Religious Inquiries
A Biannual Journal of the University of Religions and Denominations Volume 3, No. 6, Summer and Autumn 2014
ISSN: 2322-4894
Proprietor: University of Religions and Denominations Director in Charge: Seyyed Abolhasan Navvab Editor-in-Chief: Mohsen Javadi
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Mohammad Taqi Diari Bidgoli
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Seyyed Hassan Eslami Ardakani
(Professor, University of Religions and Denominations, Iran) Mohsen Javadi
(Professor, University of Qom, Iran) Pierre Lory
(Professor, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, France) Ahmadreza Meftah
(Assistant Professor, University of Religions and Denominations, Iran) Seyyed Abolhasan Navvab
(Associate Professor, University of Religions and Denominations, Iran) Joseph A. Progler
(Professor, Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, Japan) Hasan Qanbari
(Associate Professor, University of Ilam, and University of Religions and Denominations, Iran)
Mohammad Ali Shomali
(Associate Professor, Imam Khomeini Educational and Research Institute, Iran) Klaus Von Stosch
(Professor, University of Paderborn, Germany)
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Sadr (2003, 69-71) discusses metaphorical and literal meaning in lesson ten of his Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence.
It is argued that Islamic social customs can only be fully appreciated when sympathy is given to the context within which they occur (Smith 1998).
Griffel (2009) is a study of the classical Islamic theologian, Abu Hamid al-Ghazali. The study includes both biography and philosophical analysis.
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Books: Locke, John. 1975 [1690]. Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Edited books: Clarke, P., ed. 1988. Islam. London: Routledge.
Translated books:Tabataba‘i, Muhammad Husayn. 2003. The Elements of Islamic Metaphysics. Translated by Ali Quli Qara‘i. London: ICAS Press.
Chapter in edited books:Gould, Glenn. "Streisand as Schwarzkopf." In The Glenn Gould Reader, edited by Tim Page, 308-11. New York: Vintage, 1984.
Articles in journals: Schmidt, Jochen. 2014. ―Critical Virtue Ethics.‖
Religious Inquiries 3(5): 35-47.
Webpage: Losensky, Paul. 2012. Sa‘di. Accessed January 1, 20014. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sadi-sirazi.
CONTENT
7 Feyz Kashani and Jonathan Edwards on the Place of Heart in Religious Knowledge
Saham Asadinia, Qorban Elmi
19 The Qur’an and Mysticism Mohammad Taqi Faali
31 Torah and Mishpat:The Law and its Liberation Spirit
Lutz Alexander Keferstein
53 Mani’s Living Gospel: A New Approach to the Arabic and Classical New Persian Testimonia
Mohammad Shokri-Foumeshi, Mostafa Farhoudi
69 Therapeutic Abortion: Ensuring the Health and Survival of Mothers
Mojtaba Elahian, Nasrin Fattahi, Maryam Khademi
91 Women in Contemporary Jewish Thought: A Comparative Study of an Orthodox and a Non-Orthodox Feminist Approach
Khadijeh Zolqadr
Religious Inquiries
Volume 3, No. 6, Summer and Autumn 2014, 5-18
Feyz
Kashani
and Jonathan Edwards
on the Place of Heart in Religious Knowledge
SahamAsadinia1
QorbanElmi2
This essay seeks to summarize and compare the theological ideas of Jonathan Edwards
,
a western philosopher,
with those of Feyz Kashani,
an eastern philosopher.
The reason for this study is the numerous conjunctions that are seen in their ideas.
These include the harmony of heart and reason in respect to belief,
the priority of the heart in the reflection of truth, the belief in centrality of the religion of heart,
the necessity of divine grace in the flow of religious knowledge,
the emphasis on the esoteric side of religion as opposed to the exoteric side,
and the importance of a practical approach to religion.
Significant differences also exist between their ideas.
For instance,
Edwards believes that human nature is sinful and corrupted while Feyz does not believe this is true.
Furthermore,
Feyz interprets the path of heart to be based on reason,
while Edwards has a different point of view.
Keywords: religious knowledge, heart, reason, morality, Feyz Kashani, Jonathan Edwards.
Introduction: ProblemStated
Feyz Kashani (1596-1680), one of the renowned students of Mulla Sadra, is known as a literalist and a philosopher who has founded his thought on rationality. He believes that reason and rational knowledge constitute the very foundation of transcendent knowledge of heart. On the other hand, Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758), known as the greatest theoretician of New England, believes, under the influence of orthodox reformists, that inner faith is motivated by the heart. Now if the heart is the axis of faith, then the basic question stirring this essay
6 / Religious Inquiries 6
is whether the heart itself has any effect in theological reasoning or is it only a receiver that is upgraded by reason? That is, what role does the heart play in the domain of religious conviction? Can the heart be of an epistemic aspect or not? In other words, if one assumes that all believers owe their belief and religious consciousness to rational arguments, then why are so many individuals who are exposed to a good deal of rational evidence not practically committed to religion? Feyz Kashani on the Typology of Religious Knowledge
Feyz interprets human knowledge and sciences according to two types of knowledge acquisition: The first type of knowledge is that which is acquired through reason. This type of knowledge is used in the rational arguments that seek to prove the existence of a Necessary Being. Feyz himself has a rational and discursive discussion of the existence of a Necessary Being in the first part of his Hikmat al-Anwar (Wisdom of Lights) entitled The Book of the Science of God.
Here, he attempts to prove the existence of the Necessary Being through the Argument of Saints (Burhan al-sidiqin) that seeks to acquire knowledge of the Lord through the Lord himself. According to Feyz, this approach is for those who seek to answer the doubts of opponents. Otherwise, human knowledge of God is primordial and innate and man is not obligated to master such rational arguments regarding the existence of the Necessary.
The second type of knowledge is acquired through inspiration or revelation. This knowledge dawns on the heart every now and again, and its form of emergence varies from one case to another. At times it rushes to the heart without any apparent source (inspiration), and at other times it is conveyed by an angel (revelation) (Feyz Kashani 1372 Sh., 5:51). This intuitive knowledge, Feyz argues, is specific for the gifted and prepared heart and provides direct and true knowledge of God and religion.
Feyz Kashani and Jonathan Edwards / 7
the quintessence of the religion. These books serve to raise awareness of the deep implications of religious tenets and dissuade from the idea that these resources are mere guidebooks that should be blindly pursued (Feyz Kashani 1384 Sh., 1:5).
The Heart and the Mechanism of Its Knowledge of Religion Feyz explains that in order to fathom the reality of the world as a reflection of Divine Essence, the heart resorts to a number of mediums that distance it from its end. Once the veils between the heart and the
Tabula Secreta (that contains all divinely decreed events) are torn, knowledge from the Tabula Secreta gushes toward it and the heart can directly see those realities which were previously hidden from it. This knowledge emerges like water that gushes out from deep underground (Feyz Kashani 1384 Sh., 57). In order for this to occur, Divine Grace must provide a connection to the eternal source of knowledge. Human perceptual efforts (both in sensory and rational forms) as well as commitment to divine decrees only serve to prepare the heart to connect with the world of Tabula Secreta and understand the reality. This will be discussed in detail in the coming section devoted to the relationship between heart and reason.
In his Bright Path, Feyz gives two meanings for the term heart: 1. A hollow bodily organ of a conic shape that is located on the
left side of the body. This is not what is meant when one speaks of heart and its role in religious knowledge, and it is not this sense of heart that distinguishes man from other animals. 2. A spiritual gift endowed upon man by the Divine Essence. This
is the percipient, wise, and conscious reality of man which is the subject of divine address and admonition. This is the intended sense of heart in the discussion of religious knowledge. (Feyz Kashani 1372 Sh., 5:14).
According to Feyz, the heart nurtures a transcendent understanding of realities and it is always associated with a sense of affection and love towards the Source of realities, i.e. God. By the same token, the absence of religious insight in a person is not as a result of the absence of a rational faculty but rather it is from the heart's inability to see these realities. It is in this spirit that the Quran reads, ―Truly it is not their eyes that are blind, but their hearts which are in their chest‖ (22: 46). Therefore, a sound heart is the prerequisite to having access to religious knowledge (Feyz Kashani 1372 Sh., 5:47-48).
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Some sciences require to be learned through particular trainings, and these are not inspired in the sense that we intend, because the inspired knowledge as we understand it, is a knowledge that flourishes down at the bottom of the heart without any external mediation as the noble verse of the Quran reads, ―So they found one of our servants, on whom we had bestowed mercy from ourselves and whom we had taught knowledge from our own‖[Quran 18: 65]. (Feyz Kashani 1372 Sh., 5:66)
This knowledge of heart is acquired through divine mercy but is not possible for man to reach without resorting to the Qur‘an and prophetic traditions and pondering over the truth of religion.
The Relationship of Heart and Morality in Religious Knowledge
To depict the relationship between heart and morality, we first turn to the ways of attaining a good character. Good character and affability, Feyz suggests, are acquired in two ways:
1. Through the divine blessing and grace and the perfection that has been placed in human primordial nature. Man is born with sound mind and good character, and with moderate carnal desires and anger in the control of religion and reason. Thus, it is reasonable to expect a good nature and disposition in man, and he is trained like the prophets without any teacher.
2. Through spiritual struggle and practice. That is, man forces his soul to perform those deeds which embody the ideal morality. For example, if man forces himself to be generous, generosity will eventually become his secondary nature. Of course this requires a great deal of effort and energy (Feyz Kashani 1372 Sh., 5:145-146).
Thus conceived, even if there is a primordial nature that man is born with, he can still change his nature and quality of character— otherwise the moral advice issued by reason and religion are senseless. By insisting on his nature through spiritual efforts, man can make the compliance with his primordial nature pleasurable. Then, the generous man is not simply the one who gives things to his fellowmen; rather, the truly generous is the one whose heart is pleased with his act of generosity.
Feyz Kashani and Jonathan Edwards / 9
stated, ―Prayer is the brightness of my eye‖ [Kulayni 1407 AH, 5: 321]. (Feyz Kashani 1372 Sh., 5:147)
According to Feyz, the human trend towards wisdom, friendship, love, knowing God and worshiping Him originates in the nature of the heart. Since the heart is a divine entity, any tendency toward whatever is far from God is against its nature. Therefore, every heart that seeks friendship and love with a being other than God is sick to the extent that it is eager to extend its affection to the loved one – unless of course this love is seen as a step towards divine love (Feyz Kashani 1372 Sh., 5:149).
The Relationship of Heart with Reason and Righteous Deeds in Religious Knowledge
According to Feyz, the intuitive method and the rational method of reaching the Divine Essence are only different in their means of acquisition, and are not contradictory in terms of their content. The knowledge that is acquired through the senses is different from intuitive knowledge in an analogical fashion; that is, they only differ in terms of intensity. Thus conceived, knowledge emerges as an analogically graded phenomenon whose one step is sensory perception and whose pinnacle is intuitive knowledge. It is in this very spirit that Feyz believes certainty is comprised of three steps: ‘ilm al-yaqin
(cognitive certainty), ‘ayn al-yaqin (objective certainty), and haqq al-yaqin(lived certainty), as the Quran reads, ―Nay were ye to know with
‘ilm al-yaqin (ye would be ware!). Ye shall certainly see the Hell Fire. Again, ye shall see it with ‘ayn al-yaqin‖ (102:5-7). Cognitive certainty is like the fire which is seen through its light, objective certainty indicates the vision of the fire by the help of that light, and lived certainty is like being burnt in the fire and losing one's individual identity by turning into fire—and there is no other higher bounty than this (Feyz Kashani 1358 Sh., 1:98).
In Feyz's view, not only is there is no contradiction between the levels of knowledge but faith itself is grounded in knowledge. Faith leads to practical commitment, and the ascension to higher stations of faith requires further knowledge acquisition. Feyz elaborates this point in the following words:
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By genuine knowledge, Feyz does not mean the multiplicity of reasoning and rationality; rather, he is referring to the knowledge which dawns on one's heart through divine mercy and leads to the vision of truth. "Knowledge is not acquired via persistence on learning but rather knowledge is a light that is reflected by God on the heart of whoever He wants; and this light, like other lights, is subject to intensity and weakness. ‗And when they hear His Signs rehearsed, find their faith strengthened, and put all their trust in their Lord‘ [Quran 8: 2]. But say, ‗O' My Lord! Advance me in knowledge‘ [20:
114]‖ (Feyz Kashani n.d., 276-277).
According to Feyz, the believer's expansion of mind helps him to acquire knowledge of truths and this knowledge motivates him to practically enhance his commitment to the Shariah. This practical change assists the believer to elevate the quality of his moral virtues, which then further refines his heart and prepares it to be exposed to more divine light, which once again expands his mind and brings him more certainty, and so on and so forth (Feyz Kashani n.d., 277). In summary, it can be understood that performing righteous deeds— which is among the requisites of faith—prepares the heart to receive the light of higher knowledge. And the expansion of the heart caused by consciousness of realities brings about the motivation to perform righteous deeds.
Feyz argues that rational knowledge cultivates divine love in man. This love strengthens the rational substance of human nature and enables him to acquire a comprehensive knowledge of the cosmos. Man thus becomes an archangel with divine proximity, and it is through his unconditional surrender to the Lord that he reaches this high station of knowledge. Rational souls can reach the station of annihilation in God and mystical fusion in their worldly life by cultivating this divine love. The Lord has referred to this fact in the Qur‘an: ―But those of faith are overflowing in their love for Allah‖ (2:165) (Feyz Kashani 1362 Sh., 75).
It is noteworthy that knowledge is not the sole cause of proximity to God; rather, the cordial readiness and openness towards the invisible truths prepare human reason for new perceptions which were previously unknown to it and at the same time substantiate the intuitions of the heart.
Obstacles to the Heart in Attaining Religious Knowledge and Their Solutions
Feyz Kashani and Jonathan Edwards / 11
conceived, human actions and efforts are steps that man takes to prepare his heart for this heavenly effusion. Feyz compares the heart with a mirror: ―Just as the body has a color and a form and its picture becomes reflected in the mirror, every knowledge has also a reality whose form is reflected in the heart and reveals itself. The known is the realities of things, and knowledge is the reflection of these realities in the heart like a mirror‖ (Feyz Kashani 1372 Sh., 5:38).
Nevertheless, the heart is not always prepared for such a reflection. Drawing upon his mirror analogy, Feyz mentions the following five cases that impede the reflection of a face in a mirror: (1) the mirror is deformed; (2) despite having a sound shape, the mirror is rusted; (3) the mirror has not been put before the face; (4) there is an obstacle between the mirror and the face; or (5) we are unsure of which side of face we want to see in the mirror, and so we are not able to set the mirror and the face in the desirable fashion.
These obstacles can be related to the heart in the following way: 1. The deformity of the heart due to a deficiency of the rational
faculty makes it unprepared for the reception of religious knowledge.
2. The accumulation of sins and evil has blurred the heart's transparency. The Qur‘an says, ―And those who strive in Our Cause, We will certainly guide them to Our Paths for verily
Allah is with those who do right‖ (29: 69).
3. The heart is lost in its journey to the Divine Threshold due to its wrong orientation. The wayfarer remains busy with external acts of devotion and routines of life and forgets that he is supposed to delve into the deeper truths of religion.
4. There is a veil between the heart and its desired one. This could be the beliefs precipitated in one's mind since childhood or be due to cheating or excessive optimism. Such a veil distances the heart from realities.
5. One loses sight of the desired one due to a lack of knowledge which guides one through struggles in order to reach the desired (Feyz Kashani 1372 Sh., 5:39-41; 1379 Sh., 9:453-54).
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religious knowledge, reason alone is not competent enough to acquire genuine religious knowledge. He says, ―Theology in this sense is unintelligible as we do not have any clear notion of the theological realities‖ (Edwards, Misc.1340).
Edwards argues that due to human original sin and fall, reason has undergone a major demotion that deprives it of a comprehensive understanding of the divine. However, even this demoted reason can be witness to the religious evidences under the aegis of divine mercy (Edwards, Misc.626).
Edwards' analyses of religious knowledge are largely concentrated on the heart. The heart, he believes, provides a transcendent understanding of divine entities and has a direct knowledge of God by divine grace: ―Special grace gives rise to things in the spirit that go
beyond the nature‖ (Edwards, Misc.626). The exclusive feature of this
sense of heart, he says, is the perception of divine beauty and majesty that causes pleasure in man and culminates in the Bible and in Christ.
My first experience of such a spiritual pleasure of the Lord and holy affairs as I remember it and is still with me to this moment was when I read the following words: Now to the King eternal, immortal, invisible, the only God, be honor and glory forever and ever. Amen [1 Timothy 1:17].As I read these words they entered my spirit and as if they flowed through it. This sense of majesty of Divine Essence was different from all I had previously experienced. I had never felt any other word in the scripture like these. I wondered that how Glorious is this Essence and how much would I have been happy if I could ever take pleasure of this divine presence and engulf myself in His paradise in a way that I would become annihilated in His Essence. (Edwards 1935, 59)
The Heart and the Mechanism of its Knowledge of Religion The heart, according to Edwards, is the main locus of a genuine relation with God. The direct object of heart is the spiritual sense that is called Divine Beauty (Edwards 1959, 260). This sense of beauty that indirectly occurs in the heart causes spiritual pleasure and is an evidence of the existence of Divine Essence. Of course, the emergence of this sense in man's heart requires a certain spiritual framework, and those who are removed from this domain are certainly deprived of it (Edwards 1989, 619).
Feyz Kashani and Jonathan Edwards / 13
human understanding (Edwards 1959, 206).
Religious knowledge as conceived by Edwards, begins with God and ends with God, as He is the source of spiritual beauty. A believer's notion of God is not stationary; rather, it is dynamic and varies from one moment to another. Within this process a believer is constantly exposed to a bilateral communicative love which is always associated with enthusiasm between God and himself.
God communicates with his servant by the language of creation (Edwards 1959, 448). It is indeed for the expression and delineation of His infinite beauty, Edwards argues, that God has created the world: ―The world is in fact the mirror of Divine Beauty whose task is to reflect the majesty of Divine Nature. Divine Essence manifests itself in the world and this manifestation extends in time and place and if the world had not been created divine attributes would have not been manifested‖ (Edwards 1989, 429).
Having introduced human knowledge of God as the goal of creation, Edwards now turns to the key feature that distinguishes this knowledge from other forms of knowledge, i.e. the joy and pleasure that it brings. This joy and pleasure is unique in the fact that it leads toward the eternal expansion of the heart.
Edwards consistently insists that to have a sound knowledge of God one has to take pleasure in God. He believes that a correctly trained man who knows that ratiocination is not enough for a genuine knowledge of God not only senses Divine Beauty but takes pleasure in God (Edwards 1989, 272). In fact, the beauty of creatures leads man to the transcendent beauty of Divinity. But this understanding requires an effort that is not possible for man without the assistance of Divine Grace.
Due to their original sin, Edwards contends, human individuals have lost full access to God via their senses. Particular practices of heart are needed to revive our lost spiritual connection in light of a new sensibility towards the world. It is true that this sensibility is new for us, but the reality of divine beauty has always been and is still flowing in nature regardless of our knowledge of it (Edwards 1972, 151, 174).
The Relationship of Heart and Morality in Religious Knowledge
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reflection of Divine Beauty. In Edwards' words, ―The genuine beauty and attractiveness of all creatures of intelligence most of all lies in their moral beauty or holiness, i.e. their benevolence and love towards all beings‖ (Edwards 1959, 257). There are other types of beauty which are reflections and manifestations of this spiritual beauty, but indeed the crux of moral and spiritual beauty is benevolence.
Moral beauty represents a kind of divine transcendence, majesty and magnificence—the understanding of which brings about a sense of joy and pleasure in man. It is exactly this moral beauty that Edwards intends by virtue which expresses beauty and transcendence (Edwards 2004, 122). To participate in this transcendent moral beauty, one should wholly devote oneself to the Divine Beauty. The tendencies and potency of will, according to Edwards, are the foundations of transcendent moral beauty. One can lecture on the qualities and characteristics of beauty without having any practical commitment to attaining it, but these words would not be worth any moral consideration (Edwards 2004, 122).
Edwards discusses the harmony of man with divine morality by focusing on love as the key reflection of moral beauty in man. It is important to note that harmony within a man himself is not an indication of moral beauty—true human beauty is when man is in harmony with all other creatures. Thus, according to Edwards, those actions which are in harmony with other beings and are done in the spirit of love, are morally beautiful. Such actions are directed at collective goodness and are imbued with love. And since man is the only being who possesses intelligence and will, it is only he who can realize collective goodness (Edwards 2004, 266-310).
As a being of intelligence and will, man can act either be occupied with himself and his own temporal interests or be occupied with divine love. It is only through devoting oneself to divine love, Edwards argues, that moral beauty can be realized and man can extend his love to all creatures (Edwards 1989, 124).
The Place of Reason and Heart in Religious Knowledge
Feyz Kashani and Jonathan Edwards / 15
nothing to do with values; rather, it is to say that reason only deals with theoretical and conceptual subjects – which can include values - and there is no relation with transcendence in this level (Edwards 1999, 66).
Hatred and affection can determine the quality of man‘s relationship with the Transcendent. Of course this hatred and affection emerge when the presence of an idea is felt in one's heart. Edwards insists that the sense of heart is not merely in choosing between hatred and affection but in understanding it (Edwards 1999, Doc.T, Sec.1). Nevertheless, the sense of spiritual transcendence where the Divine Magnificence is felt in the heart is beyond a mere rational belief.
Accordingly, Edwards believes that whenever religious attitude is not anchored in heart there is no harmony between reason and heart. To state the matter differently, when reason is the only source of religious knowledge and consciousness, ignorance is indeed taken for knowledge. Though this ignorance contains many concepts it still lacks the intended idea itself. Thus, it can be said that genuine religion does not believe in the contradiction between reason and heart (will) (Jenson 1988, 69).
Rational and conceptual evidences of religion - despite their application and content - are not as effective or revolutionizing as spiritual factors. These spiritual factors exist within religious ideas themselves and possess holiness due to Divine Grace and Benevolence (Edwards 1959, 214 ff., 228). It is genuine religious knowledge as reflected in man's heart that takes him towards pure divine love, changes his course of actions and persuades him to engage in collective benevolent affairs.
Obstacles to the Heart in the Acquisition of Religious Knowledge
Man‘s original sin and fall, according to Edwards, has distanced him from noble moral virtues and brought about an unconquerable chasm between man and his Lord insofar as God no longer addresses man and man is no more vested by noble values. Thus man grapples with his unleashed carnal desires and whims, and revolts against his Creator. He is excessively occupied with himself and there is no room for another beloved. Moreover, he has lost his sense of moral beauty—as this requires the special existential state which he lost long ago in the fall. Indeed, how can one who is personally alien to moral beauty, love and benevolence recognize moral beauty in other human individuals (Edwards 1959, 23-25)?
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moral beauty. He argues that when man turns to God, his natural disability and despair fade away. By reviving spiritual values in his heart, he can replace his egotism with benevolence. This step can only be taken by devoting his life to God. Divine love reorients a man's attitudes and opens new horizons before his eyes. Therefore, despite his natural dispositions, man has potential divine dispositions which can be actualized by devoting himself to the Divine Essence and attaining moral beauty (Edwards 1959, 26-28).
Feyz Kashani and Jonathan Edwards on the Knowledge of Heart of Religion
1. Both philosophers regard the heart to be the compass of reality. They believe that reason can only touch a part of the reality, while the heart is able to comprehend the reality as a whole (provided that the heart is ready and Divine Grace calls for it).
This is against the views of Cartesians who only believe in propositional knowledge. Feyz and Edwards regard the knowledge of the heart as the noblest form of knowledge even though it cannot be articulated in a proposition.
2. Both philosophers believe that heart is the vehicle of the truth of religion as well as the genuine knowledge of God. Though they do not deny the role of reason in knowledge, they believe that it is indeed the heart that is addressed by religion and rational knowledge features the lower steps of human epistemic ascension. 3. Both Feyz and Edwards believe that the centrality of religious knowledge of heart is not a matter of human rational, moral or even devotional struggle; but rather, it is an expression of the centrality of Divine Grace.
4. Both philosophers deem revelation to be the nearest path to attaining religious knowledge. Accordingly, reason—regardless of its existential level—can never surpass the heart, which is the addressee of revelation.
5. Both philosophers insist on practical and intellectual commitment to revelation as the genuine source of religious knowledge. In other words, this commitment should be taken higher than mere lip service and shallow understanding of religious propositions. 6. Both Feyz and Edwards trace back the inclusive nature of
knowledge of heart to the Divine Love that is tantamount to loving all creatures as a whole.
Feyz Kashani and Jonathan Edwards / 17
knowledge of heart to everyone through convincing evidences; rather, they seek to provide believers with an account of this type of knowledge. Thus conceived, knowledge of heart is specifically for the believers.
8. Both philosophers believe that the knowledge of heart necessarily reflects itself in all aspects of a believer's life and no believer with this type of knowledge can be morally corrupted. It is possible however, for one with a superficial commitment to religion to be deprived of a sound knowledge of heart.
9. Both philosophers insist on the effective role of emotions in the religious knowledge of heart. They believe that emotions such as hatred and love bring about different motivations which shape one‘s will in different forms - and this in turn influences one‘s scope of religious knowledge.
10.The knowledge of heart, according to these philosophers, makes the believer sensitive to his situation and brings about an indescribable pleasure within him.
11.While Edwards believes that the human heart is void of divine attitudes due to his original sin and fall, Feyz does not believe in such a sinful nature.
12.Both philosophers believe that human nature is subject to change. Man can alter and shape his nature based on efforts to connect himself with God and can then internalize moral virtues and noble goals in practical life.
13.Feyz and Edwards both believe that heart and reason are not two contradictory paths for the acquisition of religious knowledge; however, the path of heart is nobler than that of reason due to its being informed by revelation.
14.Based on the teachings of Islam, Feyz founds the knowledge of heart upon reason; however, Edwards insists that the supremacy of knowledge of heart is due to the rational paradoxes of natural theology of the age of enlightenment.
15.Both philosophers believe that the knowledge of heart not only brings about a fundamental vision in man but also illuminates vague rational evidences.
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References
Edwards, Jonathan. 1935. Personal Narrative, Representative Selections. Edited by Clarence H. Faust and Thomas H. Johnson. New York: American Book. Co. —————. 1959. Religious Affections. Edited by John E. Smith. Yale University
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—————. 1989. Ethical Writings. Edited by Paul Ramsey. Yale University Press. —————.1999. Sermons and Discourses, 1730-1733. Edited by Mark Valeri. Yale
University Press.
—————. 2004. The Nature of True Virtue in the Work of Jonathan Edwards. Edited by Edward Hickman. New York: Hendrickson Publishers.
Jenson, Robert W. 1988. Americas Theologian. New York: Oxford University Press. Kashani, Feyz. 1423 AH. Al-Haqa’iq. Edited by Mohsen Aqil. Qom: Dar Kitab
al-Islami.
—————. 1426 AH. Anwar al-hikmah. Edited by Mohsen Bidarfar. Beirut: Dar al-Amirah and Dar al-Qari.
—————. 1358 Sh. ‘Ilm al-yaqin. Qom: Intisharat-i Bidar,
—————. 1362 Sh. Usul al-ma‘arif. Edited by Sayyid Jalaluddin Ashtyani. Qom: Daftari Tabliqati Islami.
—————. 1372 Sh. Al-Mahajjat al-bayda’ fi tahdhib al-ihya’. Translated by Abdulali Sahibi. Mashhad: Intisharat-i Astan-i Quds.
—————. 1379 Sh. ‘Ilm al-yaqin. Translated by Hossein Ostadvali. Tehran: Intisharati Hikmat.
—————. n.d. Al-Mahajjat al-bayda’ fi tahdhib al-ihya’. Edited by Ali Akbar Ghafari. Qom: Moasseyeh Nashri Islami.
Religious Inquiries
Volume 3, No. 6, Summer and Autumn 2014, 19-29
The Qur’an and Mysticism On The Universe of
Two Sides
Mohammad Taqi Faali1
The universe has an exterior known as the material world and an interior called the ―hereafter.‖ So are the Qur‘an and mankind. In other words, the universe, mankind and the Qur‘an have hierarchical stages. The universe and mankind comprise the physical world, but the Qur‘an constitutes the
Divine Law. Since the origin of all three is one single source, one can say the former matches the latter, and all are manifestations of the divine
Names ―the Manifest‖ and ―the Hidden.‖ This idea has long been
introduced in mysticism. Using the esoteric interpretation theory, Muslim mystics went for the view that the physical world (takwin) and the Holy
Scripture (Book of Law, i.e. the Qur‘an) are in perfect harmony.
Therefore, it can be shown that Islamic mysticism is inspired by the
Qur‘an and is in fact a Qur‘anic mysticism.
Keywords: material world, hereafter, exterior, interior, esoteric interpretation theory, hierarchical stages. Sufism.
Introduction
That the universe has an exterior and an interior is one of the deep ideas found in religious texts. The universe comes in hierarchical levels, the lowest of which is the exterior, and the higher ones are
interior levels. This feature is not exclusive to the universe but is also found in the Qur‘an and mankind. The Qur‘an and mankind have exterior and interior levels, coming in hierarchical stages. The most interior stage of the universe, mankind, and the Qur‘an is the nearest to the Origin Almighty.
The origin of the three is one unique being: God is the Creator of the universe and mankind and the Revealer of the Qur‘an. Naturally, each level of the universe matches its corresponding stage in the
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Qur‘an and in mankind. Thus, the exterior layer of the universe, namely the material world, corresponds with the exterior layer of mankind, namely the body, and with the exterior layer of the Qur‘an, i.e. its apparent meaning. And so is the case with the interior levels. The deeper we understand the universe, the deeper we fathom the Qur‘an and mankind. This vertical and happy journey will proceed stage by stage and station by station until the wayfarer returns back to the Origin. In other words, in their first step and descending arc, the universe, the Qur‘an and mankind have come down into being from
the Origin. The Qur‘an reads: ―All His command, when He wills
something, is to say to it: ‗let there be‘ and it is‖ (36:82).
The creation of mankind, the universe, and the Qur‘an takes place
through the divine command to ―be.‖ In their second step, however,
the universe, the Qur‘an, and mankind proceed to move towards Him.
The Qur‘an reads
:
―Indeed we belong to (have been created by) Allah,and to Him we do return‖ (2:156). Thus creation begins by the arc of descent and ends by the arc of ascent. This circular movement of the ascending arc from the Origin and the descending arc to the End correspond with each other. The Qur‘an states, ―He is the First and the Last, the Manifest and the Hidden‖ (57:3).
The Interior Layer of the Universe
That the universe comes in hierarchical stages, each of which is exterior in relation to the one before it, can be understood from both philosophy and the Qur‘an. This article will focus on the verses of the Qur‘an related to this topic. When reading the Qur‘an, one comes across various groups of verses that clearly indicate the exterior and interior layers of the universe.
a) The first group is the verses referring to the concept of malakut
(heavenly dominion). There are four verses in the Qur‘an mentioning the heavenly dominion, one of which is mentioned in relation to Abraham: ―Thus did we show Abraham the dominions of the heavens and the earth, that he might be of those who possess certainty‖ (6:75). It can be understood from this verse that (1) one cannot comprehend the heavenly dominion through ordinary senses; rather, one needs the vision of the heart, and (2) when one sees the heavenly dominion, one reaches certainty in which there is no room for doubt at all.
Malakut is the interior layer of mulk (corporeal dominion) and Allah is the owner of both: ―Say, O‘ Allah, Master of all sovereignty‖
(3:26), ―To Allah belongs the kingdom of the heavens and the
The Qur’an and Mysticism On The Universe of Two Sides / 21
―Blessed is He in whose hands is all sovereignty, and He has power over all things. He who created death and life … He created seven heavens in layers‖ (67:3).
The Qur‘an teaches that God is the owner of everything. If one
realizes this aspect of the universe, one will understand the heavenly dominion of the universe. No other aspect of the universe is more important than this aspect, which is its total dependence on Allah. Thus, the heavenly dominion is nothing but the world of the divine command; it is nothing but the interior layer of the world. If one reaches this layer, one reaches the level of absolute unity.
b) The second category of verses concerns the ―face‖ of God:
―Everyone on it is ephemeral, yet lasting is the face of your Lord,
majestic and munificent‖ (55:25-26). The content of this verse is similar to that of another verse: ―Everything is to perish except His
face‖ (28:88). The first verse attributes the verb ―perish‖ to every
man on the earth, but the second generalizes it to everything; both verses exclude the face of God from perishing. Considering the fact that the words ―is ephemeral‖ and ―perish‖ are in present tense, it can be concluded that everyone and everything is perished even now, if they are not the face of God. One‘s face is the part by which one encounters others. Divine names and Attributes (such as His knowledge, power, mercy, hearing, and so forth) are God‘s face by which He encounters all things other than Him. As a matter of fact, the face of God is identical with the interior dominion of the universe.
c) The third group of verses clearly mention the interior and exterior layers of the universe: ―They know just an outward aspect of the life of the world, but they are oblivious of the Hereafter‖ (30:7). The phrase ―an outward aspect‖ indicates that this worldly life has an inward aspect, which, as the second part of the verse point to, is nothing but the hereafter. People of superficial observation fail to see anything beyond this transient world, while those with deep understanding see the interior of the universe, i.e. the hereafter, even though they are still in this world.
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Qur‘an reads: ―And indeed Hell besieges the faithless‖ (29:54). Again, the verse is indicating that this siege is occurring now. And if the Hell besieges the faithless now, we can say that the Paradise is also embracing the pious now. Therefore, the hereafter is present now, constituting the interior of this material world.
The Interior Aspect of Mankind
In addition to the above verses suggesting that man has interior and exterior aspects, one may infer from many other verses that man is created in hierarchical stages and degrees.
a) Human heart is characterized by the Qur‘an as having
characteristics such as faith (58:22), which are regarded as having hierarchal degrees: ―And when His signs are recited to them they increase their faith‖ (8:2) and ―O‘, you who have faith! Have faith‖ (4:136). The same point is true of taqwa (God-wariness); on the
one hand, man‘s heart is characterized as the place for God
-wariness: ―They are the ones whose hearts Allah has tested for God-wariness‖ (49:3), and on the other hand, it is implied that
God-wariness has hierarchal degrees: ―O‘, you who have faith! Be
wary of Allah with the wariness due to Him (2:102). This category of verses demonstrates that human heart constitutes his character, which has hierarchical degrees. And anything of hierarchical degrees has exterior and interior layers.
b) The Qur‘an mentions a kind of life called hayat tayyibah (good
life): ―Whoever acts righteously [whether] male or female, should he be faithful, we shall revive him with a good life‖ (16:97). Note that the verse does not state that God will ―change‖ the life of the righteous into a good life; rather, it is said that the righteous will be ―revived‖ with a good life. This means that the faithful who act righteously will be given life—which is good—and the others are
not in fact living (Tabataba‘i 1417AH, 12:341-43). The above
verse is similar to the following one: ―Is he who was lifeless then we gave him life and provided him with a light by which he walks
among the people…‖ (6:122). Life has two characteristics:
knowledge and power. Knowledge is the same light mentioned in the above verse. The power of the faithful is mentioned in other
verses: ―And it was a must for us to help the faithful‖ (30:47) and
The Qur’an and Mysticism On The Universe of Two Sides / 23
who have light are alive; they have stepped into their deep interior, which is the hereafter.
c) Another group of verses speaks of the sealing of the heart: ―Allah
has set a seal on their heart and their hearing and there is a covering on their sight (2:7). In other verses, we read, ―And we have cast veils on their heart lest they should understand it (6:25), ―And we set a seal on their heart so they would not hear (7:100), and ―Do they not contemplate the Qur‘an, or are there locks on the
hearts?‖(47:24) This type of verses suggests that human
understanding has both outward and inward dimensions. The former is shared by all human beings, but the latter is peculiar to those who have heart.
d) Some verses of the Qur‘an speak of ingesting fire: ―Indeed those
who consume the property of orphans wrongfully, only ingest fire into their bellies‖ (4:10). ―Ingesting fire‖ in this verse does not have a metaphoric sense; rather, it indicates the inner reality of such acts (Tabataba‘i 1417AH, 4:351). Another verse speaks of Hellfire as ―the fire of Allah set ablaze, which overspreads the hearts‖ (104:7).
This category of verses also shows that both man and his acts have exterior and interior dimensions. The exterior of man‘s act can be seen here, but its interior will come to be known in the hereafter, ―on the day when the secrets are examined‖ (86:9).
The Qur‘an reads: ―Renounce the outward-ness of sins and the
inwardness thereof‖ (6:120) and ―You shall not approach indecencies, what appears of them and what remains hidden‖ (6:151). It can be inferred from these two verses that sins and evil acts also have interior and exterior layers. If that is the case with sins, then the same is true of good acts (Tabataba‘i 1417AH, 7:333). As a result, all acts, good or evil, have an exterior related to his physical dimension, and an interior hidden in his heart to be revealed in the hereafter. This is what the theory of embodimentofdeeds teaches.
The Inwards Aspect of the Qur’an
The glorious Qur‘an also has two aspects, interior and exterior. This
can be inferred from many verses, including the ones indicating that the Qur‘an has a state of detailed elaboration preceded by an undifferentiated and simple state. Chapter Hud begins as follows:
―Alif Lam Ra, A Book whose signs have been fortified and then
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here is that, according to this verse, the Qur‘an has a state of simplicity and also a state of ―elaboration in details‖ that comes after (denoted by the word thumma ―then‖) the former. The latter is the state of plurality. The former is also called the ―concealed‖ state, as indicated by 56:78 (―This is indeed a noble Qur‘an, in a concealed
Book‖) and also the state of umm al-kitab (the mother of the book), as
mentioned in 13:39: ―And with Him is the Mother of the Book.‖ In sum, the state of detailed elaboration is the exterior state, but the simple and undifferentiated state is the interior one.
That the Qur‘an has interior can be deduced, furthermore, from traditions. For instance, the exterior and interior layers of the Qur‘an, Imam Sadiq (a) is reported to have said, ―The exterior is what has been sent down and the interior is its esoteric interpretation. Some of it have passed and some have yet to come, it flows as the sun and the
moon do‖ (quoted in Tabataba‘i 1417AH, 3:71-73). In another
tradition, we read that the Prophet (s) said:
He who assumes the Qur‘an as his guide will be led to Paradise, but he who pays no heed to it will be taken to hellfire. It is the guide that leads to the best path. It is [a Book which contains] detailed elaboration, statement, accomplishment. It says the last word differentiating between the right and the wrong. it is not a jest. It has an exterior and interior; the former is the verdict and the latter is knowledge. Its apparent exterior is nice and its veiled interior is deep. (Quoted in Tabataba‘i 1417AH, 3:71-73)
It can be concluded from what has been said so far that each of the universe, the Qur‘an, and mankind has an exterior in this lower world and an interior in the higher worlds. The universe is the world of creation and the Qur‘an is the world of Law; that these two worlds stand together in harmony is a profound teaching of the Qur‘an. As mentioned earlier, the issue of exterior and interior layers is not peculiar to the above three, rather it covers human acts, as well. So is the case with God‘s bounties: ―And He has showered upon you His bounties, the outward and the inward (31:20).
Another important issue in Islamic teachings is that knowledge is not an exception of the above rule. Mystics are of the view that knowledge is of two types: acquired and hereditary. The former is the ordinary knowledge attained gradually through teaching and learning with lots of efforts. The latter is the divine knowledge given to special people by God very easily, inwardly, and at once, which is the most useful knowledge. Imam Ali said, ―Knowledge is of two kinds: the dispositional knowledge and the learned one. Were the former not
The Qur’an and Mysticism On The Universe of Two Sides / 25
The hereditary knowledge springs to the heart of those who have purified their heart from the impurity of immoral traits and the filth of animal character. Such people can openly see the secrets of the unseen world. This kind of knowledge comes directly from God, who is the Teacher of mankind: ―We taught him a knowledge from our own (18:65).
Instead of terms ―hereditary‖ and ―acquired,‖ Sufis use the terms
narrated knowledge and comprehended knowledge (Sarraj n.d., 26). What matters is that they consider the spiritual father as the teacher of hereditary knowledge (or comprehended knowledge). Based on a narration from the Prophet that says, ―There are three fathers: one who brought you into being, one who brought you up, and one who taught you‖ (Amuli 1368 Sh, 503), the Sufis believe that prophets and infallible saints are the teacher of mysticism. The Sufi knowledge is the spiritual legacy of the spiritual father, which springs to the heart of a mystic.
Divine Law, Spiritual Way, and Truth
The Law also has an inward and an outward aspect; this is the result of above discussion and also inferred from the Qur‘an and traditions. Apart from its exterior body, ritual prayer has an interior, which is remembering God: ―Indeed the prayer prevents indecencies and wrong and the remembrance of Allah is surely greater‖ (29:45). Fasting also has an exterior, which is the abstinence from certain actions such as eating and drinking, and an interior, which is spiritual piety and inward God-wariness: ―O you who have faith! Prescribed for you is fasting as it was prescribed for those who were before you, so that you may be God-wary‖ (2:183). This has led to the contrast between
Shariah (the Law) and Tariqah (the Spiritual Way) in Islamic mysticism.
Sufis and mystics have defined Law, Spiritual Way, and Truth in different ways. Abu al-Qasim Qushayri says, ―The Law is to abide by servitude, but the Truth is the vision of the Lord. It is not accepted for the Law to be unconfirmed by the Truth, or vice versa. The Law is the establishment of duties, and the Truth is the observation of the
divinely predestined‖ (Qushayri n.d., al-Risalat al-Qushayriyya, 159).
Hujwiri argues, ―The Law is the correction of the outward (bodily behaviors) and the Truth is to safeguard the state of the inward
(heart)‖ (Hujwiri 1926, 498).
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1382 Sh, 6, 21, 22, 24, 25, 32, and 35). These three are demanded by three other things: the Law is demanded by messenger-hood, the Spiritual Way by prophet-hood, and the Truth by divine guardianship. Also, the Law concerns common people, the Spiritual Way concerns the elect servants, and the Truth concerns the select among the select. The Law is demanded by Islam, the Spiritual Way is demanded by faith, and the Truth is demanded by certainty. Similarly, disclosure relates to the Law, inspiration to the Spiritual Way concerns, and revelation to the Truth. Likewise, ‘ilm al-yaqin (certain knowledge),‘ayn al-yaqin (the certainty itself), and haqq al-yaqin
(the reality of certainty) are three stages of knowledge, depending on those three. The three worlds of mulk (corporeal world), malakut
(heavenly dominion), and jabarut (majestic dominion) and the other three worlds of senses, souls, and intellects also go along with the Law, the Spiritual Way and the Truth. Such trinities are implied by the trinity in creation—mystics are of the view that creation begins from unity toward trinity and thence toward the world of plurality.
In a nutshell, rules of Law and religious obligations have an exterior appearing in the Law and an interior appearing in the Spiritual Way and still a deeper interior manifesting itself in the Truth. For instance, formal hajj has an exterior that consists of all the rituals and laws recorded in the manuals of Islamic law. However, in the spiritual hajj, all the rituals find a spiritual dimension, and its purpose becomes unity with the Perfect Man or Macro-Anthropos. Whereas the formal hajj is centered on the physical Ka‘bah in Mecca, the spiritual hajj is centered on the spiritual Ka‘bah, which is the soul of the Macro-Anthropos. He who goes after the former may perform the exterior rites of Hajj, yet fail to attain its spirit.
The Universe of Two Sides in Mysticism
Although Sufism has borrowed some of its first themes and principles from outside of the world of Islam, this does not mean that we do not have ―Islamic mysticism.‖ And even though some apparent inconsistencies may exist between Islamic and Sufi teachings as a result of these borrowed elements, they can be resolved by means of esoteric interpretation.
The Qur’an and Mysticism On The Universe of Two Sides / 27
Ibn Arabi was one of the greatest figures who used esoteric interpretation. He lived in a time of conflict between Christians and Muslims, on the one hand, and between Muslims of different schools of thought, on the other hand. The circumstances of his time made him strive for the unity of Muslims. For this purpose, he offered symbolic interpretation of religion to lessen the conflicts. Ibn Arabi‘s theory of
great instructor or his principle of guardianship can be assessed against this context. Furthermore, symbolic interpretation was a means for Ibn Arabi to explain the discrepancies and ambiguities in Sufi legacy he had received (Nasr 1972, 97-103).
Esoteric interpretation, in Ibn Arabi point of view, was not only to
explain the ambiguous Qur‘anic verses based on the clear ones—as
can be seen in the Qur‘anic commentary attributed to him—but also a
philosophical method for ―harmonizing the existence, mankind, and Scripture.‖ Still, his project needed a medium, which was provided by the world of Imagination. That world could resolve many of the contradictions, such as the relation of God to the sensible world, the connection of the eternal to the temporal, the connection of the permanent to the temporary, the connection of the perfect to the imperfect, the connection of the absolute to the limited, the issue of unity and plurality, and the issue of predetermination and free-will. Ibn Arabi was of the view that, through this mediating world, he could solve those inconsistencies (Corbin 2006, 33-77; Ibn Arabi n.d., 1:304, 2:129, 3:518), especially considering that the world of imagination had Qur‘anic origination.
Ibn Arabi applied his interpretation to three fields: reality, Scripture and mankind. The issue of an intermediate world played a significant role with regard to the first—i.e., the reality and the universe. He considered some hierarchical stages for the universe and used the ―interpretation of existence‖ for it. The higher layers of the world reaches Unity, and ascension to those levels reveals the interior layer of the world.
Mankind also is capable of interpretation (Ibn Arabi n.d., 1:120-21, 2:70) Mankind consists of two apparently incompatible elements. From one side, man has an interior similar to the image of God, and, from another side, he has an exterior consisting of a material form. Because of the former, mankind becomes qualified for the status of divine successorship; the latter, however, is apparently incompatible with the divine aspect.
28 / Religious Inquiries 6
lower layers, are the manifestations of one of the divine Names. Hence, the universe is nothing but signs, manifestations, or rather the very holy Name of the Truth Almighty. Inconsistencies are no more than oppositions among the contrasting names which will disappear by the authority of the all-comprehensive Name or the Perfect man.
The Qur‘an needs esoteric interpretation as well. It is improbable in all writings of Ibn Arabi to find even one page without the interpretation of several verses. Ibn Arabi‘s exegesis includes even the verses that relate to the law, as can be seen at the end of his Futuhat. He also has a long discussion on the interpretation of the Separate Letters. He believes that the Qur‘an is a Book of codes that need to be decoded.
Ibn Arabi argues that the universe, mankind, and revelation form a trinity, whose elements suggest inward and existential truths. At whatever stage one maybe, one may encounter some parallel stage of the universe and the Scripture. Accordingly, the layers and stages of reality, mankind and the Qur‘an interconnect overlap and match one another.
Conclusion
One deep religious idea is that the universe (creation) stands in hierarchical levels. Mankind is also of interior and exterior stages. So is the Qur‘an. This issue can be vindicated by the verses of the Qur‘an.
Theoretical mysticism includes in itself the theory of esoteric interpretation, which is a proper method to justify mystical theories. Having been applied to the universe, mankind, and the Qur‘an, interpretation takes the unveiling to the farthest layers of existence. The theory of interpretation provides us with a comprehensive explanation as to the existence of mankind and Scripture.
The Qur’an and Mysticism On The Universe of Two Sides / 29
References
Amuli, Sayyid Haydar. 1368 Sh. Jami‘ al-asrar wa manba‘ al-anwar. Inrisharat ‗Ilmi wa Farhangi.
—————. 1382 Sh. Anwar al-haqiqa wa atwar al-tariqa wa Asrar al-shari’ah. Qom: Nur ‗ala Nur.
Corbin, Henri. 2006. Al-Khayal al-khallaq fi tasawwuf Ibn ‘Arabi. Translated by Farid al-Zahi. Ribat: Marsam.
Hujwiri, ‗Ali b. ‗Uthman al-.1926. Kashf al-mahjub. Edited by V. A. Zukovskij.Leningrad.
Ibn Arabi, Muhyi al-Din. n.d. Al-Futuhat al-makkiyya. Beirut: Dar Sadir. Nahj al-balaghah. Edited by Subhi Salih.
Religious Inquiries
Volume 3, No. 6, Summer and Autumn 2014, 31-52
Torah and
Mishpat
: The Law and its Liberation
Spirit
Lutz Alexander Keferstein1
This essay has two primary objectives. First, acknowledging the fact that
the philosopher‘s fundamental responsibility, due to the conditions of
social order in many regions and nations around the world, requires not merely thought but also actions that transform this world into a more equitable and inclusive one, the author proposes to show the reader a simple way (among many other possibilities) to connect the Enlightenment discourse of practical reason, acclaimed as a novelty of modernity, with the discourse of so-called symbolic reason, frequently reviled by the worldview of modern scientific and academic communities although experienced on a daily basis by peoples all over the world. Second, the author wishes to present an interpretation of the notion of justice as found in the texts considered sacred within Jewish and Christian communities, contrasting it with the traditional way of defining such a notion, the Ulpian Roman way, upon which the normativity of the self-proclaimed modern peoples is based.
Key words: Enlightenment, practical reason, symbolic reason, Paul of Tarsus, Torah, Mishpat, justice.
I. Excursus
I.I All Discourses Are Symbolic; Therefore, They Can Become Myths, Even Scientific and Enlightenment Discourses
Symbol of distrust Predicting all is lost The shepherds lost his flock In words of seers
Man, myth and magic
Conrad Lant2
32 / Religious Inquiries 6
Despite everything said about its arrival, peak, and arguable culmination, modernity remains an unfinished project, as is its most exemplary goal: the illumination of the world. Given the fact a society‘s famous ―age of majority,‖ a period in which they supposedly became responsible for their own destinies, implies the implementation of their rights and the fulfillment of their obligations in an autonomous manner, the removal of gods from life—along with the fatalism represented by those gods—is considered an enabling condition. Due to the causality and sometimes identity-based links that exist between the representations of public and divine power, politics should be divorced from religion. Apparently, in terms of the pure
logic utilized in the field of modern politics, the established union, or even the assigned identity, between politics stricto sensu and religious belief is nonsensical. It is so because, theoretically, politics stricto sensu is reduced to those institutions of delegated popular will which represent the public sphere—having the obligation to include, while transforming the world, the perspectives and voices of all community members who might be affected by that transformation, while religious beliefs are solely affirmable at the subjective level with the right to be freely expressed in the private sphere through liturgy, cannon and doctrine. Nevertheless, the rift between politics and religion does not exist when we refer to lato sensu politics, i.e. that modality of politics whose field of existence is comprised by universal inter-subjective relations. While religions are constrained to the subjective plane, assuming the existence of personal religion is by definition another nonsensical thought, equal in magnitude to the one that marries them in stricto sensu politics. Religions imply community and community implies politics. In the face of these two types of political/religious relationships, and in order to remove the religious legitimation of the government from the societal subconscious, the Enlightenment thinker concluded, firstly, the necessity of founding a discourse that would promote the substitution of so-called mythical reason in favor of an essentially critical rationality that, in turn, would ground its judgments in a cluster of theoretical knowledge that were measurable, predictable and universally objective—the goal being to attain a more civilized society in terms of understanding the world (epistemological project) which would simultaneously have repercussions in the realm of inter-subjective relations (ethical project) and its means to achieve all of the above (stricto sensu political project). Enlightenment was, finally, an ethical/political project, since
2.―Man, Myth and Magic,‖ popular song included in the album Resurrection, Venom, SPV,
Torah and Mishpat: The Law and its Liberation Spirit / 33
it sought to lay the theoretical foundation that would allow a path to be traced towards the generation of an equitable world, a world resulting from the interaction and collaboration of intelligent, autonomous subjects.
This goal would be achieved after a long and winding road that should begin with worldly disenchantment in the magical sense of the word. The mythical reason that, according to modern and Enlightenment thinkers, had kept the human world in darkness since its inception—by means of fusing and confusing emotions, psychological states, and even hormonal states with entities external to the subject himself in matters that actually belonged to a comprehensible natural order which can be summarized in formulas—had to be substituted by critical reason, profaner of any epistemological taboo. After this had happened, and in being already formed by autonomous subjects, humanity would be able to make its own decisions. Later on, in order to reasonably coexist, subjects would self-regulate within the private sphere, which would finally to free and rational co-regulation in the public realm.
However, and since it is evident that circumstances of heteronomy and oppression still exist for the majority of subjects in the world, it is not dangerous to affirm or accept that Enlightenment is an unfinished project. Unfortunately, because its final aspirations are plainly desirable,3 not only has the project of Enlightenment not reached true consolidation, but it is actually an unfinishable project theoretically (formal field) as well as practically (material field), due both to misinterpretations of its premises and to the fundamentalist radicalisms into which we, its most fervent defenders, tend to fall when it comes to choosing the means for transforming the world. This situation can only be frustrating for a person obsessed by positive knowledge who, at the same time, could lead his life trying to do the same with others‘ lives in accordance with previously conceived codifications—which, although scientific in appearance, are actually subjective and arbitrary. Think for a moment about the unfinishability
of the Enlightenment project through the following example: millions
of people‘s daily lives in central Europe—a geographical space
traditionally accepted in academic discussions as the cradle, growth, peak, and material presentation of Enlightenment—show clear signs that its inhabiting subjects, both personal and communal, still assign
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meanings to the evolution of events in life that go beyond what is strictly accepted by science. People still read horoscopes; talk about karma; believe in reincarnation; go to Christian and Muslim temples and those of various new age brotherhoods; and believe in news broadcasters and TV commercials. However, it is undeniable that European societies, within themselves and after the devastation provoked by the Second World War, have found themselves intermittently closer to the Enlightenment project, to the Kantian ethical society, and more recently to the one posited by Habermas. Habermas, like Kant, deems a society ethical when it directs itself both according to rules
