Origin
Origin
of
of
Species
Species
150th Anniversary Edition
150th Anniversary Edition
Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin
The
The
Special Introduction by Ray Comfort
Special Introduction by Ray Comfort
The Origin of Species: 150th
The Origin of Species: 150th Anniversary EditionAnniversary Edition
by Charles Darwin by Charles Darwin
Copyright ©2009 by Bridge-Logos Copyright ©2009 by Bridge-Logos
All rights reserved. Under International Copyright Law, no part of this All rights reserved. Under International Copyright Law, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, or transmitted by any means— publication may be reproduced, stored, or transmitted by any means— electronic, mechanical, photographic (photocopy), recording, or otherwise— electronic, mechanical, photographic (photocopy), recording, or otherwise— without written permission from
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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2009931773 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2009931773 International Standard Book Number 978-0-88270-919-2 International Standard Book Number 978-0-88270-919-2
question.” question.”
— Charles Darwin, — Charles Darwin, Introduction to
Introduction to Origin of SpeciesOrigin of Species (1859)(1859)
“Teachers and students should have the academic freedom “Teachers and students should have the academic freedom to discuss both the strengths and weaknesses of evolution as a to discuss both the strengths and weaknesses of evolution as a scientific theory.”
scientific theory.”
— 84% of college graduates agree — 84% of college graduates agree (2009 Zogby International survey of likely voters) (2009 Zogby International survey of likely voters)
“Education, you know, means broadening, advancing, “Education, you know, means broadening, advancing, and if you limit a teacher to only one side of anything the and if you limit a teacher to only one side of anything the whole country will eventually have only one thought, be one whole country will eventually have only one thought, be one individual. I believe in teaching every aspect of every problem individual. I believe in teaching every aspect of every problem or theory.”
or theory.”
— John T. Scopes (1925, at a banquet in NY — John T. Scopes (1925, at a banquet in NY prior to the “Scopes Monkey Trial”) prior to the “Scopes Monkey Trial”)
“As we know
“As we know, there is a great divergenc, there is a great divergence of opinion amonge of opinion among biologists … because the evidence is unsatisfactory and does biologists … because the evidence is unsatisfactory and does not permit any certain conclusion. It is therefore right and not permit any certain conclusion. It is therefore right and proper to draw the attention of the non-scientific public to proper to draw the attention of the non-scientific public to the disagreements about evolution. But some recent remarks the disagreements about evolution. But some recent remarks of evolutionists show that they think this unreasonable. of evolutionists show that they think this unreasonable. This situation, where scientific men rally to the defense of This situation, where scientific men rally to the defense of a doctrine they are unable to define scientifically, much less a doctrine they are unable to define scientifically, much less demonstrate with scientific rigor, attempting to maintain its demonstrate with scientific rigor, attempting to maintain its credit with the public by the suppression of criticism and the credit with the public by the suppression of criticism and the elimination of difficulties, is abnormal and unwise in elimination of difficulties, is abnormal and unwise in science.”
science.”
— Prof. W. R. Thompson, F.R.S., — Prof. W. R. Thompson, F.R.S., Introduction to
SPECIAL INTRODUCTION SPECIAL INTRODUCTION IntroductIon IntroductIon cHAPtEr I cHAPtEr I V
VARIAARIATION TION UNDER UNDER DOMESTDOMESTICAICATIONTION cHAPtEr II
cHAPtEr II
VARIATION UNDER NATURE VARIATION UNDER NATURE
cHAPtEr III cHAPtEr III
STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE
cHAPtEr IV cHAPtEr IV NATURAL SELECTION NATURAL SELECTION cHAPtEr V cHAPtEr V LAWS OF
LAWS OF VVARIARIAATIOTIONN cHAPtEr VI cHAPtEr VI DIFFICULTIES ON THEORY DIFFICULTIES ON THEORY cHAPtEr VII cHAPtEr VII INSTINCT INSTINCT cHAPtEr VIII cHAPtEr VIII HYBRIDISM HYBRIDISM cHAPtEr IX cHAPtEr IX
ON THE IMPERFECTION OF THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD ON THE IMPERFECTION OF THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD
cHAPtEr X cHAPtEr X
ON THE GEOLOGICAL SUCCESSION OF ORGANIC BEINGS ON THE GEOLOGICAL SUCCESSION OF ORGANIC BEINGS
cHAPtEr XI cHAPtEr XI GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION cHAPtEr XII cHAPtEr XII GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION—
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION— continued continued cHAPtEr XIII
cHAPtEr XIII MUTUAL
MUTUAL AFFINITIES OF AFFINITIES OF ORGANIC ORGANIC BEINGS: MORPHOLOGY:BEINGS: MORPHOLOGY: EMBRYOLOGY: RUDIMENTAR
EMBRYOLOGY: RUDIMENTARY ORGANY ORGANSS cHAPtEr XIV
The History of Charles Darwin
The History of Charles Darwin
CALES DAIN was born in the town of Shrewsbury, CALES DAIN was born in the town of Shrewsbury, England, on the 12th of February, 1808. e was the fifth of six England, on the 12th of February, 1808. e was the fifth of six children born to Dr. obert Darwin, a wealthy society doctor, children born to Dr. obert Darwin, a wealthy society doctor, and Susannah (
and Susannah (edgwood) Darwin, of edgwood) Darwin, of pottery distinction. ispottery distinction. is mother tragically died when Charles was only eight years old. mother tragically died when Charles was only eight years old. Shortly after her death, Charles’ father sent him
Shortly after her death, Charles’ father sent him to an Anglicanto an Anglican boarding school until he reached the age of sixteen. owever, boarding school until he reached the age of sixteen. owever, the young man showed less interest in studying than he did in the young man showed less interest in studying than he did in nature and hunting.
nature and hunting.
is father fully expected Charles to follow his footsteps is father fully expected Charles to follow his footsteps into the medical profession. In
into the medical profession. In 1825, Charles entered Edinburgh1825, Charles entered Edinburgh University seeking a medical degree, but he found lectures University seeking a medical degree, but he found lectures extremely dull and surgery very distressing. The sight of
extremely dull and surgery very distressing. The sight of bloodblood sickened him, so he left after two years.
sickened him, so he left after two years.
Some time later he moved to Cambridge and enrolled at Some time later he moved to Cambridge and enrolled at Christ’s College to study for the ministry. is hope was that as Christ’s College to study for the ministry. is hope was that as a minister he would have time to pursue his real passion, that a minister he would have time to pursue his real passion, that of studying natural history. e then befriended botanist ev. of studying natural history. e then befriended botanist ev. John Stevens enslow, and through that relationship his deep John Stevens enslow, and through that relationship his deep
interest in zoology and geography began to develop. interest in zoology and geography began to develop.
hen Charles was 22 years old, enslow recommended hen Charles was 22 years old, enslow recommended that he go as a naturalist on a science expedition to South that he go as a naturalist on a science expedition to South America. is father was not
America. is father was not at all congenial to what was at all congenial to what was plannedplanned to be a two-year voyage, believing it was a total waste of time. to be a two-year voyage, believing it was a total waste of time. owever, obert Darwin was persuaded by his brother-in-law owever, obert Darwin was persuaded by his brother-in-law to consent to
Emma Darwin Emma Darwin
A young Charles Darwin A young Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin, age 31 Charles Darwin, age 31
In 1831, Charles Darwin boarded the
In 1831, Charles Darwin boarded the HMS Beagle HMS Beagle for afor a trip that would change his life, and change the world. During trip that would change his life, and change the world. During what turned out to be a five-year voyage, Charles kept careful what turned out to be a five-year voyage, Charles kept careful notes of what he observed, and sent many of his speculations notes of what he observed, and sent many of his speculations back to Cambridge. As he studied plant and animal life back to Cambridge. As he studied plant and animal life throughout the region, he observed minor differences among throughout the region, he observed minor differences among modern creatures as well as
modern creatures as well as similarities between those creaturessimilarities between those creatures and extinct varieties. According to one source, “Out of this and extinct varieties. According to one source, “Out of this
study
study
grew several related theories: one, evolution did occur;grew several related theories: one, evolution did occur; two, evolutionary change was gradual, requiring thousands to two, evolutionary change was gradual, requiring thousands to millions of years; three, the primary mechanism for evolution millions of years; three, the primary mechanism for evolution was a process called natural selection; and four, the millions of was a process called natural selection; and four, the millions of species alive today arose from aspecies alive today arose from a single original life form throughsingle original life form through a branching process called
a branching process called ‘speciation.’”‘speciation.’”11
Darwin returned to his homeland October 2, 1836, and Darwin returned to his homeland October 2, 1836, and found that he was already a celebrity in scientific circles. e found that he was already a celebrity in scientific circles. e brought back a huge assortment of specimens from
brought back a huge assortment of specimens from the voyagethe voyage and further established himself as a
and further established himself as a respected naturalist amongrespected naturalist among his London peers.
his London peers. e completed his
e completed his journal in 1837, howeverjournal in 1837, however, his , his intense studyintense study caused him to have worrying health problems. On September caused him to have worrying health problems. On September 20 he began to have uncomfortable heart palpitations, and his 20 he began to have uncomfortable heart palpitations, and his doctors urged him to rest by living for a time in the country. doctors urged him to rest by living for a time in the country.
Charles Darwin and
Shortly after that Charles married his cousin, Emma Shortly after that Charles married his cousin, Emma edgwood, and in 1839 he published the journal of the voyage edgwood, and in 1839 he published the journal of the voyage of the
of the HMS HMS BeagleBeagle. That brought him instant respect among. That brought him instant respect among the intellectuals of London. Charles and his wife then moved to the intellectuals of London. Charles and his wife then moved to Down ouse in Kent in 1842, and raised ten children.
Down ouse in Kent in 1842, and raised ten children. In 1859, he published
In 1859, he published The Origin of Species by Means of The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the
Struggle for Life
Struggle for Life (later changed to(later changed to On the Origin of SpeciesOn the Origin of Species).).
T
Timeline of
imeline of Darwin’s life
Darwin’s life
1809: On February 12, Charles obert Darwin was born in 1809: On February 12, Charles obert Darwin was born in
Shrewsbury, Shropshire. Shrewsbury, Shropshire. 1817: Charles’
1817: Charles’s mother s mother Susannah dies when he Susannah dies when he was eight yearswas eight years old.
old.
1818: e joins his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby 1818: e joins his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby
Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder. Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder.
1825: Charles spends the summer as an apprentice doctor, 1825: Charles spends the summer as an apprentice doctor,
helping his father treat the poor of
helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire.Shropshire.
1831–1836: Darwin travels around South America as a naturalist 1831–1836: Darwin travels around South America as a naturalist
on the ship
on the ship HMS Beagle HMS Beagle..
1835–1836: e first gives serious thought to the evolution of 1835–1836: e first gives serious thought to the evolution of species while studying Galapagos Island mockingbirds, species while studying Galapagos Island mockingbirds, writing, “If there is the slightest foundation for these writing, “If there is the slightest foundation for these remarks the zoology of
remarks the zoology of Archipelagoes will be well worthArchipelagoes will be well worth examining, for such facts would undermine the stability examining, for such facts would undermine the stability of species.”
of species.”
1837: Charles draws the famous evolutionary “tree” in his 1837: Charles draws the famous evolutionary “tree” in his notebook and writes the words “I think.” On January notebook and writes the words “I think.” On January 4 he presents his mammal and bird specimens to the 4 he presents his mammal and bird specimens to the Zoological Society.
Zoological Society.
1838–1839: Darwin expounds his idea of “natural selection.” 1838–1839: Darwin expounds his idea of “natural selection.” 1839: e marries his cousin, Emma edgwood, and relocates 1839: e marries his cousin, Emma edgwood, and relocates
to London. e is elected a Fellow of the oyal Society. to London. e is elected a Fellow of the oyal Society. 1840: Darwin publishes his
1840: Darwin publishes his Zoology of the Voyage of the BeagleZoology of the Voyage of the Beagle.. 1842: e pens his first paper on his evolutionary ideas, and 1842: e pens his first paper on his evolutionary ideas, and
moves to live in Down ouse. moves to live in Down ouse.
1844: e authors an essay on the subject of evolution by natural 1844: e authors an essay on the subject of evolution by natural
selection, telling his wife: “I have just
selection, telling his wife: “I have just finished my sketchfinished my sketch of my species theory. If, as I believe [...] my theory is of my species theory. If, as I believe [...] my theory is
true, and if it be accepted even by one competent judge, true, and if it be accepted even by one competent judge, it will be a
it will be a considerable step in science.”considerable step in science.” 1851: Darwin was
1851: Darwin was devastated when his beloved daughterdevastated when his beloved daughter, Annie, Annie Elizabeth, dies at the age of ten.
Elizabeth, dies at the age of ten. 1856: Charles begins to write
1856: Charles begins to write On the Origin of SpeciesOn the Origin of Species.. 1858: alfway through the book, on June 18 he receives a
1858: alfway through the book, on June 18 he receives a paperpaper from naturalist Alfred
from naturalist Alfred ussel ussel allace describing naturalallace describing natural selection.
selection.
1858: On July 1, both Darwin and allace have their beliefs 1858: On July 1, both Darwin and allace have their beliefs presented at the Linnaean Society. Charles attended presented at the Linnaean Society. Charles attended the funeral for his youngest son on the same day as the the funeral for his youngest son on the same day as the meeting, so he was
meeting, so he was unable to present his thesis.unable to present his thesis. 1859:
1859: On the Origin of SpeciesOn the Origin of Species is published. The entire stock of is published. The entire stock of 1,250 copies went on sale on November 22.
1,250 copies went on sale on November 22. 1871: is book
1871: is book The Descent of ManThe Descent of Man is published, in which heis published, in which he applies his idea of evolution to
applies his idea of evolution to human beings.human beings.
1882: Darwin dies on April 19, and is buried alongside Isaac 1882: Darwin dies on April 19, and is buried alongside Isaac
Newton in estminster Abbey. Newton in estminster Abbey.
Darwin’s Religious Belief
Darwin’s Religious Belief
Darwin’
Darwin’s work s work has helped fuel has helped fuel intense debates about intense debates about religionreligion and science, then and now, so it’s worthwhile to consider what and science, then and now, so it’s worthwhile to consider what his own religious beliefs were. Just as
his own religious beliefs were. Just as his theory has influencedhis theory has influenced people’
people’s views about God, s views about God, his view of God his view of God has helped to shapehas helped to shape his theory.
his theory.
Many will be surpr
Many will be surprised to learn that, aised to learn that, as a young boys a young boy, Charles, Charles Darwin attended church with his mother
Darwin attended church with his mother and received religiousand received religious training at a Church of England boarding school. Darwin even training at a Church of England boarding school. Darwin even attended Cambridge to study for the ministry, saying that he attended Cambridge to study for the ministry, saying that he “did not then in the least doubt the strict and literal truth of “did not then in the least doubt the strict and literal truth of every word in the Bible.” e wrote in his autobiography that every word in the Bible.” e wrote in his autobiography that he was at one point led by
he was at one point led by “the firm conviction of the existence“the firm conviction of the existence of God, and of the immortality of the soul,” believing that of God, and of the immortality of the soul,” believing that “there is more in
“there is more in man than the mere man than the mere breath of his bodybreath of his body.”.” Darwin recalled that at the time of writing
Darwin recalled that at the time of writing On the Origin of On the Origin of Species
Specieshe was convinced of the existence of God he was convinced of the existence of God as an intelligentas an intelligent First Cause and deserved to be called a theist. owever, his First Cause and deserved to be called a theist. owever, his views would begin to change while on board the
views would begin to change while on board the BeagleBeagle and byand by the time he returned to England in 1836 he had come to view the time he returned to England in 1836 he had come to view
HMS Beagle by Conrad Martens HMS Beagle by Conrad Martens
God as a “revengeful tyrant.” hat was it that changed his God as a “revengeful tyrant.” hat was it that changed his views? During the voyage he had ample opportunity to see views? During the voyage he had ample opportunity to see thethe cruelties of slavery and wondered how God could allow such cruelties of slavery and wondered how God could allow such inhumanity to exist. e also could not accept that a kind God inhumanity to exist. e also could not accept that a kind God would allow men to live
would allow men to live in such a wretched state as in such a wretched state as the nativesthe natives of Tierra del Fuego. The issue of why God would allow such of Tierra del Fuego. The issue of why God would allow such suffering in the world was an
suffering in the world was an internal conflict that Darwin couldinternal conflict that Darwin could not resolve. e recorded the thoughts he
not resolve. e recorded the thoughts he struggled with:struggled with: A being so powerful and so full of knowledge as A being so powerful and so full of knowledge as a God who could create the universe, is to our finite a God who could create the universe, is to our finite minds omnipotent and omniscient, and it revolts our minds omnipotent and omniscient, and it revolts our understanding to suppose that his benevolence is not understanding to suppose that his benevolence is not unbounded … This very old
unbounded … This very old argument from the existenceargument from the existence of suffering against the existence of an intelligent First of suffering against the existence of an intelligent First Cause seems to me a strong one.
Cause seems to me a strong one.22
The issue of suffering was one that Darw
The issue of suffering was one that Darwin faced personalin faced personallyly,, with the death of his beloved ten-year-old daughter, Annie, in with the death of his beloved ten-year-old daughter, Annie, in 1851. This tragedy would deal a crushing blow to his religious 1851. This tragedy would deal a crushing blow to his religious beliefs, as Darwin deliberated about the Christian meaning of beliefs, as Darwin deliberated about the Christian meaning of mortality and lost all faith in a beneficent God. e continued mortality and lost all faith in a beneficent God. e continued to give support to the local church and help with parish work, to give support to the local church and help with parish work,
but on Sundays would go for a walk while his family attended but on Sundays would go for a walk while his family attended church. Darwin therefore reasoned that death and suffering church. Darwin therefore reasoned that death and suffering were integral to the operation of the world and had always were integral to the operation of the world and had always existed.
existed.
In a letter to American botanist Asa Gray in 1860, Darwin In a letter to American botanist Asa Gray in 1860, Darwin still acknowledged that God was the ultimate Lawgiver, but he still acknowledged that God was the ultimate Lawgiver, but he could not see an omnipotent Deity in all the
could not see an omnipotent Deity in all the pain and sufferingpain and suffering in the world.
in the world.
I had no intention to write atheistically, but I I had no intention to write atheistically, but I own that I cannot see as plainly as others do, and as I own that I cannot see as plainly as others do, and as I should wish to do, evidence of design and beneficence should wish to do, evidence of design and beneficence on all sides of us. There seems to me too much misery on all sides of us. There seems to me too much misery in the world.… On the other hand, I cannot anyhow in the world.… On the other hand, I cannot anyhow be contented to view this wonderful universe, and be contented to view this wonderful universe, and especially the nature of man, and to conclude that especially the nature of man, and to conclude that everything is the result of brute force. I am inclined to everything is the result of brute force. I am inclined to look at everything as resulting from
look at everything as resulting from designed laws, withdesigned laws, with the details, whether good or bad, left to the working the details, whether good or bad, left to the working out of what we may call chance.
out of what we may call chance.33
As he developed his theory of origins by purely natural As he developed his theory of origins by purely natural means, he grew further from the biblical concept of a Creator means, he grew further from the biblical concept of a Creator and said of his religious views, “I am sorry to have to inform and said of his religious views, “I am sorry to have to inform you that I do not believe in the Bible as a
you that I do not believe in the Bible as a divine revelation, anddivine revelation, and therefore not in Jesus Christ as the Son of God.”
therefore not in Jesus Christ as the Son of God.”44 e came toe came to
think that the religious instinct had evolved with society and think that the religious instinct had evolved with society and eventually concluded, “For myself, I do not believe that there eventually concluded, “For myself, I do not believe that there ever has been any revelation. As for a future life, every man must ever has been any revelation. As for a future life, every man must judge for himself
judge for himself between conflicting vague probabilities.”between conflicting vague probabilities.”55
hile in his later years Darwin was not religious to any hile in his later years Darwin was not religious to any extent, he never entirely discounted the existence of a God extent, he never entirely discounted the existence of a God butbut gradually became agnostic:
gradually became agnostic:
In my most extreme fluctuations I have never been In my most extreme fluctuations I have never been an Atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a an Atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God. I think that generally (and more and more as I God. I think that generally (and more and more as I grow older), but not always, that
grow older), but not always, that an Agnostic would bean Agnostic would be the more correct description of my state of mind.
Despite Darwin’s rejection of Christianity, he was buried Despite Darwin’s rejection of Christianity, he was buried in a famous Christian church—estminster Abbey—close to in a famous Christian church—estminster Abbey—close to Sir Isaac Newton.
Sir Isaac Newton.
The DNA Code
The DNA Code
Darwin’
Darwin’s theory of s theory of evolution is not without evolution is not without its difficulties.its difficulties. Even 150 years later, scientists have yet to supply adequate Even 150 years later, scientists have yet to supply adequate answers to what critics claim—and Darwin
answers to what critics claim—and Darwin himself admitted—himself admitted— are weaknesses of the theory. Following are some of the areas are weaknesses of the theory. Following are some of the areas of continued controversy.
of continued controversy.
The DNA that defines every aspect of our bodies is The DNA that defines every aspect of our bodies is incredibly complex, but in simplest terms it can be described incredibly complex, but in simplest terms it can be described as a book composed of only four letters. To liken DNA to a as a book composed of only four letters. To liken DNA to a book, however, is really a gross understatement. The amount book, however, is really a gross understatement. The amount of information in the 3 billion base pairs in the DNA in every of information in the 3 billion base pairs in the DNA in every human cell is equivalent to that in 1,000 books of
human cell is equivalent to that in 1,000 books of encyclopediaencyclopedia size. It would take a person typing 60 words per minute, eight size. It would take a person typing 60 words per minute, eight hours a day, around 50 years to type the human genome. And hours a day, around 50 years to type the human genome. And if all the DNA in your body’s 100 trillion cells was put end to if all the DNA in your body’s 100 trillion cells was put end to end, it would reach to the sun (90 million miles away) and back end, it would reach to the sun (90 million miles away) and back over 600 times.
over 600 times.77
Aside from the immense volume of information that your Aside from the immense volume of information that your DNA contains, consider the likelihood of all the intricate, DNA contains, consider the likelihood of all the intricate, interrelated parts of this “book” coming together by sheer interrelated parts of this “book” coming together by sheer chance. Critics claim that would be comparable to believing that chance. Critics claim that would be comparable to believing that this publication happened by accident. Imagine that there was this publication happened by accident. Imagine that there was nothing. Then paper appeared, and ink fell from nowhere onto nothing. Then paper appeared, and ink fell from nowhere onto the flat sheets and shaped itself into perfectly formed letters of the flat sheets and shaped itself into perfectly formed letters of the English alphabet. Initially, the letters said something like the English alphabet. Initially, the letters said something like this:
this: “fgsn&k cn1clxc dumbh cckvkduh vstupidm ncncx.”“fgsn&k cn1clxc dumbh cckvkduh vstupidm ncncx.” AsAs you can see, random letters rarely produce words that make you can see, random letters rarely produce words that make sense. But in time, mindless chance formed them into the sense. But in time, mindless chance formed them into the order of meaningful words with spaces between them. Periods, order of meaningful words with spaces between them. Periods, commas, capitals, italics, quotes, para
commas, capitals, italics, quotes, paragraphs, margins, etc.,graphs, margins, etc., also came into being in the correct placements. The sentences also came into being in the correct placements. The sentences then grouped themselves to relate to each other, giving them then grouped themselves to relate to each other, giving them coherence. Page numbers fell in sequence at the right places, coherence. Page numbers fell in sequence at the right places, and headers, footers, and footnotes appeared from nowhere on and headers, footers, and footnotes appeared from nowhere on the pages, matching the portions of text to which they related. the pages, matching the portions of text to which they related.
The paper trimmed itself and bound itself into a
The paper trimmed itself and bound itself into a book. The inkbook. The ink for the cover fell from
for the cover fell from different directions, being careful not todifferent directions, being careful not to incorrectly mingle with the other colors, forming itself into the incorrectly mingle with the other colors, forming itself into the graphic of Charles Darwin and title. There are multiple copies graphic of Charles Darwin and title. There are multiple copies of this publication, so it then developed the ability to replicate of this publication, so it then developed the ability to replicate itself thousands of times over.
itself thousands of times over.
Physical chemist Charles Thaxton writes: Physical chemist Charles Thaxton writes:
The DNA code is quite simple in
The DNA code is quite simple in its basic structureits basic structure (although enormously complex in its functioning). By (although enormously complex in its functioning). By now most people are familiar with the double helix now most people are familiar with the double helix structure of the DNA molecule. It
structure of the DNA molecule. It is like a long ladderis like a long ladder,, twisted into a spiral. Sugar and phosphate molecules twisted into a spiral. Sugar and phosphate molecules form the sides of the ladder. Four bases make up its form the sides of the ladder. Four bases make up its “rungs.” These are adenine, thymine, guanine, and “rungs.” These are adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. These bases act as the “letters” of a genetic cytosine. These bases act as the “letters” of a genetic alphabet. They combine in various sequences to form alphabet. They combine in various sequences to form words, sentences, and paragraphs. These base sequences words, sentences, and paragraphs. These base sequences are all the instructions needed to guide the functioning are all the instructions needed to guide the functioning of the cell.
of the cell.
The DNA code is a genetic “language” that The DNA code is a genetic “language” that communicates information to the cell … The DNA communicates information to the cell … The DNA molecule is exquisitely complex, and extremely
molecule is exquisitely complex, and extremely precise:precise: the “letters” must be in a very exact sequence. If they the “letters” must be in a very exact sequence. If they are out of order, it is like a typing error in a message. are out of order, it is like a typing error in a message. The instructions that it gives the cell
The instructions that it gives the cell are garbled. This isare garbled. This is what a mutation is.
what a mutation is.
… Since life is at its core a chemical code, the origin … Since life is at its core a chemical code, the origin of life is the origin of a code. A code is a very special of life is the origin of a code. A code is a very special kind of order. It represents “specified complexity.”
kind of order. It represents “specified complexity.”88
To ponder how DNA’s amazing structure could have come To ponder how DNA’s amazing structure could have come together by sheer accident is indeed amazing, and has even led together by sheer accident is indeed amazing, and has even led some to consider the possibility of design. Based on his study some to consider the possibility of design. Based on his study of DNA, the director of the U.S. National uman Genome of DNA, the director of the U.S. National uman Genome esearch Institute concluded there must be a God. Francis esearch Institute concluded there must be a God. Francis Collins, the scientist who led the team that cracked the human Collins, the scientist who led the team that cracked the human genome, believes it provides a rational basis for
hen you have for the first time in front of you hen you have for the first time in front of you this 3.1-billion-letter instruction book that conveys all this 3.1-billion-letter instruction book that conveys all kinds of information and all kinds of mystery about kinds of information and all kinds of mystery about humankind, you can’t survey that going through page humankind, you can’t survey that going through page after page without a sense of awe. I can’t help but look after page without a sense of awe. I can’t help but look at those pages and have a
at those pages and have a vague sense that this is givingvague sense that this is giving me a glimpse of God’s mind.
me a glimpse of God’s mind.99
DNA is an incredibly detailed language, revealing vast DNA is an incredibly detailed language, revealing vast amounts of information encoded in each and every living cell— amounts of information encoded in each and every living cell— design which could not have arisen by purely
design which could not have arisen by purely naturalistic means.naturalistic means. In every other area of our
In every other area of our world, we recognize that informationworld, we recognize that information requires intelligence and design requires a designer. ith our requires intelligence and design requires a designer. ith our present-day knowledge of DNA, this presents a formidable present-day knowledge of DNA, this presents a formidable challenge to Darwinian evolution.
challenge to Darwinian evolution.
DNA Similarities
DNA Similarities
One typical proof cited for Darwinian evolution is that One typical proof cited for Darwinian evolution is that chimpanzees and humans have very similar DNA. In previous chimpanzees and humans have very similar DNA. In previous DNA studies, based on only portions of the chimp genome, DNA studies, based on only portions of the chimp genome, scientists announced that humans and chimps were 98–99 scientists announced that humans and chimps were 98–99 percent identical, depending on what was counted. After percent identical, depending on what was counted. After completing the mapping of the chimp genome in 2005, scientists completing the mapping of the chimp genome in 2005, scientists are hailing the result as “the most dramatic confirmation yet” are hailing the result as “the most dramatic confirmation yet” that chimps and humans have common ancestry. Though the that chimps and humans have common ancestry. Though the complete genomes have yet to be compared, several studies complete genomes have yet to be compared, several studies found similarities as low as 86 percent. To date, researchers found similarities as low as 86 percent. To date, researchers believe that the genetic difference is 4 percent (though this is believe that the genetic difference is 4 percent (though this is actually twice the amount that has been
actually twice the amount that has been assumed for years).assumed for years).1010
If once the genomes have been compared the difference is If once the genomes have been compared the difference is shown to be just 4 percent, with 3 billion base pairs of DNA shown to be just 4 percent, with 3 billion base pairs of DNA in every cell, that represents
in every cell, that represents 120,000,000 entries120,000,000 entries in the DNAin the DNA code that are different. In our DNA instruction book, that’s code that are different. In our DNA instruction book, that’s equivalent to about 12 million words—a seemingly small equivalent to about 12 million words—a seemingly small percentage that has a tremendous impact.
percentage that has a tremendous impact.1111
Some critics also question the scientific basis for assuming Some critics also question the scientific basis for assuming that similar DNA
that similar DNA indicates a common ancestorindicates a common ancestor. Just . Just as a biplaneas a biplane and a jet share common features of wings, body, tires, engine, and a jet share common features of wings, body, tires, engine, controls, etc., they argue, does not require that one must have controls, etc., they argue, does not require that one must have
evolved from the other naturally, without a maker. They argue evolved from the other naturally, without a maker. They argue it’s more reasonable to conclude that similar design indicates it’s more reasonable to conclude that similar design indicates a common, intelligent designer. An architect typically uses a common, intelligent designer. An architect typically uses similar building materials for numerous buildings, and a car similar building materials for numerous buildings, and a car manufacturer commonly uses the same parts in
manufacturer commonly uses the same parts in various models.various models. So if creation had a common
So if creation had a common designerdesigner, we could expect to find , we could expect to find aa similar “blueprint” used in many different creatures.
similar “blueprint” used in many different creatures.
Since DNA is the coding for the way our bodies look and Since DNA is the coding for the way our bodies look and operate, some reason that creatures with similar features or body operate, some reason that creatures with similar features or body functions (eyes for vision, enzymes for digestion, etc.) would functions (eyes for vision, enzymes for digestion, etc.) would have similar coding for these things in their DNA. Because have similar coding for these things in their DNA. Because human cells have the same biochemical functions as many human cells have the same biochemical functions as many different animals and even plants, we share many of the same different animals and even plants, we share many of the same genes. The more functions we have in common, the more we genes. The more functions we have in common, the more we find similar coding in the blueprints. So while evolution states find similar coding in the blueprints. So while evolution states that similar DNA is proof of common ancestry, opponents that similar DNA is proof of common ancestry, opponents interpret the same evidence as proof
interpret the same evidence as proof of a common designerof a common designer. The. The challenge is to prove scientifically which is true.
challenge is to prove scientifically which is true. T
To the question of whetho the question of whether sharing 96 percener sharing 96 percent of our genetict of our genetic make-up with chimps makes us
make-up with chimps makes us 96 percent chimp, evolutionist96 percent chimp, evolutionist
Charles Darwin’s study room. Charles Darwin’s study room.
Steven Jones, a renowned British geneticist, humorously Steven Jones, a renowned British geneticist, humorously commented, “e also share about 50% of our DNA with commented, “e also share about 50% of our DNA with bananas and that doesn’t make us half bananas …”
bananas and that doesn’t make us half bananas …”1212
Transitional Forms
Transitional Forms
As evidence that Darwin’s theory is correct—that humans As evidence that Darwin’s theory is correct—that humans and chimps evolved from a common ancestor—we would and chimps evolved from a common ancestor—we would expect to find something that is half monkey, half man. These expect to find something that is half monkey, half man. These intermediate stages where one species evolves into another intermediate stages where one species evolves into another species are called “transitional forms.”
species are called “transitional forms.”
Because evolution is said to have occurred in the past, we Because evolution is said to have occurred in the past, we have to look to paleontology, the science of the study of fossils, have to look to paleontology, the science of the study of fossils, to find evidence on the history of life. ell-known French to find evidence on the history of life. ell-known French paleontologist Pierre-Paul Grassé explains:
paleontologist Pierre-Paul Grassé explains:
Naturalists must remember that the process of Naturalists must remember that the process of evolution is revealed only through fossil forms … Only evolution is revealed only through fossil forms … Only paleontology can provide them with the evidence of paleontology can provide them with the evidence of evolution and reveal its course or m
evolution and reveal its course or mechanisms.echanisms.1313
e would expect to find that proof of the theory of e would expect to find that proof of the theory of evolution would be readily available in the fossil evidence. evolution would be readily available in the fossil evidence. The fossil record should reveal
The fossil record should reveal millionsmillions of transitional forms,of transitional forms, as life gradually evolved from one species to another. Darwin as life gradually evolved from one species to another. Darwin understood that evolutionary theory was dependent on these understood that evolutionary theory was dependent on these transitional forms. e wrote in
transitional forms. e wrote in On The Origin of Species:On The Origin of Species: hy, if species have descended from other hy, if species have descended from other species by fine gradations, do we not everywhere see species by fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms? hy is not all nature innumerable transitional forms? hy is not all nature in confusion, instead of the species being, as we see in confusion, instead of the species being, as we see them, well defined?...As by this theory innumerable them, well defined?...As by this theory innumerable transitional forms must have existed, why do we not transitional forms must have existed, why do we not find them embedded in countless numbers in the crust find them embedded in countless numbers in the crust of the Earth?
of the Earth?1414
Darwin acknowledged that the absence of intermediates put Darwin acknowledged that the absence of intermediates put his theory in doubt, but he
his theory in doubt, but he attributed their lack to the scarcity of attributed their lack to the scarcity of fossils at that time—and he had
be found. owever, nearly 150 years later, the situation has not be found. owever, nearly 150 years later, the situation has not improved much. After scientists have searched diligently for a improved much. After scientists have searched diligently for a century and a half for evidence, we now have over 100 million century and a half for evidence, we now have over 100 million fossils catalogued in the world’s museums, covering 250,000 fossils catalogued in the world’s museums, covering 250,000 different species, which should be sufficient to
different species, which should be sufficient to give an accurategive an accurate picture of our past. Since paleontology holds the key to our picture of our past. Since paleontology holds the key to our history, does it reveal the gradual progression from simple life history, does it reveal the gradual progression from simple life forms to more complex? Did
forms to more complex? Did we find the millions of we find the millions of transitionaltransitional forms that would be expected with
forms that would be expected with evolution?evolution?
Scientists believed they found one in 1999 with Scientists believed they found one in 1999 with Archaeoraptor
Archaeoraptor . The scientific community (including. The scientific community (including National National Geographic
Geographic ) proclaimed that they had found the “missing ) proclaimed that they had found the “missing link”link” between carnivorous dinosaurs and modern birds,
between carnivorous dinosaurs and modern birds,1515 though itthough it
was quickly exposed as a fraud. A Chinese farmer had glued was quickly exposed as a fraud. A Chinese farmer had glued together the head and body of a primitive bird and the tail and together the head and body of a primitive bird and the tail and hind limbs of a dromaeosaur dinosaur.
hind limbs of a dromaeosaur dinosaur.
Storrs L. Olson, curator of birds at the National Museum Storrs L. Olson, curator of birds at the National Museum of Natural istory at the Smithsonian Institution, stated that of Natural istory at the Smithsonian Institution, stated that the feathered dinosaur that was pictured is “simply imaginary the feathered dinosaur that was pictured is “simply imaginary and has no place outside of science fiction.” e criticized and has no place outside of science fiction.” e criticized the magazine for publicizing this forgery, saying, “
the magazine for publicizing this forgery, saying, “ National National Geographic
Geographic has reached an all-time low for engaging inhas reached an all-time low for engaging in sensationalistic, unsubstantiated, tabloid journalism,” and he sensationalistic, unsubstantiated, tabloid journalism,” and he added, “The idea of feathered dinosaurs … is now
added, “The idea of feathered dinosaurs … is now fast becomingfast becoming one of the grander scientific hoaxes of our
one of the grander scientific hoaxes of our age.”age.”1616
Aside from “feathered dinosaurs,” many other supposed Aside from “feathered dinosaurs,” many other supposed missing links have been debunked. For example, a Berkeley missing links have been debunked. For example, a Berkeley website claims that “there are numerous examples of
website claims that “there are numerous examples of transitionaltransitional forms in the fossil record, providing an abundance of evidence forms in the fossil record, providing an abundance of evidence for
for change change over over time.” time.” The The only only example example cited cited as as proof proof isis Pakicetus
Pakicetus. The website, labeled “Understanding Evolution for. The website, labeled “Understanding Evolution for Teachers,” describes
Teachers,” describes PakicetusPakicetus as an early ancestor to modernas an early ancestor to modern whales. ow can scientists tell this? According to the website, whales. ow can scientists tell this? According to the website, “Although pakicetids were land mammals, it is clear that “Although pakicetids were land mammals, it is clear that they are related to whales and dolphins based on a number of they are related to whales and dolphins based on a number of specializations of the
specializations of the earear, relating , relating to hearing.”to hearing.”1717
In an accompanying illustration, paleontologist Phil In an accompanying illustration, paleontologist Phil Gingerich depicts a swimming creature with its forelimbs on Gingerich depicts a swimming creature with its forelimbs on the way to becoming flippers, claiming that it is “perfectly the way to becoming flippers, claiming that it is “perfectly
later, full-fledged whales.”
later, full-fledged whales.”1818 Although the body he drew doesAlthough the body he drew does
look like a very convincing transitional form, his conclusion look like a very convincing transitional form, his conclusion was based on only a few fragments of a
was based on only a few fragments of a skull skull . Not a single bone. Not a single bone of the body had been found. Once a more complete skeleton of the body had been found. Once a more complete skeleton was discovered, it proved that
was discovered, it proved that PakicetusPakicetus looked nothing likelooked nothing like the creature he imagined.
the creature he imagined.1919
The creatures that Gingerich was looking at were simply The creatures that Gingerich was looking at were simply different animals with similar
different animals with similar hearing abilityhearing ability, and , and his conclusionhis conclusion was merely unscientific speculation. Sadly, this happens all was merely unscientific speculation. Sadly, this happens all too frequently among evolutionary scientists in a field where too frequently among evolutionary scientists in a field where spectacular finds are rewarded with great fame, funding, and spectacular finds are rewarded with great fame, funding, and prestige among their peers. Many alleged “missing links” are prestige among their peers. Many alleged “missing links” are based on only a single fossil fragment and the wishful thinking based on only a single fossil fragment and the wishful thinking of their discoverers.
of their discoverers.
After acknowledging that “imaginations certainly took After acknowledging that “imaginations certainly took flight over
flight over Archaeoraptor Archaeoraptor ,” a,” a U.S. News & World ReportU.S. News & World Report writerwriter added:
added:
Archaeoraptor
Archaeoraptor is hardly the first “missing link”is hardly the first “missing link” to snap under scrutiny. In 1912, fossil remains of an to snap under scrutiny. In 1912, fossil remains of an ancient hominid were found in England’s Piltdown ancient hominid were found in England’s Piltdown quarries and quickly dubbed man’s apelike ancestor. It quarries and quickly dubbed man’s apelike ancestor. It took decades to reveal the hoax.
took decades to reveal the hoax.2020
Piltdown was a deliberate fraud, as a paleontologist filed Piltdown was a deliberate fraud, as a paleontologist filed down teeth from an orangutan jaw and included it with pieces down teeth from an orangutan jaw and included it with pieces from a human skull, treated them with acid to make them from a human skull, treated them with acid to make them appear old, and buried them in a gravel pit. As far as man’s appear old, and buried them in a gravel pit. As far as man’s supposed ancestry is concerned, the Piltdown
supposed ancestry is concerned, the Piltdown Man fraud wasn’tMan fraud wasn’t an isolated incident. The famed Nebraska Man was derived an isolated incident. The famed Nebraska Man was derived from a
from a single toothsingle tooth, which was later found to be from an extinct, which was later found to be from an extinct pig. Java Man, found in the early 20th century, was nothing pig. Java Man, found in the early 20th century, was nothing more than a piece of skull, a fragment of
more than a piece of skull, a fragment of a thigh bone, and threea thigh bone, and three molar teeth. The rest came from the deeply fertile imaginations molar teeth. The rest came from the deeply fertile imaginations of plaster of Paris workers. Java Man is now regarded as fully of plaster of Paris workers. Java Man is now regarded as fully human. eidelberg Man came from a jawbone, a large chin human. eidelberg Man came from a jawbone, a large chin section, and a few teeth. Most scientists reject the jawbone section, and a few teeth. Most scientists reject the jawbone because it’s similar to that of modern man. And Neanderthal because it’s similar to that of modern man. And Neanderthal Man was exposed as being fully human, not ape. Not only was Man was exposed as being fully human, not ape. Not only was
his stooped posture found to be caused by disease, but he also his stooped posture found to be caused by disease, but he also spoke and was artistic and religious.
spoke and was artistic and religious.
The Missing Link
The Missing Link
In May 2009, however, headlines boldly proclaimed that In May 2009, however, headlines boldly proclaimed that scientists had finally found the missing link between animals scientists had finally found the missing link between animals and man. One article stated: “Scientists have unveiled a and man. One article stated: “Scientists have unveiled a 47-million-year-old fossilized skeleton of a monkey hailed as 47-million-year-old fossilized skeleton of a monkey hailed as the missing link in human evolution. The search for a direct the missing link in human evolution. The search for a direct connection between humans and the rest of the animal kingdom connection between humans and the rest of the animal kingdom has taken 200 years—but it was presented to the world today has taken 200 years—but it was presented to the world today at a special news conference in New York.”
at a special news conference in New York.”2121 esearchers sayesearchers say
this transitional species finally confirms Darwin’s theory of this transitional species finally confirms Darwin’s theory of evolution, with some even suggesting that the “lemur monkey” evolution, with some even suggesting that the “lemur monkey” dubbed Ida is the “eighth wonder of the world.” Sir David dubbed Ida is the “eighth wonder of the world.” Sir David Attenborough said Darwin “would have been thrilled” to have Attenborough said Darwin “would have been thrilled” to have seen the fossil, saying that it tells us who we are and where we seen the fossil, saying that it tells us who we are and where we came from. “This is the one that connects us directly with them came from. “This is the one that connects us directly with them [the rest of the mammals],” he added. “Now people can say [the rest of the mammals],” he added. “Now people can say ‘okay we are primates, show us the link.’ The link they would ‘okay we are primates, show us the link.’ The link they would have said up to now is missing—
have said up to now is missing—well it’s no longer missingwell it’s no longer missing.”.”2222
It’s true that Ida was an important find because of its It’s true that Ida was an important find because of its 95 percent completeness, in sharp contrast to earlier fossil 95 percent completeness, in sharp contrast to earlier fossil evidence. One of the world’s leading fossil experts, Professor evidence. One of the world’s leading fossil experts, Professor Jorn urum
Jorn urum of Norway’of Norway’s National istory s National istory Museum, stated:Museum, stated: It’s part of our evolution that’s been hidden so far, It’s part of our evolution that’s been hidden so far, it’s been hidden because all the other specimens are so it’s been hidden because all the other specimens are so incomplete. They are so broken there’s almost nothing incomplete. They are so broken there’s almost nothing to study and now this wonderful fossil appears and it to study and now this wonderful fossil appears and it makes the story so much easier to tell, so it’s really a makes the story so much easier to tell, so it’s really a dream come true.
dream come true.2323
But was Ida the missing link? Not
But was Ida the missing link? Not according to Chris Beard,according to Chris Beard, curator of vertebrate paleontology at the Carnegie Museum of curator of vertebrate paleontology at the Carnegie Museum of Natural istory. Beard told
Natural istory. Beard told LiveScienceLiveScience that he disagreed withthat he disagreed with some of the outlandish claims researchers made, such as the some of the outlandish claims researchers made, such as the suggestion that Ida represents a “missing link” between early suggestion that Ida represents a “missing link” between early primates and humans. “It’s not a missing link,” Beard said, “it’s primates and humans. “It’s not a missing link,” Beard said, “it’s
not even a terribly close relative to monkeys, apes and
not even a terribly close relative to monkeys, apes and humans,humans, which is the point they’re trying to make.”
which is the point they’re trying to make.”2424
“On the whole I think
“On the whole I think the evidence is less than convincing,”the evidence is less than convincing,” stated Chris Gilbert, a paleoanthropologist at Yale University. stated Chris Gilbert, a paleoanthropologist at Yale University. “I would definitely say that the consensus is not in
“I would definitely say that the consensus is not in favor of thefavor of the hypothesis they’re proposing.”
hypothesis they’re proposing.”2525 Paleontologist ichard Kay of Paleontologist ichard Kay of
Duke University added, “This claim is buttressed with almost Duke University added, “This claim is buttressed with almost no evidence,” while noting that there is actually evidence against no evidence,” while noting that there is actually evidence against their hypothesis and that other important fossil primates could their hypothesis and that other important fossil primates could contradict their claims.
contradict their claims.2626
Not only are missing links still missing, but the fossil Not only are missing links still missing, but the fossil record reveals that man arrived on the scene abruptly. In a record reveals that man arrived on the scene abruptly. In a PBS documentary, ichard Leakey, the world’s foremost PBS documentary, ichard Leakey, the world’s foremost paleoanthropologist
paleoanthropologist, , admitted:admitted:
If pressed about man’s ancestry, I would have to If pressed about man’s ancestry, I would have to unequivocally say that all we have is a huge question unequivocally say that all we have is a huge question mark. T
mark. To date, there has been nothing found to truthfo date, there has been nothing found to truthfullyully purport as a transitional species to man, including Lucy purport as a transitional species to man, including Lucy … If further pressed, I would have to state that there … If further pressed, I would have to state that there is more evidence to suggest an
is more evidence to suggest an abrupt arrival of manabrupt arrival of man rather than a gradual process of evolving
rather than a gradual process of evolving..2727 (emphasis(emphasis
added) added)
The fossil record reveals a similar
The fossil record reveals a similar abrupt arrival for horses,abrupt arrival for horses, rendering the classic example of horse evolution inaccurate. rendering the classic example of horse evolution inaccurate. Evolutionist Boyce ensberger addressed a symposium Evolutionist Boyce ensberger addressed a symposium attended by 150 scientists at the Field Museum of Natural attended by 150 scientists at the Field Museum of Natural istory in Chicago, which considered problems facing the istory in Chicago, which considered problems facing the theory of evolution. e describes what the fossil evidence theory of evolution. e describes what the fossil evidence reveals for horses:
reveals for horses:
The popularly told example of horse evolution, The popularly told example of horse evolution, suggesting a gradual sequence of changes from suggesting a gradual sequence of changes from four-toed, fox-sized creatures, living nearly 50 million
toed, fox-sized creatures, living nearly 50 million yearsyears ago, to today’s much larger one-toed horse, has long ago, to today’s much larger one-toed horse, has long been known to be wrong. Instead of gradual change, been known to be wrong. Instead of gradual change, fossils of each intermediate species
fossils of each intermediate species appear fully distinct,appear fully distinct, persist unchanged
This is the case not just for horses but throughout the entire This is the case not just for horses but throughout the entire animal kingdom. ather than the millions of transitional forms animal kingdom. ather than the millions of transitional forms that we would expect to find, all we have at best are a handful that we would expect to find, all we have at best are a handful of disputable examples. arvard paleontologist Stephen Jay of disputable examples. arvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould writes:
Gould writes:
The extreme rarity of transitional forms in the fossil The extreme rarity of transitional forms in the fossil record persists as the trade secret of paleontology. The record persists as the trade secret of paleontology. The evolutionary trees that adorn our textbooks have data evolutionary trees that adorn our textbooks have data only at the tips and nodes of their branches; the rest only at the tips and nodes of their branches; the rest is inference, however reasonable, not the evidence of is inference, however reasonable, not the evidence of fossils...All paleontologists know that the fossil record fossils...All paleontologists know that the fossil record contains precious little in the way of intermediate forms; contains precious little in the way of intermediate forms; transitions between major groups are characteristically transitions between major groups are characteristically abrupt
abrupt..2929 (emphasis added)(emphasis added)
The Cambrian Explosion
The Cambrian Explosion
In fact, this fossil evidence presents another difficulty for In fact, this fossil evidence presents another difficulty for evolutionary theory. As Darwin himself admitted:
evolutionary theory. As Darwin himself admitted:
The abrupt manner in which whole groups of The abrupt manner in which whole groups of species suddenly appear in certain formations, has been species suddenly appear in certain formations, has been urged by several paleontologists … as a fatal objection urged by several paleontologists … as a fatal objection to the belief in the transmutation of species. If
to the belief in the transmutation of species. If numerousnumerous species, belonging to the same genera or families, have species, belonging to the same genera or families, have really started into life at once, the fact would be
really started into life at once, the fact would be fatal tofatal to the theory of evolution through natural selection.
the theory of evolution through natural selection.3030
During the period that paleontologists call the Cambrian During the period that paleontologists call the Cambrian Explosion, virtually all the major animal forms appeared Explosion, virtually all the major animal forms appeared suddenly without any trace of less complex ancestors. No new suddenly without any trace of less complex ancestors. No new body plans have come into existence since then. The
body plans have come into existence since then. The CambrianCambrian Explosion is also known as “The Biological Big Bang,” because Explosion is also known as “The Biological Big Bang,” because the majority of complex life forms showed up virtually the majority of complex life forms showed up virtually overnight. If the entire period of life on Earth was a 24-hour overnight. If the entire period of life on Earth was a 24-hour day, the Cambrian period would be less than two minutes. Like day, the Cambrian period would be less than two minutes. Like the Big Bang that presumably began our universe, biologically the Big Bang that presumably began our universe, biologically speaking, nothing suddenly became everything.
T. S. Kemp, curator of the zoological collections at the T. S. Kemp, curator of the zoological collections at the Oxford University Museum of Natural istory, is one of the Oxford University Museum of Natural istory, is one of the world’
world’s foremost experts s foremost experts on Cambrian fossils. on Cambrian fossils. In discussing theIn discussing the sudden appearance of new species, Kemp writes:
sudden appearance of new species, Kemp writes:
ith few exceptions, radically new kinds of ith few exceptions, radically new kinds of organisms appear for the first time in the fossil record organisms appear for the first time in the fossil record already fully evolved, with most of their characteristic already fully evolved, with most of their characteristic features p
features present resent … … It is It is not at not at all what all what might have might have beenbeen expected.
expected.3131
Nature clearly does not reveal the gradually changing Nature clearly does not reveal the gradually changing picture that evolution requires. Instead, life forms are strictly picture that evolution requires. Instead, life forms are strictly separated into very distinct categories. Paleontologist obert separated into very distinct categories. Paleontologist obert Carroll, an evolutionist authority, admits this dilemma in his Carroll, an evolutionist authority, admits this dilemma in his book
book Patterns and Processes Patterns and Processes of Verteof Vertebrate Evolution:brate Evolution:
Although an almost incomprehensible number Although an almost incomprehensible number of species inhabit Earth today, they do not form of species inhabit Earth today, they do not form a continuous spectrum of barely distinguishable a continuous spectrum of barely distinguishable intermediates. Instead, nearly all species can be intermediates. Instead, nearly all species can be recognized as belonging to a relatively limited number of recognized as belonging to a relatively limited number of clearly distinct major groups, with very few illustrating clearly distinct major groups, with very few illustrating intermediate structures or ways of life.
intermediate structures or ways of life.3232
So according to the evidence produced by paleontology— So according to the evidence produced by paleontology— the only field that can
the only field that can provide proof of evolution—life didprovide proof of evolution—life did notnot evolve gradually over a long period from simple to complex evolve gradually over a long period from simple to complex forms. Instead, the fossils reveal that all the major animal forms. Instead, the fossils reveal that all the major animal groups appeared fully formed, all at one time.
groups appeared fully formed, all at one time.
egarding the Cambrian fauna, prominent British egarding the Cambrian fauna, prominent British evolutionist ichard Dawkins made a similar observation:
evolutionist ichard Dawkins made a similar observation: And we find many of them already in an advanced And we find many of them already in an advanced state of evolution, the very first time they appear. It is state of evolution, the very first time they appear. It is as though they were just planted there, without any as though they were just planted there, without any evolutionary history. Needless to say, this appearance evolutionary history. Needless to say, this appearance of sudde
