TARGETING OF KEY INTEREST RATE AS A SOURCE OF CRISIS

Abstract

In response to the world economic crisis of 2008 the authorities of many countries have launched policies of interest rate reduction through large-scale asset purchases on the open PDUNHW7KHSDSHUSURYLGHVDQHI¿FLHQF\DQDO\VLVRIWKHVHSURJUDPVDVLPSOHPHQWHGLQWKH

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key rate targeting. The author explains how changes of the federal funds rate increased bank interest rate risk and provoked the recession of 2007-2009. The results of this paper show that NH\LQWHUHVWUDWHDGMXVWPHQWFDQEHKDUPIXOIRUWKHZKROHHFRQRP\DQGHVSHFLDOO\IRU¿QDQFLDO

institutions.

Keywords:

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commercial bank.

1. Introduction

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countries were triggered by the mortgage crisis and stock market crash in the United States.

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These facts are indeed undeniable and have become the part of economic history, but one very FKDOOHQJLQJTXHVWLRQUHPDLQVXQH[SODLQHGZKDWFLUFXPVWDQFHVIRUFHGPDQDJHUVRIODUJHDQG

reliable banks to rush into such risky undertakings as sub-prime lending and investing huge amounts of assets in mortgage-backed securities? Of course, we could say that the bankers just made a mistake; however, the idea of mass delusion of highly skilled specialists seems WREHHUURQHRXV7KLVSDSHULQYHVWLJDWHVZKHWKHUWKDWUHFNOHVV¿QDQFLDOPDUNHWEHKDYLRUZDV

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the Federal Reserve System.

One of the basic instruments of central bank monetary policy is steering the short-term money market rate with the help of open market operations. In the United States, this rate is called the federal funds rate and in the Eurozone, WKHPDLQUH¿QDQFLQJUDWH,WSOD\VDYHU\

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TARGETING OF KEY INTEREST RATE AS A SOURCE OF CRISIS

YANA SOKOLOVA

St. Petersburg State University, Faculty of Economics, Russia

interest rate is a powerful instrument of monetary policy. The objective of this paper is to study SRVLWLYHDQGQHJDWLYHHIIHFWVRIDUWL¿FLDONH\UDWHDGMXVWPHQWDQGHVWLPDWHWKHHI¿FLHQF\RIVXFK

kind of monetary policy. To reach the established objective, the following research methods ZHUHHPSOR\HGFRPSDUDWLYHDQDO\VLVDQGV\QWKHVLVTXDQWLWDWLYHDQGTXDOLWDWLYHDSSURDFKHV

observation and aggregation.

2. Literature review

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government and central bank enables to conduct monetary policy. Literature review shows that over the period of the history there were a lot of advocates and opponents of key interest rate WDUJHWLQJDQGPRQH\VXSSO\UHJXODWLRQ7KHPRVWZHOONQRZQWKHRULVWVLQWKLVDUHDDUH-0

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established it should be brought to the determinate size by open market operations. However, 0)ULHGPDQVWDWHGWKDWRSHQPDUNHWRSHUDWLRQVVKRXOGSURYLGHVWHDG\JURZWKRIPRQHWDU\

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against of monetary authority intervention on the market as they thought that it causes the GLVWRUWLRQRI¿QDQFLDOV\VWHP7KLVSDSHUFRPSDUHVDQGFRQWUDVWVGLIIHUHQWVFLHQWL¿FRXWORRNV

and presents the author’s view of the problem.

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Let us consider monetary policy mechanism that is widely applied all over the world. If the economy falls into recession, central banks of many countries tend to lower base interest UDWHV$FFRUGLQJWRWKH1DWLRQDO%XUHDXRI(FRQRPLF5HVHDUFKDUHFHVVLRQLVGH¿QHGDVD

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affordable and increase demand for them. The real sector of the economy gets on opportunity to raise cheap funds, which stimulates its development. As a result, unemployment falls and the

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A rapid economic growth rate and an excess of consumer demand over productive capacity FDQOHDGWRWKH³RYHUKHDWLQJ´RIDQHFRQRP\LQFUHDVHLQÀDWLRQDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\FDXVHPDUNHW

meltdowns. In such cases, central banks usually decide to increase key interest rate. This provides monetary contraction in the economy because the cost of interbank overnight loans rises, which leads to increase in all other interest rates. Therefore, the business activity and LQÀDWLRQUDWHVORZGRZQ

In order to reduce interest rates, central banks increase the money supply by purchasing

government liabilities on the open market. Thus, the amount of money in the economy grows

and its cost falls, which means that loan interest rates decrease. If a central bank pursues

the goal of increase in interest rates, it sells government liabilities on the open market. As a

result, monetary funds raised by a central bank are recalled from circulation. The supply of

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harmless.

4. Disadvantages of targeting the level of interest rates

Although in theory, the motivations and results of open market operations are convincing and logical, in practice, we are faced by several nuances that drastically change the picture and lead to undesirable consequences. The disadvantages of targeting the key interest rate can be illustrated by the outcomes of the Federal Reserve System’s behavior in the USA. This FRXQWU\ZDVFKRVHQQRWRQO\EHFDXVHLWLVWKHSODFHZKHUHWKHJOREDOHFRQRPLFFULVLVRI

was conceived, but also because it has a huge stock market, which gives the USA the ability to change its federal funds rate quickly and effectively.

Theoretically, the decline of the federal funds rate stimulates economic growth, and the LQFUHDVHRIWKLVUDWHKHOSVWRFRPEDWLQÀDWLRQ,QVSLWHRIWKHIDFWWKDWWKLVSDWWHUQLQVRPHFDVHV

can be really seen on diagrams in Figure 1, there are also situations in which practice differs from theory. If the federal funds rate was DUWL¿FLDOO\GHFUHDVHGLQÀDWLRQFDQUXQRXWRIFRQWURO

and reach a high level, which undoubtedly hampers economic development. The rapid increase of prices doesn’t allow depositary institutions to reduce the loan interest rates because they must compensate for the depreciation of money. For instance, with the considerable decline RIWKHIHGHUDOIXQGVUDWHZHFDQREVHUYHWKHVWDJÀDWLRQRIWKH86HFRQRP\LQ)LJXUH

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in such a way, generally results in distortion and overheating of the market. In this case, the )HGHUDO5HVHUYHUDLVHVWKHIHGHUDOIXQGVUDWHLQRUGHUWRVORZGRZQLQÀDWLRQ7KLVFRXUVHRI

action usually leads to another recession. Economic downturn doesn’t occur out of nowhere.

Rather, it is a signal that something has gone wrong. First of all, it is necessary to understand H[DFWO\ZKLFKIDFWRUVDUHQHJDWLYHO\LQÀXHQFLQJWKHEXVLQHVVFOLPDWHDQGmake every effort to eliminate them. Instead, the Federal Reserve begins to conduct open market operations by acquiring government securities and injecting money into the economy. Therefore, interest UDWHVIDOODVDUHVXOWRIDQDUWL¿FLDOH[SDQVLRQRIWKHPRQH\VXSSO\DQGQRWGXHWRLQFUHDVHG

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market. The monetary policy of targeting key interest rate by open market operations impedes

progressive changes. This measure usually has only short-term effects because, in time, old

problems begin to crop up again. Only investments of real savings and resources, accumulated

by the effective work of production and service spheres, can lead to stable, long-term economic

growth. Similar opinions on this question were expressed by A.R.J. Turgot, J. Bentham and

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and GDP percent change in the USA.

Source: Compiled by the author from data published by the Federal Reserve System (Federal Funds

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maintain a large amount of outstanding securities not only to raise additional money, but also in order to afford an opportunity for the Federal Reserve to conduct open market operations.

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SUR¿WDEOH LQYHVWPHQWV DQG SXW WKH PRQH\ LQWR IRUHLJQ FXUUHQFLHV DQG HPHUJLQJ PDUNHWV (6WLJOLW]. As a result, the internal problems of the U.S. economy were not solved and PRQH\ÀRZHGRXWRYHUVHDV

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a new federal funds rate and its appearance at that level on the interbank market. Therefore, the Federal Reserve System must foresee changes in the economy and take measures to SUHYHQWUHFHVVLRQRUUHGXFHLQÀDWLRQEHIRUHWKRVHHYHQWVKDSSHQLQUHDOLW\7KDWEHLQJVDLG

the possibility for error in such forecasts always exists, and monetary policies that can be very expensive may lead to negative results.

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on the general condition of a country’s economy, but they are especially detrimental WRWKH¿QDQFLDOV\VWHP$QDUWL¿FLDOFKDQJHLQNH\UDWHWKURZVWKHPDUNHWRIIEDODQFH

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risk such as repricing risk, yield curve risk, risk of embedded options and basis risk.

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downturn caused by mass shares depreciation of internet trading companies occurred in the USA. Consequently, hundreds of organizations, which worked through websites and were referred to as dot-coms, became bankrupt, and were liquidated or sold. This happened because most business modelVRILQWHUQHWFRPSDQLHVZHUHLQHI¿FLHQWDQGWKHPRQH\WKDWZDVPDGHRQ

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increasing legislative pressure and government control. However, authorities considered these PHDVXUHVLQVXI¿FLHQWDQGGHFLGHGWRVWLPXODWH*'3JURZWKE\GHFUHDVLQJWKHIHGHUDOIXQGVUDWH

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a large variety of assets and liabilities, which mature and reprice at different times. Thus, the H[WUHPHO\VKDUSGHFOLQHLQUDWHVZKLFKODVWHGPRQWKVIURP-DQXDU\WR1RYHPEHU

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curve risks. If, during that period, a bank expected more assets than liabilities to be redeemed or UHSULFHGLWVXIIHUHGIURPDUHGXFWLRQLQSUR¿WV)RUH[DPSOHUDWHVHQVLWLYHOLDELOLWLHVDUHHTXDOWR

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cover interest expense anymore and the bank would suffer losses. In this situation, the yield curve of the bank portfolio would steepen as the difference between short-term and long-term UDWHVZRXOGWHPSRUDU\LQFUHDVH$OWKRXJKGHSRVLWRU\LQVWLWXWLRQVDUHQRWL¿HGDERXWFRPLQJ

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to change the balance structure in order to reduce interest rate risk. Of course, a drop in the

interest rates level can put some banks in favorable positions. If a bank has more rate-sensitive

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assets and had to pay higher interest on liabilities, which were attracted, for example, one year earlier. Since the rates had been diminished, individuals and entities borrowed money more ZLOOLQJO\0RUWJDJHORDQVJDLQHGVSHFLDOSRSXODULW\,QDGGLWLRQPDQ\$PHULFDQKRPHRZQHUV

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dissolve agreements for long term deposits, which still were bearing high interest rates. Thus, the interest rate risk of depository institutions continued to grow.

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borrowings rises. And vice versa, with an increase in the federal funds and mortgage rates, the VKDUHRIUH¿QDQFHGORDQVIDOOV7KHVDPHFRUUHODWLRQFDQEHUHWUDFHGIRUDOOFDOODEOHOLDELOLWLHV

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or withdrawal is called the risk of embedded options; that is one of the main interest rate risks of commercial banks. The monetary policy of the Federal Reserve System provoked an increase LQWKHUH¿QDQFLQJDQGSUHSD\PHQWUDWHLQ±ZKLFKUHDFKHGLWVSHDNLQ)LJXUH

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of 30-year conventional mortgages

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sources of funds. This situation caused an increase in demand for mortgage-backed securities.

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to interest spread drop. However, the aggregate net interest margin of depository institutions in WKH86$FRQWLQXHGWRIDOO)URPWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWRWKHHQGRIPDUJLQGHFUHDVHGE\

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obligations enabled banks to receive money back quickly without waiting for the date of loan repayment and invest these funds again to obtain additional income. The risk of mortgage securities defaults was successfully hedged by credit derivatives. Over the SHULRGIURPWRWKHSUHVHQWWLPHWKHDPRXQWRIFUHGLWGHULYDWLYHVLQVHFXULWLHVSRUWIROLRVRI

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developed rapidly. ,WLVQHFHVVDU\WRQRWHWKDWLQGHPDQGIRUPRUWJDJHORDQVEHJDQWR

decline, as the majority of the creditworthy population had already borrowed money and bought KRXVHV+RZHYHULWZDVGLI¿FXOWWRDEDQGRQLVVXLQJDQGSXUFKDVLQJPRUWJDJHEDFNHGVHFXULWLHV

and other collateralized debt obligations, as the demand for them grew rapidly. Besides, banks needed additional sources of funds, as they were LQYROYHGLQ¿QDQFLDOGLI¿FXOWLHVFDXVHGE\86

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By that time, commercial banks had already lent a large amount of long-term mortgage loans at low interest rates and were faced with the problem of how to conduct payments for new deposits with high interest rates. Thus, the gap between earnings on assets and costs of liabilities narrowed and net interest income fell. The Federal Reserve considerably increased repricing and the yield FXUYHULVNRIGHSRVLWRU\LQVWLWXWLRQVE\UDLVLQJWKHIHGHUDOIXQGVUDWHIURPWRRYHU

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incomes and without initial payment. This decision was provoked by high demand for mortgage VHFXULWLHVZKLFKJDYHEDQNVDQRSSRUWXQLW\WRHDUQQHFHVVDU\SUR¿WV

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rate and open market operations of the Federal Reserve. This meant that short-term rates H[FHHGHGORQJWHUPUDWHV6LQFHWKHODJEHWZHHQDQLQYHUVLRQRIWKH867UHDVXU\\LHOG

curve and the beginning of a recession has been, on average, equal to 14 months (National

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or slightly inverted for a long time prior the beginning of the recession.

Figure 3 – The amount of mortgage loans and mortgage-backed securities provided by depository institutions in the USA

Source: Compiled by the author from data published by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

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Since World War II, only twice has the yield curve inverted without being followed by a UHFHVVLRQ7KLVRFFXUUHGLQGXULQJWKH9LHWQDP:DUDQGLQZKHQWKH867UHDVXU\

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business cycles amplitudes. This can be reasonable if monetary policy doesn’t lead to an LQYHUVLRQRIWKH\LHOGFXUYH/RQJWHUP¿QDQFLDOLQVWUXPHQWVDUHULVNLHUWKDQVKRUWWHUPRQHV

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of recession during the Vietnam War to massive federal government spending. An increase in VWDWHH[SHQGLWXUHVFDQKHOSWR¿JKWUHFHVVLRQEXWLWLVEHWWHUWRLQYHVWLQWKHSXEOLFJRRGVDQG

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market operations.

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in the adjustment of the rates earned and paid on different instruments with otherwise similar UHSULFLQJ FKDUDFWHULVWLFV´ %DQN IRU ,QWHUQDWLRQDO 6HWWOHPHQW  'HSRVLWRU\ LQVWLWXWLRQV

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while commercial banks were losing their incomes. When the Federal Reserve was raising the NH\LQWHUHVWUDWHIURPWRPDQ\ERUURZHUVZKRKDGPRUWJDJHORDQVZLWKÀRDWLQJ

rates felt that their debt burden had become overwhelming and gradually stopped paying it. As a result, the amount of past due loans increased (Figure 4).

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Less reliable borrowers purchased houses at higher prices and took loans with higher rates as the Federal Reserve started to increase the federal funds rate (Figure 1). By the time that PRQHWDU\SROLF\KDGDIIHFWHGLQÀDWLRQDQGUHDOHVWDWHSULFHVEHJDQWRGHFOLQHWKHVL]HRIPDQ\

homeowners’ debts exceeded the real cost of their residential property. Since that time, there KDVEHHQQREHQH¿WIURPSXUFKDVLQJKRXVHVRQFUHGLW$VSULFHVZHUHFRQVWDQWO\IDOOLQJDIWHU

a while, the loan principal became larger than the market price of a house, and, in addition, the borrower had to pay interest. It is not surprising that the amount of past due loans skyrocketed.

In Figure 4, we can see the correlation between a decrease in house prices and a rise in the QXPEHURIPRUWJDJHSD\PHQWVWKDWZHUHGHOD\HGE\PRUHWKDQGD\V&RQVHTXHQWO\WKH

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mass defaults began. Financial institutions in the USA and other countries also suffered losses because they had issued credit derivatives for hedging asset-backed securities. As collateralized mortgage obligations of U.S. organizations were sold all over the world, the indexes of many VWRFN H[FKDQJHV FRQVLGHUDEO\ GHFUHDVHG ZKLFK QHJDWLYHO\ LQÀXHQFHG WKH JOREDO HFRQRPLF

conjuncture.

Figure 4 – The correlation between decreases in house prices and rises in the amount of past-due mortgage loans

Source: Compiled by the author from data published by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

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depository institutions, distorted the market, and deprived entrepreneurs of any stimulus to GHYHORSLQQRYDWLRQVLQRUGHUWRGHDOZLWKWKHVLWXDWLRQ%\WKHHQGRIWKH)HGHUDO5HVHUYH

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start to raise the federal funds rate and cause new problems for the whole economic system all over again.

6. Comparative analysis of key rate targeting in the USA, the Eurozone and the UK

The pattern of Federal Reserve policy is also actively implemented by the monetary authorities of other countries. The correlation between different target rates is illustrated in )LJXUH,IZHFRPSDUHWKHÀXFWXDWLRQVRIWKHIHGHUDOIXQGVUDWHLQWKH86$DQGWKHPDLQ

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Federal Funds System, but with smaller amplitude of oscillations. Thus, the more conservative monetary policy of the Eurozone may smooth some considerable negative effects of key interest rate targeting, but they nevertheless can damage the economy.

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used for enacting monetary policy. The size of the LIBOR (London Interbank Offered Rate)

is determined by the market without interventions of regulatory authorities, as opposed to the

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decided to follow the example of other countries and the base rate plummeted to

Bank of England).

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Europe and base rate in the UK

Source: Compiled by the author from data published by the Federal Reserve System (Intended Federal

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monetary authorities electronically created new uncovered money in the accounts of security VHOOHUV7KXVLWLVQRWVXUSULVLQJWKDWLQ)LJXUHZHFDQVHHDULVHLQLQÀDWLRQWKDWLVKLJKHUWKDQ

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supply that has been increased by open market operations makes loans cheaper and lowers

the market competition. Therefore, it doesn’t encourage entrepreneurs to implement new WHFKQRORJLHV7KH\SURGXFHWKHVDPHJRRGVDQGVHUYLFHVXVLQJWKHROGLQHI¿FLHQWPHWKRGV

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the fact that the European Central Bank mainly purchased privately issued bonds (Beirne, et DO7KXVLWGLUHFWO\¿QDQFHGWKHSULYDWHVHFWRURIHFRQRP\7KH)HGHUDO5HVHUYHDQG

the Bank of England, on the other hand, purchased government securities, which encouraged VSHFXODWLRQDQGFDXVHGPRQH\WRÀRZRXWRYHUVHDV

Figure 6 – The Results of the Asset Purchase Programs in the USA, the Euro Area (17 countries) and the UK over a Period of Three Years (2009 - 2011)

countries) and the UK over a Period of Three Years (2009 - 2011)

Source: Compiled by the author from data published by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York

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prices on resources and goods beforehand, as they anticipate that authorities are going to LQFUHDVHPRQH\VXSSO\ZKLFKZLOOGH¿QLWHO\HQODUJHHIIHFWLYHGHPDQG3HRSOHEHJLQWREX\

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banks should try to deceive market expectations. However, if depository institutions and other

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suffer from interest rate risk.

The policy of key interest rate targeting should not be the main method used to recover IURPUHFHVVLRQRUWRVWUXJJOHZLWKLQÀDWLRQ,WFDQEHVXFFHVVIXOO\VXSSOHPHQWHGRUVXEVWLWXWHG

by tax regulations, as the neoclassicists proposed $QGR)LJXUHVKRZVWKDWODUJH

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government should accumulate monetary reserves in order to spend them during times of recession. It is easier to cope with crisis if authorities reduce taxes, invest in the development of alternative energy sources, high tech and core industries, which enable the country to be competitive on the global market.

7. Conclusion

The conducted research has proven that key rate targeting by monetary authorities can VLJQL¿FDQWO\ KDUP WKH ZKROH HFRQRP\ DQG HVSHFLDOO\ LWV ¿QDQFLDO V\VWHP$OWKRXJK RSHQ

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x an increase in the interest rate risk;

x a distortion of market;

x DULVHLQLQÀDWLRQ

x a slowdown or even drop in economic growth;

x LQYHVWPHQWLQLQHI¿FLHQWSURMHFWV

x low motivation for cardinal changes and innovations;

x an increase in government debt;

x the consequences of mistakes in market forecasts.

A historical analysis of federal funds rate adjustment shows that the World Financial Crisis occurred in many respects due to the rise of the main sources of interest rate risk. Firstly, sharp changes in rates increase the repricing risk, because the assets and liabilities of depository LQVWLWXWLRQVPDWXUHDQGUHSULFHDWGLIIHUHQWWLPHV7KXVFDVKÀRZVDOWHUDVLQVWHDGRIUHGHHPHG

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targeting activates the risk of embedded options. If rates are lowered, this can cause massive UH¿QDQFLQJRIORDQVDQGFDOODEOHVHFXULWLHV,IUDWHVDUHUDLVHGFOLHQWVZLOOZLWKGUDZGHSRVLWV

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rates of bank assets and liabilities change according to the size of the federal funds rate, and some are tied to different basic rates, which can lead to a considerable narrowing of interest VSUHDG)RXUWKO\IHGHUDOIXQGVUDWHDGMXVWPHQWLQÀXHQFHVPDUNHWH[SHFWDWLRQVDQGUDLVHVWKH

risk of changes in the shape and slope of the yield curve. In particular, if a monetary authority LQFUHDVHVWKHNH\UDWH\LHOGVRIVKRUWWHUP¿QDQFLDOLQVWUXPHQWVFDQH[FHHGWKH\LHOGVRIORQJ

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long-term rates should be higher than short-term because lending money for a longer period of time carries a higher risk.

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of the economy are not eliminated. The real sector loses its stimulus to foster innovations and carefully choose investment projects because monetary authorities reduce the cost of money.

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errors in the forecasting of market behavior are possible since there is a time lag between the

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slowdown of economic growth presents itself. Furthermore, open market operations are possible only if a fairly large amount of government securities was issued, which leads to an increase in government debt. All of the above-mentioned negative consequences of DUWL¿FLDONH\UDWHFKDQJHVGHWHULRUDWHWKHHFRQRPLFFRQMXQFWXUHRIWKHFRXQWU\DQGHQJHQGHU

various risks.

In all likelihood, instead of targeting interest rate level, authorities should invest money in infrastructure and develop core industries. Interest rates would then fall naturally due to an LQFUHDVHLQUHDOVDYLQJVIURPSUR¿WDEOHSURMHFWV,QMHFWLQJPRQH\LQWRWKHHFRQRP\WKURXJK

open market operations does not always lead to the growth of effective production. However, LWXVXDOO\IHHGVVSHFXODWRUVDQGFUHDWHV¿QDQFLDOEXEEOHV.HHSLQJWKLVLQPLQGWKH86$WKH

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References

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model. International Economic ReviewYROQRSS

%DQNRI(QJODQG6WDWLVWLFDO,QWHUDFWLYH'DWDEDVH±2I¿FLDO%DQN5DWH+LVWRU\. Retrieved IURPKWWSZZZEDQNRIHQJODQGFRXNERHDSSVLDGE5HSRDVS

%HLUQH - 'DOLW] / HW DO  7KH ,PSDFW RI WKH (XURV\VWHP¶V &RYHUHG %RQG 3XUFKDVH

3URJUDPPHRQWKH3ULPDU\DQG6HFRQGDU\0DUNHWVThe European Central Bank, no. 122, pp.



(XURSHDQ &HQWUDO %DQN  Monthly Bulletin: November 2011 SS  5HWULHYHG IURP

KWWSZZZHFELQWSXEPEKWPOLQGH[HQKWPO

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation.4XDUWHUO\%DQNLQJ3UR¿OHV (2000-2012). Retrieved from KWWSZZZIGLFJRYTESTES6HOHFWDVS"PHQX,WHP 4%3

)HGHUDO5HVHUYH%DQNRI1HZ<RUNLarge-Scale Asset Purchases.5HWULHYHGIURPKWWS

ZZZQHZ\RUNIHGRUJPDUNHWVIXQGLQJBDUFKLYHOVDSKWPO

)ULHGPDQ07KH5ROHRIPRQHWDU\3ROLF\The American Economic ReviewYROLVVXH

S

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FRBSF Economic Letter QR  5HWULHYHG IURP KWWSZZZIUEVIRUJSXEOLFDWLRQV

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,QWHUQDWLRQDO 0RQHWDU\ )XQG  World economic outlook: a survey by the staff of the International Monetary Fund.:DVKLQJWRQ'&,0)

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operation and impact. Bank of England Quarterly BulletinYROQRSS

.H\QHV-0The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money.8.Cambridge 8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV

.RFK7: 0DF'RQDOG66Bank Management^thHG86$6RXWK:HVWHUQ&HQJDJH

Learning.

0XWK-)5DWLRQDOH[SHFWDWLRQVDQGWKHWKHRU\RISULFHPRYHPHQWVEconometrica: Journal of the Econometric SocietyYROQRɪS

1DWLRQDO%XUHDXRI(FRQRPLF5HVHDUFKUS Business Cycle Expansions and Contractions.

5HWULHYHGIURPKWWSZZZQEHURUJF\FOHVKWPO

2I¿FHRIWKH&RQWUROOHURIWKH&XUUHQF\OCC’s Quarterly Reports on Bank Trading and Derivatives Activities  5HWULHYHG IURP KWWSZZZRFFJRYWRSLFVFDSLWDOPDUNHWV¿QDQFLDO

PDUNHWVWUDGLQJGHULYDWLYHVGHULYDWLYHVTXDUWHUO\UHSRUWKWPO

5RWKEDUG01Classical Economics: an Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic ThoughtYRO(GZDUG(OJDU3XEOLVKLQJ

6DOHUQR-7Money, Sound and Unsound./XGZLJYRQ0LVHV,QVWLWXWH

6WLJOLW]-1HZ%)HG6WLPXOXV)XHOV)HDUVRI86&XUUHQF\:DUDemocracy Now.

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