Chapter 4
The Cellular Level of Organization
The word “cell” entered biology in
the 17th century.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek is
recognized for inventing one of the earliest microscopes and observing a first cell.
Robert Hooke confirmed earlier
Early Microscopes
Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek (1632)
The Cell
The cell marks the boundary between the
nonliving and the living.
It is the structural and
functional unit
of an
organism.
It is the smallest structure capable of
performing all the functions necessary for
life.
The Cell Theory
All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
Cells are the basic living unit of structure and
function in organisms.
• Two kinds of electron microscopes reveal different parts of cells.
• Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs)
examine cell surfaces.
• Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) are
useful for studying the internal structure of a cell.
of Cells
Scanning Electron
Microscope
Figure 4.1a
Light Micrograph (LM) (for viewing living cells)
Scanning Electron Micrograph (SEM) (for viewing surface features)
Figure 4.1c
Transmission Electron Micrograph (TEM) (for viewing internal structures)
1 m 10 cm 1 cm 1 mm 100 µm 10 µm Human height Chicken egg Frog eggs Length of some nerve and muscle cells Unai ded e y e Light mi c ros c ope Plant and animal cells Most bacteria Nuclei Mitochondria 1 µm 100 nm 10 nm 1 nm 0.1 nm Smallest bacteria Viruses Ribosomes Proteins Lipids Small molecules Atoms E le c tron mi c ros c ope
Why are Cells so Small?
Advantage for multicellular organisms:
•
Nutrients can enter cell
•
Wastes such as CO2 can exit cell.
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
• Smaller • Simpler
• Most do not have organelles • Found in bacteria and archaea
• Larger
• More complex • Have organelles
• Found in protists, plants, fungi, animals
CATEGORIES OF CELLS
The Two Major Categories of Cells
• All cells have several basic features.
–
plasma membrane, boundary of the cell
–
cytosol, in which cellular components are
suspended.
–
chromosomes carrying genes made of
DNA.
–
ribosomes, tiny structures that build proteins
according to the instructions from the DNA.
Plasma membrane Cell wall Capsule Prokaryotic flagellum Ribosomes Nucleoid Pili C olori zed T E M Prokaryotic Structure
Figure 4.4a
Plasma membrane (encloses cytoplasm)
Cell wall (provides rigidity)
Capsule (sticky coating)
Prokaryotic flagellum (for propulsion)
Ribosomes
(synthesize proteins)
Nucleoid (contains DNA)
Cytoskeleton Ribosomes Centriole Lysosome Nucleus Plasma membrane Mitochondrion Rough ER Golgi apparatus Smooth ER
Figure 4.5b
IDEALIZED PLANT CELL
Cytoskeleton Mitochondrion Nucleus Rough ER Ribosomes Smooth ER Golgi apparatus Plasma membrane Channels between cells Central vacuole Cell wall Chloroplast
• The plasma membrane separates the living cell from its nonliving surroundings.
• Made up of :
– Phospholipids – Proteins
– Carbohydrates – Cholesterol
Figure 4.6a
(a) Phospholipid bilayer of membrane
Outside of cell Hydrophilic head Hydrophobic tail Phospholipid
(b) Fluid mosaic model of membrane Outside of cell Hydrophilic region of protein Hydrophilic head Hydrophobic tail Hydrophobic regions of protein Proteins
Cell Junction
• Plant cell walls have plasmodesmata
• Animal cells have extracellular matrix and junctions
GENETIC CONTROL OF THE CELL
• The nucleus is the chief executive of the cell.
– Genes in the nucleus store information necessary to produce proteins.
– Proteins do most of the work of the cell.
Figure 4.8a
Ribosomes
Chromatin
fiber Nucleolus Nuclear pore Nuclear
DNA molecule
Chromosome
Proteins
Chromatin fiber
Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis.
• Ribosome components are made in the nucleolus
but assembled in the cytoplasm.
Synthesis of mRNA in the nucleus Nucleus DNA mRNA Cytoplasm 1
Figure 4.12-2 Synthesis of mRNA in the nucleus Nucleus DNA mRNA Cytoplasm mRNA Movement of mRNA into cytoplasm via nuclear pore 1 2
Synthesis of mRNA in the nucleus Nucleus DNA mRNA Cytoplasm mRNA Movement of mRNA into cytoplasm via nuclear pore Ribosome Protein Synthesis of protein in the cytoplasm 1 2 3
THE ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM:
1. Nuclear envelope
2. Endoplasmic reticulum (Rough and smooth) 3. Golgi Apparatus
4. Lysosomes 5. Vacuoles 6. Vesicles
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The ER
– is connected to the nuclear envelope, and – is composed of smooth and rough ER.
Figure 4.13a Nuclear envelope Smooth ER Rough ER Ribosomes
Proteins are modified in the ER.
Secretory
proteins depart. Vesicles bud off from the ER.
A ribosome links amino acids.
Ribosome Transport vesicle
Polypeptide
Protein
The Golgi Apparatus
• The Golgi apparatus
– works in partnership with the ER and
– receives, refines, stores, and distributes chemical products of the cell.
Transport vesicle from rough ER
“Receiving” side of
the Golgi apparatus New vesicle forming Transport vesicle from the Golgi apparatus Plasma membrane “Shipping” side of
the Golgi apparatus
1
3 2
Lysosomes
• A lysosome is a membrane-bound sac of digestive enzymes found in animal cells.
• Enzymes in a lysosome can break down large molecules such as
– proteins,
– polysaccharides, – fats, and
– nucleic acids.
Plasma membrane Digestive enzymes
Lysosome
Digestion Food vacuole
Figure 4.16b
Lysosome
Digestion
(b) A lysosome breaking down the molecules of damaged organelles
Vesicle containing damaged organelle
Vacuoles
• Vacuoles are large sacs of membrane that bud from the
– ER,
– Golgi apparatus, or – plasma membrane.
• Two kinds of vacuoles (Contractile and central)
Figure 4.17a
A vacuole filling with water
A vacuole contracting
(a) Contractile vacuole in Paramecium
LM
(b) Central vacuole in a plant cell Central vacuole C o lo ri z ed T EM
Figure 4.18a Golgi apparatus Transport vesicle Plasma membrane Secretory protein
Vacuoles store some cell products.
Lysosomes carrying digestive enzymes can fuse with other vesicles.
Transport vesicles carry enzymes and other proteins from the rough ER to the Golgi for processing.
Some products are secreted from the cell.
Rough ER Review:
Endomembrane System
ENERGY CONVERSION
• Cells require a continuous energy supply to perform the work of life.
• Two organelles act as cellular power stations:
1. chloroplasts and 2. mitochondria.
Figure 4.19
Inner and outer membranes
Space between membranes
Stroma (fluid in chloroplast) Granum
TEM
Outer membrane Inner membrane Cristae Matrix Space between membranes T EM Mitochondrion
THE CYTOSKELETON:
CELL SHAPE AND MOVEMENT
• The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
– provides mechanical support to the cell and – helps a cell maintain its shape.
(a) Microtubules in the cytoskeleton
(b) Microtubules and movement
LM
Cilia and Flagella
• Cilia and flagella are motile appendages that aid in movement.
– Flagella propel the cell through their undulating,
whiplike motion.
– Cilia move in a coordinated back-and-forth motion.
– Cilia and flagella have the same basic architecture, but cilia are generally shorter and more numerous than flagella.
(a) Flagellum of a human sperm cell Colo riz ed SE M
Figure 4.22b
(c) Cilia lining the respiratory tract Colo riz ed SE M
Figure 4.UN12
Outside of cell
Cytoplasm (inside of cell) Protein
Phospholipid
Hydrophilic
Hydrophilic Hydrophobic
1. What type of microscope would be best for
studying the detailed structure of the surface of a plasma membrane?
A) light microscope
B) transmission electron microscope C) scanning electron microscope
D) both a light microscope and an electron microscope
2) You find a cell of a type you have never seen before. The cell has both a nucleus and a cell wall. Therefore, you conclude that it must be a ______ cell.
A) prokaryotic B) animal
C) bacterial D) plant
membranes. A) Steroids B) Fatty acids C) Mosaics
4) What structures move proteins from the ER to the Golgi apparatus? A) transport proteins B) central vacuole C) transport vesicles D) Nucleolus
by the presence of a ______.
A) cell wall and contractile vacuole B) cell wall and central vacuole
C) nucleus and cell wall
