations are widely disseminated and make an invalu-able contribution to the tracking of these weather systems. Surface wind speeds reported by these aircraft are estimated from the appearance of the sea and in the past have tended to be appreciably higher than wind speed reported by ships or island stations.
When a mature typhoon comes within 240 nm of Hong Kong its position may be determined with great accuracy by the Observatory's meteorological radar. This shows the pattern of rain which generally occurs in spiral bands, and quite often the eye of a tropical cyclone, which is free of rain, can be located and tracked. Due to curvature of the earth the radar at its extreme range can only detect rain that is more than 12 kilometres above the earth’s surface. Unless the tropical cyclone is well developed there will be no rain at such a high level and the range at which the centre can be located will be reduced. However typhoons and severe tropical storms can normally be seen at maximum range.
Throughout the day and night incoming info is checked plotted and analysed at the Central Forecasting Office of the Royal Observatory. Not infrequently the forecast is confronted with conflicting reports or a lack of info from a vital area. In particular ships avoid areas affected by tropical cyclones and as warnings become effective fewer ship’s reports are received from these areas.
Having located the centre of a tropical cyclone, and evaluated its intensity the forecaster then determines its probable future movement and development. Several objective statistical and
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 2
dynamic methods are used at the Central Forecasting Office. Additionally forecast charts pre-pared by electronic computers in meteorological centres at Tokyo and elsewhere are used. The products of these various methods are compared and the results modified subjectively to-produce a final forecast. For many reasons these methods cannot be precise in recent years the average error of the forecast position 24 hour ahead has been about 100 miles. This was reduced to 90 miles in 1968 but an error of this magnitude can still sometimes mean the difference between anticipated widespread destruction and no damage at all 10 a region as small as Hong Kong.
1.4.3. Area’s of Special Significance 1.4.3.1. The Philippines
The republic of the Philippines consists of an Archipelago of over 7000 islands in the Western Pacific between 40 and 210 North. The largest islands are from North to South Luzon, Samar, Leyte, Panay, Palawan and Mindanao. All the larger islands are mountainous. Many mountain ranges rise to 10,000 feet.
The southern islands have an equatorial climate with significant rain all year round. The cen-tral and Northern islands have a tropical monsoon type of climate similar to Indo-China. In most areas the wettest time from July to October when the wind system of the western pacific is influenced by the monsoonal influence of the Asian continent. Winds are south westerly to south-easterly.
Rainfall is particularly heavy in the period August to October when much of it comes from tropical cyclones called typhoons in the South China Sea. Most of these typhoons produce very high wind speeds and torrential rain. Most of them develop east of the Philippines and move westwards into the South China Sea.
Annual rainfall is over 40 inches (1000 mm) almost everywhere and where warm, damp Pacific air is forced to rise over coastal mountains rainfall often exceeds 160-200 inches (4000 -5000 mm)
1.4.3.2. Thailand
Thailand, previously known as Siam, in Southeast Asia is about the same size as France. It is bordered by Burma on the north and West by Laos and Cambodia on the east.
Situated between 60 and 200 north the country has an equatorial climate in the extreme south (Phuket) while the centre and the north a tropical monsoon climate similar to Burma. The north is hilly and even mountainous with land rising over 7000 feet.
Most of Thailand has abundant, but not excessive rainfall and this is largely confined to the months of May to October. During this season the weather is dominated by the southwest monsoon blowing from the Indian Ocean and bringing warm humid air and much cloud.
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 2
SOUTH ASIA AND THE FAR EAST WEATHER - 2
AUSTRALIA PACIFIC
1.5.
AUSTRALIA PACIFIC
1.5.1. SOUTH EAST ASIA and NORTH WEST AUSTRALIA
This region has an equatorial rainy climate, except near Darwin where there is little rain from May to September.
In January, the Northeast monsoon reaches the area after a long sea track. This sea track breeds instability, which after crossing the Equator becomes the North Westerly monsoon of Northern Australia.
In July, Australia is in the sub-tropical high-pressure region, which gives southeast trade winds blowing from the continent towards Indonesia. On crossing the equator these become the South West monsoon in Indonesia.
The weather consists of frequent large CB and TS giving much heavy rain. Marked differ-ences exist due to the topography of the many islands in Indonesia. Land and sea breezes are a consideration for pilots.
In winter the Southeast trades that originate over Australia are dry and dusty. Haze is com-mon with rain below 5°S.
The wettest period occurs when the inter-tropical front is in the vicinity.
Tropical storms (Cyclones) originate in the Timor Sea and generally move Southwestwards before turning towards Northwest Australia. Heavy rain and strong winds accompany these cyclones.
1.5.2. Australia
July sees the influence of the sub-tropical high into the region, except for the South East and South West, the weather is mainly dry with clear skies. The traveling lows pass to the south of the region giving troughs and secondary depressions. This disturbs the weather, giving rain and orographic cloud over the hills.
As spring approaches the pressure systems move further south and the disturbances gener-ally miss the region, giving clearer weather. As the land heats up CB’s start to form, the sum-mer (North east Monsoon) starts to infiltrate the region brining moisture and instability. The Intertropical front moves south to approximately 15°S in January.
During the summer the thunderstorms and heavy rain fall, this is however confined to the Northern part, the rain reduces towards the interior.
The central region is arid and cloudless all year. The sub-tropical high consists of a series of eastward moving anti-cyclones separated by cols and troughs.
The southerly busters are the dry gusty winds that blow from the interior, giving large temper-ature rises and near gale-force winds.
