EVALUATION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT AND THE
EVALUATION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT AND THE
PATTERN OF MANAGEMENT ANALYSIS
PATTERN OF MANAGEMENT ANALYSIS
Introduction
Introduction
Throu
Through the gh the practice of management and practice of management and the continued development of commercethe continued development of commerce and wealth we are transforming our lives. In Massachusetts (USA) in the 18!s the and wealth we are transforming our lives. In Massachusetts (USA) in the 18!s the life e"pectanc# of a male would have $een %& #ears of age and a female '! in life e"pectanc# of a male would have $een %& #ears of age and a female '! in 1* it was 8 for a male and +1 for a female, nowada#s life e"pectanc# would $e 1* it was 8 for a male and +1 for a female, nowada#s life e"pectanc# would $e in the region &!-8! #ears.
in the region &!-8! #ears.
hile appreciating the past success of /management0 we would also recognie that hile appreciating the past success of /management0 we would also recognie that toda#0s accelerating pace of change is putting pressure on our organiations to $e toda#0s accelerating pace of change is putting pressure on our organiations to $e at the forefront of management thin2ing. If we want to maintain our standard of at the forefront of management thin2ing. If we want to maintain our standard of living our rate of change has to
living our rate of change has to $e comparative to the rest of the $e comparative to the rest of the world.world. 3ut our
3ut our prpreseesent nt dada# # manmanageagemenment t thithin2in2ing ng has evolvhas evolved ed frfrom om a a whowhole le rarange nge of of in4uences over an e"traordinar# long period of time. In his comprehensive $oo2 in4uences over an e"traordinar# long period of time. In his comprehensive $oo2 /The 5volution of Management Thought0 6aniel A ren writes
/The 5volution of Management Thought0 6aniel A ren writes
"Within the practices of the past there are lessons of history for tomorrow in a "Within the practices of the past there are lessons of history for tomorrow in a continuous stream. We occupy but one point in this stream. The purpose is to continuous stream. We occupy but one point in this stream. The purpose is to preset the pas
preset the past as a prologt as a prologue to the futurue to the future."e."
So with the aim of accelerating the development of our management practice for So with the aim of accelerating the development of our management practice for the future let us e"amine that stream of evolving management thought of the past. the future let us e"amine that stream of evolving management thought of the past. 7ur hristian past has taught that us that there was a $eginning (Adam 9 5ve) and 7ur hristian past has taught that us that there was a $eginning (Adam 9 5ve) and there will $e an end (Armageddon) and in $etween we should hear the word of god there will $e an end (Armageddon) and in $etween we should hear the word of god and o$e# his commandments. e therefor
and o$e# his commandments. e therefore tend to e tend to thin2 linearl# as well as thin2 linearl# as well as in termsin terms of authorit# and compliance. In contrast the religions of the 5ast emphasie the of authorit# and compliance. In contrast the religions of the 5ast emphasie the c#cl
c#clical and ical and regregenerenerative properative properties of ties of natunature. The# re. The# therthereforefore e thinthin2 2 in in termterms s of of c#clical processes and of $eing at one with :od and authorit#.
c#clical processes and of $eing at one with :od and authorit#. The
The :ree2 :ree2 in4uence in4uence is is evident evident in in that that we we retain the retain the Socratic Socratic concept concept of of searchsearchinging for the truth $# the ;udging of a proposition $# stringent e"amination to con<rm its for the truth $# the ;udging of a proposition $# stringent e"amination to con<rm its validit#. It is a process of thesis = antithesis = s#nthesis. It is uncomforta$le with validit#. It is a process of thesis = antithesis = s#nthesis. It is uncomforta$le with half-truths and poor at $uilding up solutions from parallel thoughts.
>rom Aristotle0s anal#tical s2ills we have developed pro$lem solving methods that $rea2 down comple" issues into component parts. 3ut in this process we often lose sight of the whole and how important is the interrelationship of all the parts.
?ierarchical control structures were recorded in the writings of the hinese :eneral Sun Tu of +!!3 hina@ and it is of note than our own militar# command structures still resem$le those of ancient times.
>ather uca Bacioli invented the dou$le entr# $oo22eeping s#stem in 1''. 7ur accounting s#stems to this da# are $ased around these principles.
6uring the Middle Ages the atholic hurch dominated life and provided the hope of afterlife as the onl# consolation for this one. It discouraged the pursuit of gain. ith the reformation our $eliefs move onto considering that salvation comes from a life of diligence and industr# = the wor2 ethic is nurtured and esta$lished. And at the same time comes the importance of education - the reformers of the si"teenth centur# Scotland had the stated aim of having a college or grammar school in ever# $urgh.
>rom this general movement comes the li$ert# ethic where we as individuals esta$lish our rights and start tal2ing a$out government $# the people for the people. And onto the Mar2et ethic of the eighteenth centur# with Adam Smith0s ealth of Cations and the encouragement of free enterprise.
And into this evolving culture comes Dames att0s wor2 in the development of the steam engine as a source of power for factories and the resultant move from cottage industries and into factories
At one in the same time we have the development of mathematical thought. Isaac Cewton and Simon aplace0s <ndings encourage the view of the universe $eing a gigantic mechanism@ which follows determina$le laws. In other words when we wor2 out these laws we will $e a$le to <nd the root cause of events and $e a$le to predict future outcomes from esta$lished structures. In terms of societ# we come to $elieve that it is possi$le to identif# the one cause of a happening -=or the person who was at fault. 7ur legal s#stem is $ased on this misconception.
Into this growing of industrial societ# comes another Scot 6aniel Mcallum as Bresident of the Cew Eor2 to 5ire Failroad. In 18' he was facing speci<c pro$lems related to the sie of his organisation and a wor2force that was in the main uneducated. ?is wor2ers were immigrant and with an agricultural $ac2ground and not used to a factor# discipline imposed $# management. In this environment he determines sound management as $eing $ased on
• :ood discipline
• >reGuent and accurate reporting of performance • Ba# and promotion $ased on merit
• learl# de<ned hierarch# of superiors and su$ordinates • 5nforcement of personal responsi$ilit# and accounta$ilit#. • The search for and correction of errors
>rom this thin2ing he follows the classic hierarchical organiation chart.
Historical Preview
harles 6arwin0s wor2 on /The 7rigin of the Species0 is pu$lished in 18. ?er$ert Spencer (18*!-1!%) su$seGuentl# develops the theme of survival of the <ttest in his /Social 6arwinism.0 7ur societ# accepts the essential nature of competition@ survival of the <ttest and adulation of winners.
Ivan Bavlov does e"periments with dogs to develop classical conditioning. ?e pairs an arti<cial stimulus with a natural one. ?e gives the dog a piece of meat while at the same time ringing a $ell. In time he can ma2e the dog salivate purel# $# ringing the $ell. 3 > S2inner develops this train of thought into operant conditioning or positive re-enforcement. /6o this and #ou will get that.0 This wor2 gives legitimac# to the $elief that #ou can motivate a wor2er $# oHering rewards. >rom this grows the widespread use of $onus and commission s#stems.
Scienti<c Method would $e descri$ed as the practice of postulating a theor# and then conducting disciplined e"periments to con<rm or disprove the theor#. It is the method $# which science has developed over the centuries. 3# the earl# 1!!s >rederic2 Ta#lor (18+-11) was credited with $ringing scienti<c disciplines into the ethos of management. ?e is 2nown as the father of Scienti<c Management. ?e paid particular attention to the stud# and su$seGuent planning of tas2s. Time and motion stud# evolved which would lead into the setting of standards and performance measurement. Unfortunatel# the ma;orit# of Ta#lors e"cellent wor2 is clouded $# his misconception that wor2ers restrict output from /the natural instinct and tendenc# of men to ta2e it eas#.0 ?e referred to it as /soldering0
?enri >a#ol (18'1-1*) writes a$out leadership and the /theor# of management0 and Ma" e$er (18+'-1*!) develops organiational structures = e$er would $e the originator of the term $ureaucrac# = management $# the oJce. >rom these writings evolve the corporate structures of Alfred Sloan@ 57 of :eneral Motors 118-&. The need of these practitioners was to develop principles where$# large corporations could $e controlled and developed.
In parallel to this need to manage and control people a social dimension emerges. Fo$ert 7wen in his Cew anar2 e"periments (1&) recognies the importance of the human element in an enterprise. Karl Mar"@ within a societ# that contained e"tremes of povert# and wealth@ challenged the $asis of the capitalist s#stem. ?e Guestioned the control of societ#0s /means of production0 $# the few@ while it had the man# trapped in $urdensome and meaningless wor2. The social sciences emerge through the wor2 of Mar# Bar2er >olett where she recognies the interdependencies $etween the individual@ the wor2 and the environment. There are the human $ehavior studies of the ?awthorne e"periments of the late 1*!s@ and the su$seGuent research into motivation $# Ma#o@ Maslow@ ?et$erg@ Mclelland etc. In 1+! 6ouglas Mc:regor writes LThe answer to the Guestion managers often as2 = how do #ou motivate people = is - #ou don0t.L e all come to wor2 alread# motivated, the organiation either captures or destro#s that motivation. 6avid Mclelland (1&!s) of ?arvard Universit# researches motivation for 1! #ears over 1 diHerent cultures. ?e identi<es /Brimar# Social Motives (BSM)@0 the three main ones of which are Achievement@ AJliation and Bower. The individual or societ# tends to $e energied $# one or other of these /Brimar# Social Motives.0 ith /Achievement0 the focus is on achieving tas2s. /AJliation0 considers relationships and friendship. /Bower0 is concerned with status and in4uence over others. ?e considers o$served $ehavior is a function of the situation and the Brimar# Social Motive of the individual. Meredith 3el$in (18!s) identi<es the /team roles0 we enact when participating in teamwor2 situations.
In parallel is the development of ps#cholog#. Sigmund >reud (18+-1%) identi<es su$conscious human drives and that we are not in fact rational $eings. In the 1+!s we have Thomas ?arris developing Transactional Anal#sis recogniing that our su$conscious retains memories of all events we have e"perienced and those memories strongl# in4uence our emotions and actions. Stuart Sutherland in his $oo2 on Irrationalit# (1*) argues that irrational $ehavior is the norm not the e"ception.
>rom the writings of Corman Nincent Beale (1*) through to Scotland0s own guru Dac2 3lac2 (Mindstore 1') we recognie the considera$le $ene<ts of /Bositive Thin2ing0 within the individual@ their organiation and societ#.
In the past centur# mathematical thought was also transforming through 5instein@ Shewhart@ Boincare etc with the recognition of relativit#@ variation and chaos. The# challenge the deterministic concepts of Cewton and aplace. ith so man# varia$les impinging on circumstances we can longer with con<dence trace root causes and identi<es $lame. There is no one answer. 7ur old simplistic linear thin2ing is $eing challenged $# s#stems theor#. There is recognition of feed$ac2 loops and the nature of interdependence.
Shewhart (1%!s) from his e"periments at the 3ell a$oratories develops /Statistical Brocess ontrol0 to assist the anal#sis of data in the conte"t of variation. ?e
develops the control chart to help us understand variation and focuses on the need to reduce variation and comple"it# if we are to achieve /Gualit#.0 ?e also re-emphasies the need for scienti<c method in the conte"t of developing our concepts of management. ?e insists that each of our management theories need to $e s#stematicall# tested.
In 1' Dapan <nds itself decimated and desperate to re$uild their econom# for $asic survival. >urthermore man# of their pre-war industrial leaders are ;ailed or de-franchised $# their American conGuerors. Cew managers emerge that are wide open to the latest of management concepts. Into this receptive vacuum the Americans pour the e"pertise of Sarashon@ Brotman@ 6eming and later Duran. 3ut this new thin2ing is also in tune with their ancient culture of seeing the c#clical and regenerative nature of the world and their respect for and $eing part of the authorit# within societ#. Dapan0s manufacturing success challenges the domination of the /est.0 The 6eming prie is instituted in Dapan in 1* and to this da# is regarded as the premier /Gualit#0 award for a Dapanese compan#.
7ne of the ma;or mindset changes oHered to the Dapanese $# 6eming and Duran is to see their organiations holisticall# and as an overall s#stem. 6eming0s drawing /production viewed as a s#stem is reproduced $elow
1& - 3S &! is developed from Ministr# of 6efense Gualit# assurance s#stem@ It is now revised into IS7 !!! *!!!. The government supports its application. It is mar2eted through the threat that if a compan# is not accredited then it will not $e
included on tender lists. 3# the 1!s a large num$er of organiations have secured accreditation. The model is $eing e"tended worldwide. The standard follows the 4ow of wor2 through the organiation = it re4ects s#stems thin2ing.
In the conte"t of s#stems thin2ing we see $ac2 in 1*!s Mar# Bar2er >ollet was tal2ing a$out the authorit# of the function = Lthe dispatch cler2 has more authorit# in dispatching wor2 than the president.L She also identi<es the need for each part to in4uence each part# through open interaction for the $ene<t of all. >rom the 1!s 6eming and Duran recognie that 8-O of the output from a function is dependent on the design of the s#stem in which the individual wor2s. 7nl# a small portion of the responsi$ilit# for outcomes is reliant on the diligence of the individual. 3# the 18!s /s#stem thin2ing is a recognied discipline with such contri$utors as = Fussell Ac2oH and Beter Senge = The# ac2nowledge that wor2ers Lare prisoners of the s#stem.L The tas2 of leadership is primaril# the design of s#stems that allow people to contri$ute.
Fichard 6aw2ins (18+) in his paper /Cice gu#s <nish <rst0 develops the Pprisoner0s dilemmaQ software to esta$lish that co-operative strategies are more successful than competitive strategies. ?e refutes the long held $elief of the survival of the <ttest. ?e proves that we progress $# co-operation rather than $# competition. /Co ontest = The ase Against ompetition0 $# Al<e Khon <rst pu$lished in 18+.
/:etting to Ees0 $# >isher and Ur# is pu$lished in 181 and in 18 Dohn arlisle pu$lishes L3e#ond Cegotiation0 and proceeds to wor2 with the 7il industr# to redeem their customer supplier relationships. e start to Guestion the confrontational /tendering0 approach for securing $est value. ?aving recognied the validit# of /self-interest0 we develop strategies that secure win-win scenarios for all parties. The 7il industr# and man# others start to tal2 a$out /partnership0 agreements.
Al<e Khon in his $oo2 LBunished $# FewardsL (1%) represents the growing argument against positive re-enforcement@ that motivation can $e secure through e"trinsic rewards. ?e argues that we are in fact driven $# our intrinsic needs from wor2. Fewards disrupt that intrinsic motivation@ ruptures relationships@ avoids underl#ing reasons@ greatl# increases comple"it# and in the end onl# secures temporar# compliance.
e are aware that the mar2et in the latter part of the *!th centur# is changing.
hile in the past commerce was dominated $# the eJcient use of capital the future is going to $e dominated $# the 2nowledge industries. hile ! #ears ago less than O of the population received a universit# degree it is now over %!O. In the future our competitiveness is going to $e a function of how well we capture the thin2ing potential of our emplo#ees.
Beter Senge in /The >ifth 6iscipline = The earning 7rganiation0 (1!) highlights that emplo#ees cannot $e commanded to commit to an organiation. As individuals
we have choice = we can commit to the goals of the enterprise or grudgingl# compl# with instructions. There is a vast diHerence in $ene<t to the organiation@ and the individual@ $etween these two states.
Beter Senge@ to create the /earning 7rganiation@0 argues for a holistic approach incorporating
• S#stems Thin2ing = seeing c#clical processes
• Bersonal Master# = commitment to life-long learning
• Mental Models = challenging deepl# ingrained assumptions
• Shared Nision = creating an aim with which emplo#ees can identif# • Team earning = it is the organiation that learns = through people
5dwards 6eming (1!!-1%) in his %rd #ear propounds his S#stem of Brofound
Knowledge in his $oo2 /The Cew 5conomics0. ?e has four components that must wor2 together as a s#stem@ the# are
• S#stems Thin2ing = seeing c#clical processes
• Nariation = the need to appreciate variation and statistical process control • Theor# of Knowledge = The need to test our theories or assumptions. • Bs#cholog# = of individuals@ societ# and change
e are also witnessing signi<cant developments in our understanding of how the $rain wor2s and how we learn. Ton# 3uan on the one hand is highlighting the patterning nature of the mind. Thomas Kuhn (1+*) and Coel 3a2er (1*) tal2 a$out paradigms and the diJcult# we e"perience in seeing new concepts $ecause of our past conditioning. Steven Bin2er (1&) writes that mental activit# is a form of computation. >urthermore writers such as 5dward de 3ono are challenging the anal#tical and confrontational st#les of Aristotle and Blato in their search for the truth. ?e tal2s a$out lateral thin2ing and developing solutions $# $uilding on people0s /half $a2ed0 ideas (parallel thin2ing).
e are now starting to tal2 a$out democrac# within organiations0. hile we have $een committed to democrac# relative to government for hundreds of #ears our commercial organiations are not lead $# elected mem$ers nor are the# held accounta$le to the emplo#ees within the compan#. ?owever Ficardo Semler of Semco in his $oo2 /Maveric20 (1%) e"plains how he was a$le to transform a traditional hierarchical organiation into one in which the emplo#ees appoint their respective leaders.
Margaret heatl# in her $oo2 /eadership and the Cew Sciences0 (1') starts e"ploring modern scienti<c thought in respect to organiations and their leadership. In the conte"t of Ruantum Theor#@ Self-organiing S#stems and haos Theor# she tal2s a$out a /vision of the inherent orderliness of the universe@ of the creative processes and d#namic@ continuous change that still maintains order.0 >rom which she develops concepts of leadership that guides organiational energ# rather than attempting to control and dominate it. She suggests that information allied to the thin2ing potential of our people is going to $e the driver of change for the future. There is going to $e much less need for direction. This argument is developed in her
su$seGuent $oo2 LA Simpler a#L where she focuses on our natural a$ilit# to self-organie.
And <nall# we come to the electronic age. Information and 2nowledge is going to $e readil# availa$le to us all. 5-commerce is going to revolutionie the wa# we wor2@ and the wa# we are led. The orld ide e$ re4ects how the $rain wor2s and appears to $e in tune with Margaret heatl#s concept of self-organiing s#stems. The future is going to $e dominated $# our need to understand s#stems.
Dierent chools of !anagement Thought
The schools of management thought are theoretical framewor2s for the stud# of management. 5ach of the school of management thought are $ased on somewhat diHerent assumptions a$out human $eings and the organiations for which the# wor2. Since the formal stud# of management $egan late in the 1th centur#@ the
stud# of management has progressed through several stages as scholars and practitioners wor2ing in diHerent eras focused on what the# $elieved to $e important aspects of good management practice. 7ver time@ management thin2ers have sought wa#s to organie and classif# the voluminous information a$out management that has $een collected and disseminated. These attempts at classi<cation have resulted in the identi<cation of management schools.
6isagreement e"ists as to the e"act num$er of management schools. 6iHerent writers have identi<ed as few as three and as man# as twelve. The most discussed <ve schools are
(1) The lassical School (*) The 3ehavioral School
(%) The Ruantitative or Management Science School (') The S#stems School
() The ontingenc# School
The formal stud# of management is largel# a twentieth-centur# phenomenon@ and to some degree the relativel# large num$er of management schools of thought re4ects a lac2 of consensus among management scholars a$out $asic Guestions of theor# and practice.
THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL
The classical school is the oldest formal school of management thought. Its roots pre-date the twentieth centur#. The classical school of thought generall# concerns wa#s to manage wor2 and organiations more eJcientl#. Three areas of stud# that can $e grouped under the classical school are scienti<c management@ administrative management@ and $ureaucratic management.
Scientifc Management
In the late 1th centur#@ management decisions were often ar$itrar# and wor2ers often wor2ed at an intentionall# slow pace. There was little in the wa# of s#stematic management and wor2ers and management were often in con4ict. Scienti<c management was introduced in an attempt to create a mental revolution in the wor2place. It can $e de<ned as the s#stematic stud# of wor2 methods in order to improve eJcienc#. >rederic2 . Ta#lor was its main proponent. 7ther ma;or contri$utors were >ran2 :il$reth@ illian :il$reth@ and ?enr# :antt.
Scienti<c management has several ma;or principles. >irst@ it calls for the application of the scienti<c method to wor2 in order to determine the $est method for
accomplishing each tas2. Second@ scienti<c management suggests that wor2ers should $e scienti<call# selected $ased on their Guali<cations and trained to perform their ;o$s in the optimal manner. Third@ scienti<c management advocates genuine cooperation $etween wor2ers and management $ased on mutual self-interest. >inall#@ scienti<c management suggests that management should ta2e complete responsi$ilit# for planning the wor2 and that wor2ers primar# responsi$ilit# should $e implementing managements plans. 7ther important characteristics of scienti<c management include the scienti<c development of diJcult $ut fair performance standards and the implementation of a pa#-for-performance incentive plan $ased on wor2 standards.
Scienti<c management had a tremendous in4uence on management practice in the earl# twentieth centur#. Although it does not represent a complete theor# of management@ it has contri$uted to the stud# of management and organiations in man# areas@ including human resource management and industrial engineering. Man# of the tenets of scienti<c management are still valid toda#.
Administrative Management
Administrative management focuses on the management process and principles of management. In contrast to scienti<c management@ which deals largel# with ;o$s and wor2 at the individual level of anal#sis@ administrative management provides a more general theor# of management. ?enri >a#ol is the ma;or contri$utor to this school of management thought.
>a#ol was a management practitioner who $rought his e"perience to $ear on the su$;ect of management functions and principles. ?e argued that management was a universal process consisting of functions@ which he termed planning@ organiing@ commanding@ coordinating@ and controlling. >a#ol $elieved that all managers performed these functions and that the functions distinguished management as a separate discipline of stud# apart from accounting@ <nance@ and production. >a#ol also presented fourteen principles of management@ which included ma"ims related to the division of wor2@ authorit# and responsi$ilit#@ unit# of command and direction@ centraliation@ su$ordinate initiative@ and team spirit.
Although administrative management has $een criticied as $eing rigid and in4e"i$le and the validit# of the functional approach to management has $een Guestioned@ this school of thought still in4uences management theor# and practice. The functional approach to management is still the dominant wa# of organiing management 2nowledge@ and man# of >a#ols principles of management@ when applied with the 4e"i$ilit# that he advocated@ are still considered relevant.
Bureaucratic Management
3ureaucratic management focuses on the ideal form of organiation. Ma" e$er was the ma;or contri$utor to $ureaucratic management. 3ased on o$servation@ e$er concluded that man# earl# organiations were ineJcientl# managed@ with decisions $ased on personal relationships and lo#alt#. ?e proposed that a form of organiation@ called a $ureaucrac#@ characteried $# division of la$or@ hierarch#@ formalied rules@ impersonalit#@ and the selection and promotion of emplo#ees $ased on a$ilit#@ would lead to more eJcient management. e$er also contended that managers authorit# in an organiation should $e $ased not on tradition or charisma $ut on the position held $# managers in the organiational hierarch#.
3ureaucrac# has come to stand for in4e"i$ilit# and waste@ $ut e$er did not advocate or favor the e"cesses found in man# $ureaucratic organiations toda#. e$ers ideas formed the $asis for modern organiation theor# and are still descriptive of some organiations.
THE BEHAVIORAL SCHOOL
The $ehavioral school of management thought developed@ in part@ $ecause of perceived wea2nesses in the assumptions of the classical school. The classical school emphasied eJcienc#@ process@ and principles. Some felt that this emphasis disregarded important aspects of organiational life@ particularl# as it related to human $ehavior. Thus@ the $ehavioral school focused on tr#ing to understand the factors that aHect human $ehavior at wor2.
Human relations
The ?awthorne 5"periments $egan in 1*' and continued through the earl# 1%!s. A variet# of researchers participated in the studies@ including lair Turner@ >rit D. Foethlis$erger@ and 5lton Ma#o@ whose respective $oo2s on the studies are perhaps the $est 2nown. 7ne of the ma;or conclusions of the ?awthorne studies was that wor2ers attitudes are associated with productivit#. Another was that the wor2place is a social s#stem and informal group in4uence could e"ert a powerful eHect on individual $ehavior. A third was that the st#le of supervision is an important factor in increasing wor2ers ;o$ satisfaction. The studies also found that organiations should ta2e steps to assist emplo#ees in ad;usting to organiational life $# fostering colla$orative s#stems $etween la$or and management. Such conclusions spar2ed increasing interest in the human element at wor2, toda#@ the ?awthorne studies are generall# credited as the impetus for the human relations school.
According to the human relations school@ the manager should possess s2ills for diagnosing the causes of human $ehavior at wor2@ interpersonal communication@ and motivating and leading wor2ers. The focus $ecame satisf#ing wor2er needs. If
wor2er needs were satis<ed@ wisdom held@ the wor2ers would in turn $e more productive. Thus@ the human relations school focuses on issues of communication@ leadership@ motivation@ and group $ehavior. The individuals who contri$uted to the school are too numerous to mention@ $ut some of the $est-2nown contri$utors include Mar# Bar2er >ollett@ hester 3arnard@ A$raham Maslow@ Kurt ewin@ Fenais i2ert@ and Keith 6avis. The human relations school of thought still in4uences management theor# and practice@ as contemporar# management focuses much attention on human resource management@ organiational $ehavior@ and applied ps#cholog# in the wor2place.
Behavioral Science
3ehavioral science and the stud# of organiational $ehavior emerged in the 1!s and 1+!s. The $ehavioral science school was a natural progression of the human relations movement. It focused on appl#ing conceptual and anal#tical tools to the pro$lem of understanding and predicting $ehavior in the wor2place. ?owever@ the stud# of $ehavioral science and organiational $ehavior was also a result of criticism of the human relations approach as simplistic and manipulative in its assumptions a$out the relationship $etween wor2er attitudes and productivit#. The stud# of $ehavioral science in $usiness schools was given increased credence $# the 1 :ordon and ?owell report on higher education@ which emphasied the importance to management practitioners of understanding human $ehavior.
The $ehavioral science school has contri$uted to the stud# of management through its focus on personalit#@ attitudes@ values@ motivation@ group $ehavior@ leadership@ communication@ and con4ict@ among other issues. Some of the ma;or contri$utors to this school include 6ouglas Mc:regor@ hris Arg#ris@ >rederic2 ?er$erg@ Fenais i2ert@ and Falph Stogdill@ although there are man# others.
THE !A"TITATIVE SCHOOL
The Guantitative school focuses on improving decision ma2ing via the application of Guantitative techniGues. Its roots can $e traced $ac2 to scienti<c management.
Management Science
Management science (also called operations research) uses mathematical and statistical approaches to solve management pro$lems. It developed during orld ar II as strategists tried to appl# scienti<c 2nowledge and methods to the comple" pro$lems of war. Industr# $egan to appl# management science after the war. :eorge 6antig developed linear programming@ an alge$raic method to determine the optimal allocation of scarce resources. 7ther tools used in industr# include inventor# control theor#@ goal programming@ Gueuing models@ and simulation. The advent of the computer made man# management science tools and concepts more
practical for industr#. Increasingl#@ management science and management information s#stems (MIS) are intertwined. MIS focuses on providing needed information to managers in a useful format and at the proper time. 6ecision support s#stems (6SS) attempt to integrate decision models@ data@ and the decision ma2er into a s#stem that supports $etter management decisions.
#roduction and O$erations Management
This school focuses on the operation and control of the production process that transforms resources into <nished goods and services. It has its roots in scienti<c management $ut $ecame an identi<a$le area of management stud# after orld ar II. It uses man# of the tools of management science.
7perations management emphasies productivit# and Gualit# of $oth manufacturing and service organiations. . 5dwards 6eming e"erted a tremendous in4uence in shaping modern ideas a$out improving productivit# and Gualit#. Ma;or areas of stud# within operations management include capacit# planning@ facilities location@ facilities la#out@ materials reGuirement planning@ scheduling@ purchasing and inventor# control@ Gualit# control@ computer integrated manufacturing@ ;ust-in-time inventor# s#stems@ and 4e"i$le manufacturing s#stems.
S%STEMS SCHOOL
The s#stems school focuses on understanding the organiation as an open s#stem that transforms inputs into outputs. This school is $ased on the wor2 of a $iologist@ udwig von 3ertalanH#@ who $elieved that a general s#stems model could $e used to unite science. 5arl# contri$utors to this school included Kenneth 3oulding@ Fichard Dohnson@ >remont Kast@ and Dames Fosenweig.
The s#stems school $egan to have a strong impact on management thought in the 1+!s as a wa# of thin2ing a$out managing techniGues that would allow managers to relate diHerent specialties and parts of the compan# to one another@ as well as to e"ternal environmental factors. The s#stems school focuses on the organiation as a whole@ its interaction with the environment@ and its need to achieve eGuili$rium. :eneral s#stems theor# received a great deal of attention in the 1+!s@ $ut its in4uence on management thought has diminished somewhat. It has $een criticied as too a$stract and too comple". ?owever@ man# of the ideas inherent in the s#stems school formed the $asis for the contingenc# school of management.
CO"TI"&E"C% SCHOOL
The contingenc# school focuses on appl#ing management principles and processes as dictated $# the uniGue characteristics of each situation. It emphasies that there is no one $est wa# to manage and that it depends on various situational factors@ such as the e"ternal environment@ technolog#@ organiational characteristics@ characteristics of the manager@ and characteristics of the su$ordinates. ontingenc# theorists often implicitl# or e"plicitl# criticie the classical school for its emphasis on the universalit# of management principles, however@ most classical writers recognied the need to consider aspects of the situation when appl#ing management principles.
The contingenc# school originated in the 1+!s. It has $een applied primaril# to management issues such as organiational design@ ;o$ design@ motivation@ and leadership st#le. >or e"ample@ optimal organiational structure has $een theoried to depend upon organiational sie@ technolog#@ and environmental uncertaint#, optimal leadership st#le@ meanwhile@ has $een theoried to depend upon a variet# of factors@ including tas2 structure@ position power@ characteristics of the wor2 group@ characteristics of individual su$ordinates@ Gualit# reGuirements@ and pro$lem structure@ to name a few. A few of the ma;or contri$utors to this school of management thought include Doan oodward@ Baul awrence@ Da# orsch@ and >red >iedler@ among man# others.
CO"TEM#ORAR% 'SCHOOLS' O( MA"A&EME"T THO!&HT
Management research and practice continues to evolve and new approaches to the stud# of management continue to $e advanced. This section $rie4# reviews two contemporar# approaches total Gualit# management (TRM) and the learning organiation. hile neither of these management approaches oHers a complete theor# of management@ the# do oHer additional insights into the management <eld. Total ualit) Management
Total Gualit# management (TRM) is a philosoph# or approach to management that focuses on managing the entire organiation to deliver Gualit# goods and services to customers. This approach to management was implemented in Dapan after orld ar II and was a ma;or factor in their economic renaissance. TRM has at least four ma;or elements. 5mplo#ee involvement is essential in preventing Gualit# pro$lems $efore the# occur. A customer focus means that the organiation must attempt to
determine customer needs and wants and deliver products and services that address them.
3enchmar2ing means that the organiation is alwa#s see2ing out other organiations that perform a function or process more eHectivel# and using them as a standard@ or $enchmar2@ to ;udge their own performance. The organiation will also attempt to adapt or improve the processes used $# other companies. >inall#@ a philosoph# of continuous improvement means that the organiation is committed to incremental changes and improvements over time in all areas of the organiation. TRM has $een implemented $# man# companies worldwide and appears to have
fostered performance improvements in man# organiations. Berhaps the $est-2nown proponent of this school of management was . 5dwards 6eming.
Learning Organi*ation
The contemporar# organiation faces unprecedented environmental and technological changes. Thus@ one of the $iggest challenges for organiations is to continuousl# change in a wa# that meets the demands of this tur$ulent competitive environment. The learning organiation can $e de<ned as one in which all emplo#ees are involved in identif#ing and solving pro$lems@ which allows the organiation to continuall# increase its a$ilit# to grow@ learn@ and achieve its purpose. The organiing principle of the learning organiation is not eJcienc#@ $ut pro$lem solving. Three 2e# aspects of the learning organiation are a team-$ased structure@ empowered emplo#ees@ and open information. Beter Senge is one of the $est-2nown e"perts on learning organiations.
