Horticulture Principles and Practices (4th Edition).pdf

HORTICULTURE

Principles and Practices

HORTICULTURE

Principles and Practices

Fourth Edition

George Acquaah

B

S

U

, M

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio

Copyright © 2009, 2005, 2002, 1999 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458.Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department.

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Acquaah, George.

Horticulture : principles and practices / George Acquaah. —4th ed. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-159247-6

ISBN-10: 0-13-159247-5 1. Horticulture. I. Title. SB318.A3 2009

635—dc22 2008006679

Editor in Chief: Vernon R. Anthony Acquisitions Editor: William Lawrensen Editorial Assistant: Nancy Kesterson Project Manager: Kevin Happell AV Project Manager: Janet Portisch Production Coordination: S4Carlisle Design Coordinator: Diane Ernsberger Cover Designer: Kellyn Donnelly Cover Art: Super Stock

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ISBN-13: 978-0-13-159247-6 ISBN-10: 0-13-159247-5 This book was set in Times New Roman by S4 Carlisle. It was printed and bound by Courier/Kendallville. The cover was printed by Phoenix Color Corp.

With love to Theresa, quarterback; Parry, wide receiver; Kwasi, running back; Bozuma, homecoming queen; and Tina, cheerleader extraordinaire. In my book you will always be winners!

Preface xxi

PART 1

T

HE

U

NDERLYING

S

CIENCE

1

Chapter 1 WHATISHORTICULTURE? 3

Chapter 2 CLASSIFYING ANDNAMINGHORTICULTURALPLANTS 29 Chapter 3 PLANTANATOMY 62

Chapter 4 PLANTGROWTHENVIRONMENT 94 Chapter 5 PLANTPHYSIOLOGY 153

Chapter 6 BREEDINGHORTICULTURALPLANTS 185

PART 2

P

ROTECTING

H

ORTICULTURAL

P

LANTS

211

Chapter 7 BIOLOGICALENEMIES OFHORTICULTURALPLANTS 213

Chapter 8 PRINCIPLES ANDMETHODS OFDISEASE ANDPESTCONTROL 240

PART 3

P

ROPAGATING

H

ORTICULTURAL

P

LANTS

281

Chapter 9 SEXUALPROPAGATION 283 Chapter 10 ASEXUALPROPAGATION 312

PART 4

G

ROWING

P

LANTS

I

NDOORS

343

Chapter 11 GROWINGHOUSEPLANTS 345

Chapter 12 CONTROLLED-ENVIRONMENTHORTICULTURE 389 Chapter 13 GREENHOUSEPRODUCTION 438

Chapter 14 GROWINGSUCCULENTS 451

PART 5

G

ROWING

P

LANTS

O

UTDOORS

: O

RNAMENTALS

471

Chapter 15 PRINCIPLES OFLANDSCAPING 473 Chapter 16 NURSERYPRODUCTION 500

Brief Contents

Chapter 17 INSTALLATION OF THELANDSCAPE 509 Chapter 18 TURFPRODUCTION ANDUSE 542 Chapter 19 PRUNING 566

PART 6

G

ROWING

P

LANTS

O

UTDOORS

: V

EGETABLES

,

F

RUITS

,

AND

N

UTS

609

Chapter 20 GROWINGVEGETABLESOUTDOORS 611 Chapter 21 HERBGARDENING 646

Chapter 22 ORGANICFARMING 651

Chapter 23 ESTABLISHMENT ANDMANAGEMENT OF ANORCHARD 671

PART 7

S

PECIAL

T

ECHNIQUES AND

H

ANDLING

OF

H

ORTICULTURAL

P

RODUCTS

679

Chapter 24 CUTFLOWERS ANDFLORALDESIGN 681 Chapter 25 TERRARIUMCULTURE 703

Chapter 26 BONSAI: THEART OFMINIATUREPLANTCULTURE 710

Chapter 27 POSTHARVESTHANDLING ANDMARKETING OFHORTICULTURALPRODUCTS 721 Appendix A TEMPERATURE: CONVERTING BETWEENCELSIUS ANDFAHRENHEITSCALES 737 Appendix B METRICCONVERSIONCHART 739

Appendix C ENGLISHUNITSCONVERSIONCHART 740

Appendix D COMMON ANDSCIENTIFICNAMES OFSELECTEDPLANTS 741 Appendix E SELECTEDBOTANICALGARDENS ANDARBORETA 744 Glossary 745

Index 755

Preface

xxi

PART 1

T

HE

U

NDERLYING

S

CIENCE

1

Chapter 1 W

I

H

?

3

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 3 OVERVIEW 3

1.1 WHATISHORTICULTURE? 4

1.2 A BRIEFHISTORY OFHORTICULTURE 4

INDUSTRYHIGHLIGHT: MYRIADBOTANICALGARDENS 6

INDUSTRYHIGHLIGHT: AALSMEERFLOWERAUCTION– A WORLDLEADER 12 1.3 DIVISIONS OFHORTICULTURE 16

1.4 ROLE OF THENURSERY ANDSEEDINDUSTRIES INHORTICULTURE 17 1.5 HORTICULTURE ANDSOCIETY 19

1.6 THERAPEUTICUSE OFHORTICULTURE 24 1.7 HORTICULTURE ON THEINTERNET 24

Summary

26

References and Suggested Reading

26

Practical Experience

27

Outcomes Assessment

27

Chapter 2 CLASSIFYING AND

NAMING

HORTICULTURAL

PLANTS

29

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 29 OVERVIEW 29

2.1 SCIENTIFIC ANDBOTANICALSYSTEMS OFCLASSIFICATION 30 2.2 TAXONOMICGROUPS 30

INDUSTRYHIGHLIGHT: HISTORY OFPLANTTAXONOMY 35 2.3 OTHERCLASSIFICATIONSYSTEMS(OPERATIONAL) 43

ix

2.4 CLASSIFICATION OFORNAMENTALPLANTS 52 2.5 FLOWERS INCLASSIFICATION 56

2.6 SOMEFAMILIES OFHORTICULTURALIMPORTANCE 56

Summary

60

References and Suggested Reading

60

Practical Experience

60

Outcomes Assessment

61

Chapter 3 PLANT

ANATOMY

62

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 62 OVERVIEW 62

3.1 CELL 63

3.2 TYPES OFPLANTCELLS ANDTISSUES 68 3.3 STEM 71 3.4 LEAF 75 3.5 ROOTS 82 3.6 STRUCTURE OFWOOD 85 3.7 BARK 87 3.8 FLOWERS 88 3.9 SEED 90 3.10 FRUITS 91

Summary

91

References and Suggested Reading

92

Practical Experience

93

Outcomes Assessment

93

Chapter 4 PLANT

GROWTH

ENVIRONMENT

94

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 94 OVERVIEW 94

4.1 CLIMATE, WEATHER,ANDHORTICULTURE 95 4.2 ABOVEGROUNDENVIRONMENT 95

4.3 BELOWGROUND(SOIL) ENVIRONMENT 108 4.4 FERTILIZERS 117

4.5 SOILORGANISMS 127 4.6 SOILAIR 128

4.7 SOILTEMPERATURE 128 4.8 SOILWATER 129

4.9 FIELDGROWINGMEDIA 140 4.10 POTTINGMEDIA 142 4.11 SOILSTERILIZATION 148 4.12 LIQUIDMEDIA 149

Summary

150

References and Suggested Reading

150

Practical Experience

151

Outcomes Assessment

152

Chapter 5 P

P

153

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 153 OVERVIEW 153

x

5.1 GROWTH ANDDEVELOPMENT 154

Contents

xi

5.3 PLANTGROWTHPROCESSES 160

5.4 DEVELOPMENTALSTAGES OFGROWTH 170 5.5 PHASES IN THEPLANTLIFECYCLE 172 5.6 PLANTHORMONES 178

5.7 NONPATHOGENIC(PHYSIOLOGICAL) PLANTDISORDERS 180

Summary

182

References and Suggested Reading

183

Practical Experience

183

Outcomes Assessment

184

Chapter 6 BREEDING

HORTICULTURAL

PLANTS

185

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 185 OVERVIEW 185

6.1 WHATISPLANTBREEDING? 186

6.2 THEART ANDSCIENCE OFPLANTBREEDING 186 6.3 THECONCEPT OFGENETICMANIPULATION 187

INDUSTRYHIGHLIGHT: APPLICATION OFTISSUECULTURE INMODERN GENETICIMPROVEMENT OFDAYLILY(HEMEROCALLIS SP.) 188

6.4 REVIEW OFGENERALGENETICPRINCIPLES 196 6.5 BRIEFREVIEW OFMENDELIANGENETICS 196 6.6 COMPLEXINHERITANCE 197

6.7 THEIMPORTANCE OFREPRODUCTIVESYSTEMS 198 6.8 ROLE OFVARIATION INPLANTBREEDING 199 6.9 THEPLANTBREEDER AS ADECISIONMAKER 199 6.10 GENERALSTEPS IN ABREEDINGPROGRAM 200 6.11 SELECTION INBREEDING 200

6.12 HYBRIDIZATION INPLANTBREEDING 201 6.13 METHODS OFBREEDING 201

6.14 BREEDINGHYBRIDS 202

6.15 CULTIVARRELEASE ANDCERTIFICATION 202 6.16 BREEDINGASEXUALLYPROPAGATEDSPECIES 203 6.17 BREEDINGSEEDLESSFRUITS 203

6.18 BIOTECHNOLOGY INPLANTBREEDING 204

6.19 BREEDINGGENETICALLYMODIFIEDCULTIVARS 205 6.20 USE OFMARKERS INPLANTBREEDING 205 6.21 SUCCESS OFGENETICENGINEERING OFPLANTS 206 6.22 THEBIOTECHNOLOGYDEBATE 206

6.23 TISSUECULTURE INPLANTBREEDING 207

Summary

208

References and Suggested Reading

209

Practical Experience

209

Outcomes Assessment

209

PART 2

P

ROTECTING

H

ORTICULTURAL

P

LANTS

211

Chapter 7 B

E

H

P

213

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 213 OVERVIEW 213

Module 1:

Plants as Pests

214

7.3 SELECTEDCOMMONWEEDS 217

INDUSTRYHIGHLIGHT: THECURRENTAPPROACH TOWEEDCONTROL 218

Summary

222

Module 2:

Animal Pests of Plants

222

7.5 DISEASES 230

7.6 OTHERPESTS OFHORTICULTURALPLANTS 232 7.7 HOWDISEASEOCCURS 234

Summary

239

References and Suggested Reading

239

Outcomes Assessment

239

Chapter 8 P

M

D

AND

P

C

240

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 240 OVERVIEW 240

Module 1:

Principles of Pest Control

241

8.2 CLASSIFICATION OFPESTICIDES 245

8.3 GROWTHREGULATORS INPESTCONTROL 246 8.4 CHOOSING APESTICIDE 247

8.5 INTEGRATEDPESTMANAGEMENT 252

Summary

254

Module 2:

Biological, Cultural, Legislative, Physical, and

Mechanical Control of Plant Pests

254

8.6 RATIONALE OFBIOLOGICALCONTROL 254 8.7 STRATEGIES OFBIOLOGICALCONTROL 255 8.8 CULTURALCONTROL 257

8.9 LEGISLATIVECONTROL 259

8.10 MECHANICAL ANDPHYSICALCONTROL 260

Summary

261

Module 3:

Chemical Control of Plant Pests: Insecticides

261

Summary

270

Module 4:

Chemical Control of Plant

Pests: Herbicides

270

OVERVIEW 270

8.12 CLASSIFICATION OFHERBICIDES 270 8.13 FORMULATIONS 272

8.14 METHODS OFAPPLICATION 273

8.15 FACTORSINFLUENCINGHERBICIDEEFFECTIVENESS 273 8.16 INDOORWEEDCONTROL 274

8.17 SUGGESTEDHERBICIDES FOR THELANDSCAPE 274 8.18 SUGGESTEDHERBICIDES FOR THEHOMEGARDEN 274

Summary

275

Module 5:

Greenhouse Pest Control

275

8.20 COMMONGREENHOUSEDISEASES 276 8.21 CONTROLMETHODS 277

8.22 CONTROLSTRATEGIES 278

8.23 PREVENTINGGREENHOUSEDISEASES 279

Summary

280

References and Suggested Reading

280

Outcomes Assessment

280

PART 3

P

ROPAGATING

H

ORTICULTURAL

P

LANTS

281

Chapter 9 SEXUAL

PROPAGATION

283

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 283 OVERVIEW 283

9.1 SEEDFORMATION 284

9.2 SEEDPRODUCTION ANDCERTIFICATIONPROCESS 285 9.3 SEEDLAW 286

9.4 SEEDQUALITYANALYSIS 286

INDUSTRYHIGHLIGHT: BRIEFOUTLINE OFSEEDTESTING 288 9.5 SEEDVIABILITY ANDLONGEVITY 295

9.6 TAGGINGCOMMERCIALSEED 295 9.7 PURCHASINGSEED 296

9.8 SEEDCOMPANIES 296 9.9 SEEDDORMANCY 296

9.10 IMPROVINGGERMINATIONCAPACITY OFSEEDS 297 9.11 SEEDTREATMENT 298

9.12 ENVIRONMENTALCONDITIONS FORSEEDGERMINATION 299 9.13 SEEDGERMINATION ANDEMERGENCE 300

9.14 METHODS OFSEEDING 302 9.15 SEEDNURSERYACTIVITIES 304 9.16 TRANSPLANTING 308

Summary

310

References and Suggested Reading

311

Practical Experience

311

Outcomes Assessment

311

Chapter 10 ASEXUAL

PROPAGATION

312

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 312 OVERVIEW 312

10.1 ADVANTAGES 313 10.2 DISADVANTAGES 313

10.3 ADVENTITIOUSROOTING INASEXUALPROPAGATION 314 10.4 APOMIXIS 314

Module 1:

Cuttings

314

10.6 FACTORSAFFECTINGROOTING OFCUTTINGS 318 10.7 TRANSPLANTING 321

Summary

321

Module 2:

Grafting

321

xiii

10.10 GENERALCONDITIONS FORSUCCESS 324 10.11 METHODS OFGRAFTING 325

Summary

328

Module 3:

Building

329

Summary

330

Module 4:

Layering

331

Summary

334

Module 5:

Specialized Underground

Structures

335

10.14 TYPES OFSPECIALIZEDUNDERGROUNDSTRUCTURES 335

Summary

339

Module 6:

Micropropagation

(Tissue Culture)

340

References and Suggested Reading

342

Outcomes Assessment

342

PART 4

G

ROWING

P

LANTS

I

NDOORS

343

Chapter 11 GROWING

HOUSEPLANTS

345

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 345 OVERVIEW 345

11.1 FACTORSTHATINFLUENCE THECHOICE OFHOUSEPLANTS 346 11.2 USINGPLANTS IN THEHOME 349

INDUSTRYHIGHLIGHT: CONTAINERGARDENS 353 11.3 CARING FORHOUSEPLANTS 363

11.4 SEASONALCARE OFHOUSEPLANTS 372 11.5 POTTINGMEDIA 374

11.6 POTTINGPLANTS 374 11.7 REPOTTING 375

11.8 PROVIDINGSUPPORT 379

11.9 DISEASES ANDPESTS OFHOUSEPLANTS 379 11.10 COMMONSYMPTOMS OFILLHEALTH

INHOUSEPLANTS 380

11.11 COMMONHOUSEPLANTS ANDTHEIRCARE 382

Summary

386

References and Suggested Reading

387

Practical Experience

387

Outcomes Assessment

388

Chapter 12 CONTROLLED-ENVIRONMENT

HORTICULTURE

389

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 389 OVERVIEW 389

12.1 WHATIS AGREENHOUSE? 390

12.2 GREENHOUSEDESIGN ANDCONSTRUCTION 390

12.3 INTERNALENVIRONMENTALCONTROL 405 INDUSTRYHIGHLIGHT: BUILDING ANDMAINTAINING GREENHOUSES FORENERGYSAVINGS 406 12.4 GREENHOUSEPESTS 435

Summary

436

References and Suggested Reading

436

Practical Experience

436

Outcomes Assessment

437

Chapter 13 GREENHOUSE

PRODUCTION

438

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 438 OVERVIEW 438

13.1 IMPORTANCE OFGREENHOUSES INPLANT PRODUCTION 439

13.2 PRODUCTIONREGIONS OF THEUNITEDSTATES 439 13.3 THEROLE OFIMPORTS 440

13.4 PRODUCTIONCOSTS 440

13.5 PRODUCTION ANDMARKETINGSTRATEGIES 441 13.6 THECONCEPT ANDAPPLICATION OFDIF 441 13.7 GREENHOUSEPRODUCTIONSYSTEMS 442 13.8 SOILLESSCULTURE 443

Contents

xv

Summary

450

References and Suggested Reading

450

Outcomes Assessment

450

14.5 GROWTHREQUIREMENTS 458 14.6 BROMELIADS 458

14.7 CACTI 461 14.8 PROPAGATION 466 14.9 CARING FORCACTI 467 14.10 MINIATUREROCKGARDEN 468 14.11 GRAFTEDCACTI 468

Summary

469

References and Suggested Reading

470

Practical Experience

470

Outcomes Assessment

470

PART 5

G

ROWING

P

LANTS

O

UTDOORS

: O

RNAMENTALS

471

Chapter 15 P

L

473

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 473 OVERVIEW 473

15.1 WHATISLANDSCAPING? 474

Chapter 14 GROWING

SUCCULENTS

451

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 451 14.1 WHATARESUCCULENTS 451

14.2 CATEGORIES OFSUCCULENTS 452 14.3 POPULARSUCCULENTS(NONCACTI) 453 14.4 PROPAGATION 457

15.2 CATEGORIES OFLANDSCAPING 475 15.3 LANDSCAPEDESIGNING 476

INDUSTRYHIGHLIGHT: GUIDELINES FORLANDSCAPEDESIGN 481 15.4 FORMALVERSUSINFORMALGARDENS 486

15.5 PLANNING ARESIDENTIALLANDSCAPE 488 15.6 PLANNING ANONRESIDENTIALLANDSCAPE 491 15.7 PLANTS IN THELANDSCAPE 492

15.8 OTHERFUNCTIONALUSES OFPLANTS IN THELANDSCAPE 496 15.9 XERISCAPING 498

Summary

499

References and Suggested Reading

499

Outcomes Assessment

499

Chapter 16 NURSERY

PRODUCTION

500

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 500 16.1 THEROLE OF THENURSERY WORKER 500 16.2 LOCATION OF THENURSERY 501

16.3 CONTAINERNURSERYPRODUCTION 503 16.4 FIELDNURSERY 506

16.5 RETAILNURSERY 508

Summary

508

References and Suggested Reading

508

Outcomes Assessment

508

Chapter 17 INSTALLATION OF THE

LANDSCAPE

509

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 509 OVERVIEW 509

17.1 LANDSCAPECONSTRUCTION 510 17.2 ROLE OFANNUALBEDDINGPLANTS 513 17.3 DESIGNING AFLOWERGARDEN 513 17.4 COMMONPERENNIALBEDDINGPLANTS 517

Summary

519

17.5 CHOOSING AGROUNDCOVER 519 17.6 ORNAMENTALGRASSES 522 17.7 BAMBOOS 524 17.8 SEDGES 524 17.9 RUSHES 524

Summary

524

17.11 PURCHASINGTREES FORPLANTING 527 17.12 PREPLANTINGSTORAGE 528

17.13 FACTORS FORTRANSPLANTINGSUCCESS 528 17.14 PLANTINGTREES 529

17.15 POSTPLANTINGIMMEDIATECARE 530 17.16 SELECTEDTREES FOR THELANDSCAPE 532 17.17 USINGTREES IN THELANDSCAPE 533 17.18 INSTALLATION OFSHRUBS 534

17.19 USINGSHRUBS IN THELANDSCAPE 535

17.20 SHRUBS, BUSHES,ANDVINES WITHATTRACTIVEFALLCOLORS 535

Summary

537

17.21 BULBS, CORMS, TUBERS,ANDRHIZOMES 537

Summary

541

References and Suggested Reading

541

Outcomes Assessment

541

Chapter 18 T

P

U

542

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 542 OVERVIEW 542

18.1 PURPOSE OFLAWNS 543 18.2 ESTABLISHING ALAWN 544 18.3 PLANTINGTURFGRASS 549

18.4 PLANTINGGRASS BYVEGETATIVEMETHODS 552 18.5 TURFMANAGEMENT 555

18.6 COMMONPROBLEMS IN THELAWN 561 18.7 TURF FORATHLETICPURPOSES 562

Summary

564

References and Suggested Reading

564

Practical Experience

565

Chapter 19 PRUNING

566

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 566 OVERVIEW 566

19.1 GENERALPRINCIPLES OFPRUNING ANDTRAINING 567 19.2 OBJECTIVES OFPRUNING 568

19.3 PLANTRESPONSE TOPRUNING 569 19.4 PRUNINGTOOLS 570

19.5 PRUNINGTECHNIQUES 572

19.6 STRATEGIES FORPRUNINGABOVEGROUNDPLANTPARTS 577 19.7 TREETOPPING 578

19.8 PRUNINGROOTS 579 19.9 TRAININGPLANTS 580

19.10 TRAINING ANDPRUNINGORNAMENTALTREES 580 19.11 MAINTENANCE OFESTABLISHEDTREES 583 19.12 RENOVATINGESTABLISHEDTREES 584

19.13 SPECIALTRAINING ANDPRUNINGTECHNIQUES 584 19.14 TRAINING ANDPRUNINGFRUITTREES 585

INDUSTRYHIGHLIGHT: TRAINING& PRUNINGDECIDUOUS FRUITTREES 587

19.15 COMMONTREEPROBLEMS 600

19.16 TRAINING ANDPRUNINGSMALLFRUITTREES 600 19.17 PRUNINGORNAMENTALPLANTS 601

19.18 PRUNINGHEDGES 603 19.19 ORNAMENTALSTEMS 605

19.20 TRAINING ANDPRUNINGCLIMBINGPLANTS 606

Summary

607

References and Suggested Reading

608

Outcomes Assessment

608

PART 6

G

ROWING

P

LANTS

O

UTDOORS

: V

EGETABLES

,

F

RUITS

,

AND

N

UTS

609

Chapter 20 GROWING

VEGETABLES

OUTDOORS

611

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 611 OVERVIEW 611

20.1 NUTRITIONAL ANDECONOMICVALUE OFVEGETABLES 612 20.2 ADAPTATION OFVEGETABLES 612

20.3 REGIONALIZEDPRODUCTION OFVEGETABLES 612

INDUSTRYHIGHLIGHT: PLASTICULTURE INNORTHAMERICA 614 20.4 VEGETABLEMARKETTYPES 627

20.5 SOILS OFMAJORPRODUCTIONREGIONS 627 20.6 GREENHOUSEVEGETABLEPRODUCTION 627

20.7 THEIMPORTANCE OFMULCHES INVEGETABLEPRODUCTION 628 20.8 IRRIGATINGVEGETABLES 629

20.9 HOMEGARDEN 629

References and Suggested Reading

635

20.11 TOMATO(LYCOPERSICONESCULENTUM) 638

20.12 PEPPER(CAPSICUM SPP.) 639

20.13 POTATO(SOLANUMTUBEROSUM) 640

20.14 SWEETPOTATO(IPOMEABATATAS) 641

20.15 CORN(ZEA MAYS) 642

20.16 ONION(ALLIUM CEPA) 642

20.17 LETTUCE(LETUCA SATIVA) 643

20.18 BRASSICA 644

References

645

Outcomes Assessement

645

Chapter 21 HERB

GARDENING

646

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 646 OVERVIEW 646

21.1 USES 646 21.2 CULTIVATION 647

Summary

650

References and Suggested Reading

650

Outcomes Assessment

650

Chapter 22 ORGANIC

F

651

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 651 OVERVIEW 651

22.1 WHATISORGANICFARMING? 652

22.2 IMPORTANCE OFORGANICFARMING INMODERNCROPPRODUCTION 652 22.3 PRINCIPLES OFORGANICFARMING 653

22.4 ORGANICFARMCERTIFICATION 654 22.5 THECERTIFICATIONPROCESS 654

22.6 AMENDMENTSAPPROVED FORORGANICPRODUCTION 656 22.7 PLANTINGMATERIAL 656

22.8 MANAGINGSOILPHYSICALQUALITY 657 22.9 SOILFERTILITYMANAGEMENT 657 22.10 WEEDMANAGEMENT 658

22.11 DISEASE ANDINSECTPESTCONTROL 659 22.12 BUFFERS ANDBARRIERS 660

22.13 RECORDKEEPING 660 22.14 COMPOSTING 660

22.15 COMPOSTINGSYSTEMS 664

22.16 GENERALPRINCIPLES OFCONSTRUCTING ANDMONITORING ACOMPOSTHEAP 664

22.17 CONSTRUCTINGOUTDOORCOMPOSTINGSYSTEMS 665

xviii

Contents

xix

22.18 INDOORCOMPOSTINGSYSTEMS 668 22.19 MAINTAININGCOMPOSTPILES 669

Summary

669

References and Suggested Reading

670

Practical Experience

670

Chapter 23 ESTABLISHMENT AND

MANAGEMENT

OF AN

ORCHARD

671

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 671 OVERVIEW 671

23.1 IMPORTANCE OFFRUIT ANDNUTTREES 671 23.2 PRODUCTIONREGIONS 672

23.3 LOCATING AFRUITORCHARD 672 23.4 PROPAGATION 674

23.5 THEANNUALCYCLE OF AFRUITTREE 675 23.6 SPACINGFRUITTREES 675

23.7 FRUITTREEPLANTINGSTYLES 676 23.8 GROWTHREGULATORS 676 23.9 PESTCONTROL 676 23.10 GROUNDCOVERS 677 23.11 HARVESTING 677

23.12 PRUNING ANDTRAINING 678

Outcomes Assessment

678

PART 7

S

PECIAL

T

ECHNIQUES AND

H

ANDLING

OF

H

ORTICULTURAL

P

RODUCTS

679

Chapter 24 CUT

FLOWERS AND

FLORAL

DESIGN

681

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 681 OVERVIEW 681

24.1 CUTFLOWERSPECIES 682 24.2 CULTURE 683

24.3 FLOWERARRANGING 686

INDUSTRYHIGHLIGHT: FLORALDESIGN:ANOVERVIEW 687 24.4 DRIEDFLOWERS 698

Summary

701

References and Suggested Reading

701

Practical Experience

701

Outcomes Assessment

702

Chapter 25 TERRARIUM

CULTURE

703

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 703 OVERVIEW 703

25.1 TYPES OFTERRARIUMS 704

25.2 DESIGNING ATERRARIUM ORBOTTLEGARDEN 704 25.3 TOOLS 706

25.4 THEPLANTINGMEDIUM 706 25.5 PLANTING 707

25.6 CARE ANDMAINTENANCE 708 25.7 TROUBLESHOOTING 709

xx

Summary

709

References and Suggested Reading

709

Outcomes Assessment

709

Chapter 26 B

: T

A

M

P

C

710

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 710 OVERVIEW 710

26.1 PRINCIPLES 711

26.2 CREATING THEBONSAI 713 26.3 TRAININGBONSAI 714 26.4 REPOTTINGBONSAI 717 26.5 POSTESTABLISHMENTCARE 718

Summary

720

References and Suggested Reading

720

Outcomes Assessment

720

Chapter 27 POSTHARVEST

HANDLING AND

MARKETING

OF

HORTICULTURAL

PRODUCTS

721

PURPOSE ANDEXPECTEDOUTCOMES 721 OVERVIEW 721

27.1 ECONOMICIMPORTANCE OFPOSTHARVESTLOSSES 722 27.2 HARVESTING 722

27.3 HANDLING 725

27.4 POSTHARVESTCHANGES INPRODUCTS 727 27.5 STORINGUNPROCESSEDPRODUCTS 727 27.6 TEMPERATURE-INDUCEDINJURY 730 27.7 FUMIGATION 730

27.8 PROCESSING OFHORTICULTURALPRODUCTS 730 27.9 MARKETINGALTERNATIVES 732

27.10 THEROLE OFINTERMEDIARIES INMARKETING 734 27.11 ELEMENTS OFMARKETING 735

Summary

736

References and Suggested Reading

736

Outcomes Assessment

736

Appendix A: T

: C

C

AND

F

S

737

Appendix B: M

C

C

739

Appendix C: E

U

C

C

740

Appendix D: C

S

N

OF

S

P

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Preface

Horticulture is the area of plant science that caters to the needs of a broad range of peo-ple, from the small backyard farmer in the urban area to the large-scale producer. Horti-culture’s adaptability to the home situation makes it attractive to people from all walks of life, including those who may not wish to study agriculture or be identified as farm-ers in the way society defines them, but are willing to grow and care for plants. Thus, horticulture is a popular instructional program and part-time activity indulged in by many people. The horticulture industry is making it increasingly easier and more at-tractive for nonprofessional plant growers to participate in plant culture at various lev-els and for various needs.

This text is an instructional resource in the fundamentals of horticulture and a reference for hobbyists and professionals. As an instructional text, Horticulture: Principles

and Practices is designed for use at the undergraduate level. Emphasis is placed on

instruction in the basic principles and practices of horticulture, thereby minimizing regional and national biases.

Horticulture is presented as a science, an art, and a business. The principles dis-cussed are applicable to both small- and large-scale production. A format with unique features is adopted throughout the text. First, the text is divided into parts, within which related topics are treated as chapters. Chapters on broad topics are subdivided into appropriate modules. Each chapter opens with a stated purpose or objective, followed by a list of expected outcomes upon completion of the chapter. The overview introduces the subjects to be discussed and defines the scope of presentation. Each subject is discussed under clearly defined headings and subheadings. Key terms are highlighted and defined or explained. A brief summary at the end of each chapter reviews the main message for emphasis. References are presented at the end of each chapter to acknowledge the sources consulted by the author in preparing the text and to suggest sources for further information on the topics discussed. If the reader has difficulty in defining or explaining any term or key word, the Glossary at the end of the text may be used as a quick refer-ence. Practical activities to enhance the understanding of the material discussed are sug-gested at the end of the chapters. Finally, the student is provided an opportunity to assess whether the material in the chapter was really understood.

A unique feature of this book is the inclusion of industry highlights. University pro-fessors and other industry professionals with expertise in specific aspects of horticulture were invited to contribute papers or photos to enhance topics in selected chapters.

The text includes many photographs, line drawings, and tables to facilitate the com-prehension of the material and can be used for a quick reference. The materials included were chosen to provide a complete introduction to the four general areas of horticulture: ornamental horticulture, fruit culture, vegetable culture, and landscape architecture. Part 1 describes the underlying science. The amount of time spent on these chapters depends on the background of the student. Topics are presented from the point of view of the hor-ticulturist. The reader clearly sees the relevance of the science in horticulture. The chap-ters take the reader through a review of pertinent topics in plant taxonomy, plant anatomy, plant growth environment, plant physiology, and plant improvement. The role of these disciplines of science in the horticultural industry and how they are applied or manipu-lated to increase the performance of plants are also discussed.

Part 2 discusses how horticultural plants are protected. The student learns about biological enemies of horticultural plants, and the principles and methods of disease and pest control. Part 3 presents plant propagation and discusses the characteristics of sexual and asexual methods of propagating plants.

Growing plants indoors forms the theme for Part 4. Horticulture can be conducted in an open area or under a controlled environment where growth factors are manipulated for the optimal performance of plants. The student learns how the greenhouse is designed and used in the production of plants. Hydroponics is discussed in detail. In this section, the student is instructed in the science and art of growing plants in containers in the home and office.

Part 5 discusses growing plants outdoors, including detailed coverage of the in-stallation, use, and maintenance of plants in the landscape. A discussion on the estab-lishment and maintenance of a lawn, as well as pruning and landscape maintenance tools, is also presented.

Part 6 focuses on the culture of plants for food. Selected crops and herbs are also discussed, as well as the establishment and maintenance of an orchard.

Part 7 discusses special horticultural techniques, specifically floral design, terrar-ium culture, and bonsai. Flower arranging is a major activity in the horticultural indus-try that can be engaged in by both professionals and hobbyists. The postharvest handling of horticultural products is also discussed.

xxii

ONLINE RESOURCES

To access supplementary materials online, instructors need to request an instructor access code. Go to www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, where you can register for an instructor access code. Within 48 hours after registering, you will receive a confirming e-mail, in-cluding an instructor access code. Once you have received your code, go to the site and log on for full instructions on downloading the materials you wish to use.

Paul Fanz

North Carolina State University Department of Horticultural Science Box 760g

Raleigh, NC 27695-7609 Ethan Waltermire

Colorado Seed Laboratory Campus Delivery 1170 Fort Collins, CO 80523-1170 Michael L. Parker

Associate Professor

North Carolina State University Department of Horticultural Science Box 7609

Raleigh, NC 27695-7609 A. J. Both

Associate Extension Specialist

Rutgers, State University of New Jersey Bioresource Engineering

Department of Plant Biology and Pathology 20 Ag Extension Way

New Brunswick, NJ 08901-8500

Preface

xxiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am very grateful to Jeanne Bronson, whose persistence inspired me to undertake the first edition of this project. I extend sincere thanks to the management of TLC Greenhouse of Edmond, Oklahoma, for allowing me free access to its facilities for many of the photos. I also want to acknowledge and thank reviewers of the text, who provided valuable feed-back that was extremely helpful in shaping the outcome of this fourth edition. They are Gary Bachman, Illinois State University; David Berle, University of Georgia; Cindy Burgess, Dickinson State University; Charles Drake, Ferris State University; Philip Gibson, Gwinnett Tech College; John Kahre, Oklahoma State University; Mel Knapton, Century College—White Bear Lake; Donna Rankin, Metropolitan Com-munity College; George Rogers, Palm Beach ComCom-munity College; Jerry Sites, Arkansas State University; Charles Tarrants, SUNY A&T College, Delhi; and Michael Toscano, San Joaquin Delta College. The highlights contributed by professionals add a unique perspective to selected topics in the book for which I am very grateful. They have been identified and acknowledged in the list of contributors. Finally, I thank Nana Nyame for his guidance, support, and help throughout the entire project.

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Louis D. Albright

Professor of Biological and Environmental Engineering and Stephen H. Weiss Presidential Fellow

304 Riley-Rob Hall Cornell University Ithaca, NY 14853-5701

Michael Orzolek

Pennsylvania State University 203 Tyson Building

University Park, PA 16802 Allan Storjohann

Myriad Botanical Gardens 100 Myriad Gardens Oklahoma City, OK 73102 Terri W. Starman

Department of Horticultural Sciences Room 202 Horticultural/Forest Science Bldg. 2133 TAMU

College Station, TX 77843-2133 Bill McKinley

Associate Dean, Career Technologies Kishwaukee College

21193 Malta Rd. Malta, IL 60150 Clark Williams

Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources Langston University

P. O. 1500

Langston, OK 73050 Raymond Faucette

Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources Langston University

P. O. 1500

Langston, OK 73050 Kanyand Matand

Center for Biotechnology Research and Education Langston University P. O. 1500 Langston, OK 73050 David Berle Department of Horticulture University of Georgia 1111 Plant Science Bldg. Athens, GA 30602-7273

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What Is Horticulture?

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This chapter is devoted to discussing the operational and scientific boundaries and the importance of horticulture to society. Horticulture is presented as a science, art, and busi-ness. This discussion is preceded by a brief history of horticulture. The role of computers and the Internet in horticulture is also highlighted.

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to

1. Define the term horticulture.

2. Briefly discuss the history of horticulture.

3. Describe the boundaries of horticulture in relation to other applied sciences. 4. Discuss the importance of horticulture in society.

5. List ten jobs that require training in horticulture.

6. List and describe four horticulture-related industries (service industries).

[COLOR PLATES—see color plate 1 for additional chapter photos]

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Horticulture is a very important branch of plant science. It accounts for food from three

major sources: vegetables, fruits, and nuts. Apart from food, it plays a significant role in other aspects of society. It provides employment and also beautifies the environment. In this introduction, the divisions of professional horticulture are discussed, along with the field’s importance to society. Horticulture is presented as an art, a science, and a busi-ness. Scientists use knowledge from genetics, physiology, botany, chemistry, and other disciplines to produce elite cultivars of plants and prescribe the best cultural practices to use for success in their production. Horticulture is supported by a variety of service industries that develop and provide chemicals, machinery, and implements for its numerous activities. Many people who do not care to grow food crops often enjoy growing flowers outdoors or indoors for aesthetic purposes.

Horticulture

Science and art of

cultivating, processing, and marketing of fruits, vegetables, nuts, and ornamental plants.

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The term horticulture is derived from the Latin hortus (garden) and cultura (cultivation), which means garden cultivation. Modern horticulture is the science and art of cultivating fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants (Figure 1–1). Certain institutions of higher learn-ing such as colleges and universities have educational programs in horticulture for train-ing as well as conducttrain-ing research to advance the area of study. Some of these academic programs are general in their scope of coverage, whereas others are devoted to in-depth research and training in a specific aspect of horticulture. Modern horticulture is also big business. It provides employment for people with a wide variety of skills and is sup-ported by an equally large number of service industries. When considered from both the science and business perspectives, horticulture can be more broadly defined as the “science and art of cultivating, processing, and marketing of fruits, vegetables, nuts, and ornamental plants.”

Horticulture is related to other plant sciences (Figure 1–2). From the four divisions of the horticulture industry shown in Figure 1–3, it is clear that horticulture has two main goals—to provide food and to impact the environment. The relationship between horti-culture and other plant sciences is evidenced by the fact that plants cannot be confined strictly to one category distinguished from others by features such as use and cultural practices. For example, an oak tree has great ornamental value in the landscape, but as a forest tree, oaks are excellent sources of lumber for high-quality furniture. Similarly, Bermuda grass may be cultivated as an agronomic crop for feeding livestock and also makes an excellent turfgrass in the landscape.

Generally, growing horticultural plants is more production intensive than grow-ing agronomic and forest plants. The returns on investment per unit area of produc-tion are also generally higher for horticultural plants. Further, horticultural plants are largely utilized fresh or as living materials (as ornamentals in the landscape), whereas agronomic and forestry products are generally utilized in the nonliving state (e.g., as grain, fiber, and timber).

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The deliberate use of plants by humans for aesthetic and functional purposes has its origin in antiquity. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were hailed as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. As society evolved, deliberate cultivation and domes-tication of edible plants replaced the less efficient food-gathering habits of primi-tive societies. Agriculture, and for that matter horticulture, is therefore not a modern-day invention but one that continues to be transformed as society advances technologically.

In terms of food production, ancient civilizations, notably that of Egypt, pioneered the basic crop production methods still in use today with modification and modernization. Land was set aside and prepared by plowing; crops were provided with supplemental irri-gation for increased productivity in cultivation; crops received appropriate plant hus-bandry for the best results. Postharvest storage and processing (e.g., drying, fermenting, and milling) were employed to increase the shelf life of the otherwise highly perishable horticultural products. Most of the valued ancient crops are still of interest today. They in-clude fruits (e.g., dates, figs, grapes, pomegranates, and olives), vegetables (e.g., garlic, melons, radishes, lentils, artichokes, and chicory), oil and fiber crops, and medicinal herbs. For aesthetic uses, gardeners were employed to manicure the formal gardens of ancient royalty. As already mentioned, the gardens and landscape designs of the Babylonians were proverbial.

1.2 A Brief History of Horticulture

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FIGURE 1–1 The many faces of horticulture. Horticulture’s role in society is diverse: (a) horticul-tural produce is found in the grocery store; (b) greenhouses provide employment and plants for various uses; (c) landscaping enhances urban centers; (d) land-scaping residential areas; (e) pot-ted plants are used to enhance the interior and exterior decor of homes; (f) researchers and teach-ers of horticulture train students and develop improved cultivars of plants; (g) florists cater to a va-riety of needs in the community where flowers play a role and provide jobs; (h) botanical gar-dens provide recreational and ed-ucational opportunities to visitors; and (i) commercial producers of horticulture crops contribute to the local and national economies.

(Source: For (a), (b), (e-h): George Acquaah, (c) Kim Sayer © Dorling Kindersley, (d) Alan Keohane © Dorling Kindersley (i) USDA),

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100 Myriad Gardens

Oklahoma City, OK 73102

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The idea of cultivating a garden in downtown Oklahoma City began when world-renowned architect I. M. Pei was commissioned by city leaders, led by oil and gas pioneer Dean A. McGee (CEO of Kerr-McGee Corporation), in 1964 to create a revitalization plan for downtown Oklahoma City. The resulting Pei Plan incorporated parkland for the develop-ment of a cultural, recreational, and commercial complex. The area that is now the Myriad Botanical Gardens was originally designed by I.M. Pei to model the Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen, Denmark.

The development of the Pei Plan, and the gardens in particular, became the lifelong project of McGee. He even motivated a core group of civic leaders to travel to Tivoli Gar-dens and learn more about the success of the celebrated attraction.

On May 5, 1970, the name Myriad Gardens was officially adopted. Three months later, on August 11, 1970, the Oklahoma City Council established a 19-member Myriad Development Task Force. The principal responsibility of the task force was to assist the City in the successful planning, programming and implementation of the Myriad Gardens. After a national competition in 1971, the task force chose an architect for the Gardens, the New York firm of Conklin & Rossant.

The City of Oklahoma City purchased the site for the Myriad Gardens in 1975 for $900,000. Investment in the development phase, including initial site clearing and utility relocation, was approximately $1.2 million. Buildings that originally stood on the Myriad Gardens site included the Biltmore Hotel, City National Bank Building, and the Oklahoma Club.

On September 16, 1975, the Myriad Gardens Authority, a public trust, was created and charged with developing the 17-acre property. McGee continued his leadership role at the Gardens and was appointed as the Trust Chairman. Work began on the Gardens on November 17, 1977, with a ceremonial groundbreaking.

Construction of the garden’s infrastructure, including the base of the conservatory, tunnel, water stage, and other core facilities continued over the next four years as fund-ing became available. Oklahoma City–based RGDC was the structural engineerfund-ing firm heading the project.

In 1981, the Myriad Gardens Foundation was formed to raise private funds for the construction of the conservatory designed by Conklin & Rossant. It was also at this time that Oklahoma City–based architectural firm HTB was hired to design and landscape the west perimeter of the outdoor gardens.

Lippert Brothers Construction began work on the Conservatory in September 1983. Edmond, Oklahoma–based Trafco Constructors Inc. accomplished the difficult task of designing and building the 17 tricord trusses that make up the framework of the unique conservatory.

The structure was completed in 1985. The interior design of the Crystal Bridge was done by Loftis Bell Downing and Partners, Architects and Planners with the exotic plants being acquired and installed from 1987 to 1988 by Director Mike Bush (Figure 1).

In the summer of 1987, the Oklahoma City Parks and Recreation Department took over the operation and maintenance of the Gardens. The Crystal Bridge opened its doors to the public on March 25, 1988.

The outdoor grounds continued to grow as funding became available. The Herman and LaDonna Meinders Foundation donated two outdoor specialty gardens to the Myriad

6

Gardens Foundation. The first, located north of the Crystal Bridge, was completed in 1996. The second, representing the largest single donation for the beautification of Oklahoma City, is located on the northeast corner of the Gardens and was completed in 1998.

On June 28, 2001, the Dean A. McGee Center, a 5,000-square-foot, multiuse and meeting facility funded by the Myriad Gardens Foundation, was opened for pub-lic use. The facility was named in honor of early Gardens’ visionary and benefactor Dean A. McGee.

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The Crystal Bridge’s unique design has earned attention and praise in the architectural community.

• The Crystal Bridge is 224 feet long and 70 feet in diameter. It is covered by 3,028 sections of translucent, double-layered Exolite acrylic panels.

• It took the largest crane in a five-state region to install the 17 tricord trusses that form the framework of the Bridge, which resembles a massive steel rib cage.

• The Conservatory includes 13,000 square feet of plant display area.

• April of 1987 marked the beginning of planting inside the Crystal Bridge, with most items purchased from specialty nurseries in Florida and California. Generous dona-tions of plants from local collectors also helped beautify the Conservatory.

• Plants thrive in two distinct climates inside the Crystal Bridge: the Tropical Wet Zone, which is at the south end and is watered daily, and the Tropical Dry Zone at the north end which receives water from April through September, followed by drought from November through March.

• The wide variety of plants requires daily hand watering using purified and pH-adjusted water, which is treated by a specialized reverse osmosis system. The R.O. system removes minerals, such as salt, from the water preventing a buildup that can harm and even kill the plants. The water is just like the tropical rain that the plants would experience in their native habitat.

• Crashing down from a height of 35 feet, the tropical waterfall on the Wet Mountain pushes 60-80 gallons of water over its edge per minute. This is accomplished using two pumps, one 10 horsepower and the other seven.

• Twenty evaporative coolers cool the air inside the Crystal Bridge, each supplying 16,000 cubic feet of air per minute. This keeps the air at a constant temperature for the plants to thrive. Indoor temperatures range from 62–87 degrees Fahrenheit in the south end and 60–95 degrees Fahrenheit in the north end in the summer. In the winter, temp-erature ranges from 62–78 degrees Fahrenheit, depending on cloud cover outside.

FIGURE 1 The plaza view of the Crystal Bridge.

1.2 A Brief History of Horticulture

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• Applying silicone latex onto actual rock outcroppings created the realistic appearance of the rock walls in the Crystal Bridge. The latex was used to fabricate molds, which were installed onto reinforced steel angle iron.

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The Myriad Botanical Gardens’ outdoor grounds include 17 acres of gently rolling hills. • Hundreds of trees, including both native and non-native species, are planted

through-out the grounds.

• Unique and popular specialty gardens dot the outdoor landscape displaying ornamen-tal plants. The Meinders Gardens, at the northeast corner of the outdoor grounds, includes two extensive water gardens, shaded seating, and a wooden footbridge. • The Myriad Botanical Gardens’ lake covers two acres and is fed by the existing water

table 22 feet below street level. The lake is home to several varieties of fish including goldfish and Japanese Koi, some of which reach as large as 20 pounds!

• Situated on the lake next to the Crystal Bridge, the Water Stage provides enough seat-ing for several hundred people. It has become a popular spot for concerts, theatrical productions, weddings, and other special events.

• Paths wind their way around the lake and outdoor grounds leading guests through shaded, tree-lined walks, lively fountains, and beds of vibrant flowers ranging from the expertly manicured to the serenely natural. The majority of these paths run throughout the north and west side of the outdoor grounds.

• Dotting the outdoor grounds, amid the lake and gardens, stand several large sculp-tures. Some were purchased by the City of Oklahoma City and some were donated; all are unique and beautiful.

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There are more than 1,000 species of plants in the Crystal Bridge, representing plants from every continent except Antarctica. They are located in two habitat regions in the conservatory.

The Tropical Rain Forest Zone, called the Wet Mountain, is located on the south end of the Conservatory. Plants here come from Amazonia, Central Africa, Southeast Asia and the South Pacific Islands where rain falls year-round. These plants are watered every day. The Dry Tropical Zone, called the Dry Mountain, is on the north end of the Con-servatory. These plants are put through a drought from November to March, followed by regular watering during the summer months to simulate the weather patterns in their native areas. Most of these specimens come from South Africa, Madagascar, and Mexico. While the plant collection in the Crystal Bridge rivals most botanical gardens across the country, several elements are outstanding:

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There are over 100 species of palms represented in the Crystal Bridge. Palms are the epit-ome of tropical trees. Found throughout the southern United States, palms only grow in tropical and sub-tropical climates and are often found close to water. There are many unique species growing in the Crystal Bridge. The Old Man’s Palm, Washingtonia

filif-era, is a slow-growing palm that has long, pale brown “hair” covering the trunk. The

Fox-tail Palm, Wodyetia bifurcata, has unique leaflets radiating from the stalk giving it a foxtail appearance. On the northeast corner, the young Bismarckia nobilis palm, with perhaps the world’s largest palm leaves, at a spectacular 10 feet wide, can be viewed.

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Many people mistake these prehistoric plants for palms. But these “living fossils” have their own unique identity. Cycads flourished in primeval forests during the time of the dinosaurs. In fact, the Jurassic Period is often dubbed the “Age of the Cycads.” At that time, cycads made up 20 percent of the world’s flora. They still exist today, in much the same form as their ancestors have existed for the past 300 million years, although only about 200 species remain. Many species can be found in Mexico, the Caribbean, and South Africa. Genera to look for in the Crystal Bridge collection include Cycas, Dioon, Zamia, Bowenia, Stangeria, and Encephalartos.

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Most people are familiar with the culinary variety of ginger. However, many members of this “spicy” plant family are also quite beautiful and are normally seen only in ex-pensive floral bouquets. The stepladder ginger (Costus malortieanus) next to the wooden bridge has furry leaves arranged spirally along the stem. Many of the Conser-vatory’s Alpinias have flower bracts resembling bright red plastic pinecones, which last for months.

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Bromeliads are typically brightly colored, funnel-shaped plants that hold a surprise for curious guests—in the center of the funnel is a pool of water! This is because most bromeliads are epiphytes, meaning that they attach themselves to trees instead of root-ing in soil, so this is how they get their moisture. Of course, not all bromeliads are epi-phytes, some are terrestrial like our Cryptanthus species (Earth stars), or the most familiar of the family, the Pineapple (Ananas comosus). On both mountains, guests can see bromeliads “planted” on the rock slopes; these are clusters of small, green or grey-leafed “air plants,” or Tillandsias.

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Orchids adorn nearly every corner of the Wet Mountain and are easily the most popular plants in our collection. At any time of the year, dozens of varieties of orchids can be seen blooming. With their delicate petal and distinctive look, most orchids are grown for their beauty alone, however, the agriculturally important vanilla orchid, from which vanilla can be extracted, is also featured in the Crystal Bridge. One of the highlights of the or-chid collection is the Dendrobium superbum var. alba which explodes with over 300 blooms each February. So impressive is its show of color that the Orchid Society of America awarded this plant the “Culture of Merit” award and named the variety in honor of the Crystal Bridge.

In February 2002, the Myriad Botanical Gardens received more than 1,200 orchids bequeathed to the Gardens by long-time orchid collector Mr. Fred Strothmann. From his Edmond, Oklahoma, greenhouses, Mr. Strothmann cultivated some of the most exotic orchids in the world. He traveled around the world, collecting orchids in such exotic places as Kenya, Uganda, Burma, Indonesia, the Philippines, Australia, Mexico, and parts of South America. The Strothmann collection is an important part of the Crystal Bridge’s year-round orchid display.

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Visitors to the Crystal Bridge are always surprised to hear that a majority of the spiny plants growing on the Dry Mountain are not cacti, but euphorbias. These varied plants can range in size from mini grass like plants to huge trees. The difference between the cactus and a euphorbia species is slight, the major difference being that cacti only grow in the New World (Western Hemisphere) while euphorbias are native to the Old World (Eastern Hemisphere). Many euphorbias found in Africa and Madagascar survive in much the same way cacti do in the deserts of Central and North America. Thick, succu-lent stems filled with milky sap and protected by pairs of sharp spines characterize this bizarre group of plants. There are over 40 species of euphorbias in the plant collection.

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While most gardeners are familiar with begonias as one of the more attractive annuals for a summer garden, few realize there are over 900 different species found throughout the world. Begonias are a plant of the tropics; there are no indigenous species in the United States. These plants come in a variety of succulent herbs, shrubs, and vines, all of which bloom. However, it’s the color and texture, not the flower that makes begonias so popular. With over 100 varieties of begonias, the Crystal Bridge provides the best opportunity for our visitors to experience the tremendous beauty of this group of plants.

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The world's largest unbranched inflorescence, Amorphophallus titanum, also known as Titan arum or corpse flower, bloomed in the Crystal Bridge Tropical Conservatory on June 29, 2005 (Figure 2). The 42-inch tall corpse flower lasted through Tuesday, July 5, before it collapsed. Staff brushed pollen donated by Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Miami onto the female flowers on Thursday, June 30 in hopes the plant will produce seed. With any luck the Crystal Bridge will be home to more corpse flowers in the future. Pollen samples were taken from the plant on July 2.

The Titan arum bulb was donated to the Myriad Botanical Gardens on July 13, 2000, by Baltimore physician Clark T. Riley after visiting the Crystal Bridge. The flow-ering of a titan arum is a rare and significant horticultural event that has occurred less than 10 times worldwide in 2005.

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Plants aren’t the only things to call the Crystal Bridge home. Lizards, fish, and butter-flies are among the creatures that dart, swim, and flit throughout the Crystal Bridge’s tropical environment. Their free reign means guests never know when a lizard might peek out from a rock or a butterfly might land gracefully on a petal.

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Reptiles and amphibians in the Crystal Bridge include the American anole, Cuban anole, day geckos, house gecko, tokay gecko, leopard gecko, bronze frog, green tree frog, and greenhouse frog. The lizards have been extremely successful in adapting to the environment

10

of the Crystal Bridge—the anole in particular. Two species of anoles, Anolis carolinensis, originating in the southeast United States, and Anolis sagrei, native to islands of the Caribbean Sea, have established thriving populations in the Crystal Bridge.

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Muffin and Bo jangles are the rulers of the roost in the Crystal Bridge. The pair are double yellow-headed Amazon parrots that were donated to the gardens in 1993. The parrots reside in the lobby of the conservatory and entertain guests with their antics and loud talking.

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The zebra longwing (Heliconius charitonius), a tallow and black tropical butterfly native to the southern United States, was introduced to the Crystal Bridge in 1993. This species was selected because the caterpillar feeds only on passion vine and does not damage any of the other plants in the Crystal Bridge. After the caterpillars spin themselves into their chrysalises, they are gathered up and kept in a special chrysalis case until they are ready to emerge as winged adults. These butterflies are then released into the Crystal Bridge. The adult butterflies are happy to stay right in the conservatory to remain close to their food supply.

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Fish were among the first animals introduced at the gardens. There are a variety of small fish swimming throughout the pond and stream system that are native to the tropical aquaria. Tropical fish in the Crystal Bridge include Pacu, Jack Dempsey Cichlid, Oscar, Albino Oscar, and Plecostomus.

FIGURE 2 The world's largest unbranched inflo-rescence, Amorphophallus titanum, also known as Titan arum or corpse flower.

1.2 A Brief History of Horticulture

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Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Langston University, Oklahoma

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Almost every country in the world produces flowers for domestic consumption. But only a few countries produce enough for export. Of these exporting countries, the world leader is Holland. Historically, Holland is responsible for the export of over half of the world’s floral products including cut flowers, foliages, and pot plants.

One of the reasons for Holland’s position as the world leader is due to their flower auc-tions. This includes Bloemenveiling Aalsmeer which is the worlds largest flower auction. The Aalsmeer Flower Auction, located outside of Amsterdam, is considered to be the largest commercial facility in the world. Collectively, the buildings used by the Aalsmeer Flower Auction cover over one million square meters which is the equivalent of over 200 football fields. In 2006 the facility utilized 979 full-time employees and 853 part-time employees.

The quantity of flowers and plants sold on a daily basis are staggering. Each day approximately 19 million flowers and 2 million plants are auctioned and sold to buyers worldwide. In 2006, the Aalsmeer Flower Auction sold 4.784 billion cut flowers, 407 million plants, and 157 million garden plants. These numbers gave Bloemenveiling Aalsmeer a 44.7 percent share of the Dutch export market and accounted for 1.756 bil-lion euros (approximately 2.35 bilbil-lion U.S. dollars) of total sales.

Even though Holland is a world leader in flower production, a large amount of flowers that are sold in the auctions are imported. A very large percentage of these imports came from Africa with Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Zimbabwe being 4 of the top 5 importing countries. Israel was the only non-African country in the top 5.

The top five cut flowers sold through the Aalsmeer Flower Auction in 2006 were as follows: Roses – 1.762 billion, Tulips – 676 million, Chrysanthemums – 526 million, Transvaal Daisies – 269 million, and Lilies – 131 million. The majority of these flowers were purchased and sent to other European Union countries with Germany, the United Kingdom, and France being the largest customers.

The reason that Bloemenveiling Aalsmeer can sell and export such a large quantity of flowers each day is by using the Dutch auction method and the use of 13 auction clocks. The Dutch auction process involves starting at a high asking price and having the price continually drop until a buyer bids and gets the item at that price. If you wait too long in hopes of a lower price, you get shut out by the other buyers. Trains of carts loaded with flowers continually flow through each of the 13 auction houses (Figure 1). Individual auc-tions for each cart take a matter of seconds utilizing the 13 large auction clocks. In 2006,

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FIGURE 1 Flower auction in progress at Aalsmeer. (Source: Clark Williams)