Performance
Peak
Preliminary PDHPE
Darryl Buchanan
Wayne Cotton
Karen Ingram
Jo McLean
Donna O’Connor
Peter Sinclair
Performance
Peak
Preliminary PDHPE
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Copyright © D. Buchanan, D. O’Connor, K. Ingram, J. McLean and Macmillan Education Australia 2010 All rights reserved.
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cataloguing in publication data
Title: Peak performance 1 : preliminary PDHPE / Darryl Buchanan ... [et al.].
ISBN: 9781420228816 (pbk. + CD-ROM)
Notes: Includes index.
Target Audience: For secondary school age. Subjects: Health–Textbooks.
Physical fi tness–Textbooks. Other Authors/Contributors: Buchanan, Darryl.
Dewey Number: 613
Publisher: Ben Dawe
Project editor: Hannah Koelmeyer Editor: Kate McGregor
Illustrators: Paul Lennon and Guy Holt Cover designer: Polar Design Pty Ltd Text designer: Polar Design Pty Ltd
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1
chapter
Preface x
About the authors xi
Preliminary Core 1
Better health for individuals
Health and individuals
3
Meanings of health 3
Defi nitions of health 3
Dimensions of health 4
Relative and dynamic nature of health 6
Perceptions of health 8
Perceptions of individual health 8
Perceptions of the health of others 9
Implications of different perceptions of health 9
Perceptions of health as social constructs 10
Impact of the media, peers and family 11
Health behaviours of young people 12
The positive health status of young people 12
Protective behaviours and risk behaviours 18
Chapter review 31
Infl uences on the health of individuals
34
The determinants of health 34
Individual factors 34
Sociocultural factors 36
Socioeconomic factors 40
Environmental factors 43
The degree of control individuals can exert over their health 44
Modifi able and non-modifi able health determinants 45
Changing infl uence of determinants through different life stages 46
Health as a social construct 48
Recognising the interrelationship of determinants 48
Challenging the notion that health is solely an individual’s responsibility 50
Chapter review 51
Strategies for promoting health
53
What is health promotion? 53
Settings for health promotion 55
Responsibilities for health promotion 56
Individuals 57 Community groups/schools 58 Non-government organisations 60 Government 62 International organisations 66
2
3
chapter
chapter
Contents
Lifestyle/behavioural approaches 68
Preventative medical approaches 71
Public health approaches 75
The Ottawa Charter 78
Developing personal skills 79
Creating supportive environments 79
Strengthening community action 80
Reorienting health services 81
Building healthy public policy 81
Principles of social justice 85
Equity 86
Diversity 86
Supportive environments 86
Chapter review 87
Preliminary Core 2
The body in motion
Musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems
91
Skeletal system 92
Major bones involved in movement 94
Structure and function of joints 97
Joint actions 100
The muscular system 104
Major muscles involved in movement 104
Muscle fi bres 108
Muscle relationships 108
Types of muscle contraction 109
Respiratory system 110
Structure and functions 110
Lung function 112
Exchange of gases 112
Circulatory system 114
Components of blood 114
Structure and function of the heart 115
Structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries 116
Pulmonary and systemic circulation 116
Blood pressure 118
Chapter review 120
Physical fi tness, training and movement
122
Health-related components of physical fi tness 122
Cardiorespiratory endurance 122 Muscular strength 128 Muscular endurance 130 Flexibility 132 Body composition 134
4
chapter
5
chapter
6
chapter
Speed 140 Agility 140 Coordination 141 Balance 142 Reaction time 143Aerobic and anaerobic training 145
FITT principle 145
Immediate physiological responses to training 148
Heart rate 148 Ventilation rate 149 Stroke volume 149 Cardiac output 150 Lactate levels 151 Chapter review 152
Biomechanical principles and movement
155
Motion 155
The application of linear motion, velocity, speed, acceleration and momentum
in movement and performance contexts 155
Balance and stability 162
Centre of gravity 162 Line of gravity 164 Base of support 164 Fluid mechanics 166 Flotation 166 Centre of buoyancy 169 Fluid resistance Force 173
How the body applies force 173
How the body absorbs force 175
Applying force to an object 177
Chapter review 181
Preliminary
Options
First aid
185
What are the main priorities for assessment and management of fi rst aid patients? 185
Setting priorities for managing a fi rst aid situation and assessing the casualty 185
Crisis management 190
How should the major types of injuries and medical conditions be managed 196 in fi rst aid situations?
Management of injuries 196
Management of medical conditions 204
7
Physical environment 212
Infection control and protection 213
Legal and moral dilemmas 214
Support following fi rst aid situations 216
Chapter review 218
Composition and performance
220
How do the elements of composition apply to different movement mediums? 220
Space 220
Dynamics 228
Time and rhythm 230
Relationships 234
How are the elements used to compose movement? 237
The process of creating movement 238
The process of combining and arranging movement 242
What is the role of appraisal in the process of composing and performing? 247
Ways of appraising 247
Aspects for appraisal 250
Establishing and applying criteria 252
Chapter review 255
Fitness choices
257
What does exercise mean to different people? 257
Meanings of exercise 257
The value that people place on exercise and fi tness 260
What are the ways people choose to exercise for fi tness? 263
Individual fi tness activities 264
Group fi tness activities 267
What infl uences people’s choice of fi tness activities? 272
Settings for exercise 272
Advertising and promotion 277
Motivators and barriers to participation 281
Chapter review 284
Outdoor recreation
286
What is the value of outdoor recreation? 286
Reasons for participation in outdoor recreation 287
What are the technical skills and understanding needed for safe participation 289 in outdoor recreation?
Planning skills 289
Campsite selection 293
Conservation skills 294
Navigation skills 298
Emergency management skills 307
Skills needed for other outdoor activities—relevant to the experience 310
8
9
10
chapter
chapter
chapter
Understanding group dynamics 312
Facilitation skills 314
Understanding strengths and weaknesses 315
Chapter review 317
Suggested answers 320
Glossary 331
Acknowledgments 339
Preface
Peak Performance 1 is an exciting new text written expressly for the recently revised Stage 6 Personal Development, Health and Physical Education syllabus in NSW.
Written by a team of leading educators, everything a Preliminary student needs to perform at their ‘peak’ is included here. Peak Performance 1: • Covers all core and option topics in an accessible, well illustrated way • Addresses every syllabus dot point comprehensively, clearly and
succinctly
• Strikes the ideal balance of covering the breadth of syllabus content in the appropriate depth. This approach supports all students to access the material while ensuring great scope for deeper learning.
• Maintains a clear focus on what students specifi cally need to know and be able to do in Stage 6 PDHPE
• Provides ample opportunities for critical thinking and analysis, including a broad range of relevant and specifi c examples to support practical application
The use of Peak Performance 1 will help teachers deliver the Preliminary Personal Development, Health and Physical Education course with
confi dence. Collecting together the best teaching and learning practice available, Peak Performance 1 will make Personal Development, Health and Physical Education enjoyable and relevant for a new generation of students.
About Visualcoaching
®
Pro
Visualcoaching® Pro is a world-leading exercise software system, created
by a team of experts in the fi elds of sport science, education, information technology and international business. Screenshots and video provided courtesy of Visualcoaching® Pro appear in this book/CD package as part of
a professional association between Visualcoaching® Pro and Macmillan.
Visit <www.visualcoaching.com> for information about trialling and using Visualcoaching® Pro.
About the CD
Peak Performance 1 includes an interactive PDF with embedded video fi les (courtesy of Visualcoaching® Pro software).
The following icon indicates that video is viewable on the CD
accompanying this book. Open the CD menus to navigate the video items, or follow the live links in the PDF.
with Adobe Rea
der 8.0. Op
en ReadMe and Licence fi les for conditions and instructions for use.
W indows system and s
oftware requirements: Windows™ XP® or Mac OS X or higher
978 1 4202 2881 6
© Darryl Buchanan, Donna O’Connor, Jo McLean and Karen Ingram 2010
S X
Video exercises
About the authors
Darryl Buchanan has over 20 years professional experience in education. He has been a PDHPE teacher, Head of Department, Year Coordinator and has authored and co-authored eleven PDHPE and PASS books as well as several other resources. Darryl has been involved in syllabus writing teams for PDHPE and PASS and has extensive experience as a Senior Marker in HSC PDHPE. Darryl is employed by the Association of Independent Schools where he provides professional development support for schools and teachers.
Karen Ingram is an experienced PDHPE teacher, having been a classroom teacher, Year Coordinator and Head of Department. She has been a HSC Marker and has been part of BOS Stage 6 PDHPE Syllabus Projects. She has a keen interest in implementing ICT into the PDHPE curriculum. Karen is a board member for ACHPER NSW and has been involved in the development and presentation of PDHPE resources and programs for ACHPER and the Association of Independent Schools. Karen is a lecturer for undergraduate PDHPE students at various universities and has worked as an international Physical Education consultant in the Middle East.
Jo McLean has over 20 years professional experience in education at
secondary, primary and tertiary levels. She has been Head of PDHPE and Dean of Students, has lectured to students studying pre-service PDHPE and the Graduate Diploma in Education, and has also worked in Outdoor Education. Jo has had extensive experience in HSC marking including three years as a Senior Marker of PDHPE and has been involved in the amendments to the Stage 6 PDHPE syllabus for 2010. She is the Vice President of the NSW branch of ACHPER and is a board member of the NSW PDHPE Teachers’ Association. Jo currently works as an education consultant supporting the professional development of teachers in independent schools.
Donna O’Connor is an Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Sydney. She lectures in the Human Movement and Health Education program (exercise physiology, fi tness training: theory and practice; sports medicine) and is the course coordinator of the graduate program in Coach Education. Donna has received a number of teaching awards including a Carrick Citation for Outstanding Contribution to Student Learning and the University’s Vice Chancellor’s award for outstanding teaching. Donna has worked with the Wallabies and Waratahs coaching staff, Australian Touch teams, North Queensland Cowboys and national league teams in basketball and netball. She has been the strength and conditioner trainer with the Opals (Australian Women’s Basketball team) since 2003.
Wayne Cotton is a lecturer in Human Movement and Health Education at the University of Sydney. He has extensive experience in teaching Outdoor Education in both New South Wales and Victorian schools. He regularly presents at national and international conferences and still leads adventure expeditions to remote locations around the globe. Wayne also provides risk management consultancy to local and international adventure programs.
Peter Sinclair is a senior lecturer in Exercise and Sport Science at The University of Sydney. He has particular interest in the biomechanics of human movement and has extensive scientifi c publications applied to the fi elds of sport science and rehabilitation. Peter conducts research projects with both the Australian and NSW Institutes of Sport and serves on committees advising on curriculum for the Australian Association of Exercise and Sport Science.
Preliminary
Core
Better health
for individuals
Meanings of health
Defi nitions of health
The question of health and how is it defi ned is the source of much debate. The concept of health has been around for thousands of years and it is often seen as something that people aspire to. Health has frequently been equated purely with physical aspects of the body and whether or not a person is well or unwell. However, more holistic views of health take into consideration other components of a person’s life and make up. The term ‘health’ means different things to different people and this fl uidity makes it diffi cult to come up with one defi nitive explanation.
Pericles (495–429 BC) an Athenian statesman and general believed health to be ‘… that state of moral, mental and physical well-being, which enables a man to face any crisis in life with the utmost facility and grace’. While New Zealand poet and author Katherine Mansfi eld (1888–1923) stated that, ‘by health I mean the power to live a full, adult, living, breathing life in close contact with what I love … I want to be all that I am capable of becoming’.
What does health mean to individuals?
and individuals
Health
Health is a changeable concept that can mean many different things to different people. It is made up of a number of components that interact with each other to impact upon an individual’s level of health. The meaning of health to an individual may change over time depending on their circumstances and is shaped by a variety of factors, including the perceptions of the person about their own heath and that of others, other people’s perceptions of health and the infl uence of such things as the media, a person’s family and their peers. Young people form their own meanings of health and these meanings have a direct correlation to their health behaviours and whether they are health enhancing or health compromising.
In 1946, the World Health Organization (WHO) defi ned health as: ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infi rmity’. This defi nition has become the international foundation explanation of health on which all health organisations base their policies and procedures. However, even this defi nition is seen by some as not truly refl ecting all facets of health or the capacity of people to be healthy. In 1986, the WHO added to the discussion around the meaning of health by suggesting, in the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion, that:
‘To reach a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, an individual or group must be able to identify and to realise aspirations, to satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is, therefore, seen as a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasising social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities.’
While having set defi nitions of health gives us a starting point in
understanding what health is and is not, there are a number of other aspects that need to be taken into consideration before forming our own beliefs about the nature of health.
Dimensions of health
Close examination of the various defi nitions of health reveal that health is not made up of just one component but rather is a complex balance between many different dimensions. These dimensions relate to all parts of a person’s being and continually interact with each other. These complex interactions determine the health of the person; they can differ on a daily basis from person to person and in different contexts.
The fi ve commonly regarded dimensions of health are as follows: 1 Physical—the physical dimension of health refers to the functioning of
the body and the things that relate to this, such as physical activity, good nutrition, fi tness and absence of disease.
2 Social—the social dimension of health relates to one’s ability to interact with other individuals. It involves building healthy relationships, fostering a positive self-image, improving interpersonal social skills and accepting diversity. It includes one’s interactions with family, friends and the community.
3 Emotional—the emotional or mental dimension of health refers to a person’s capacity to cope, adjust, and adapt to challenges and changes. It also includes a knowledge and acceptance of one’s feelings and emotions, the abilityto manage stress in an appropriate manner, the
ability to be resilient in tough times and having a well-developed sense of self.
4 Cognitive—the cognitive, or intellectual, dimension of health includes being able to access, process and use knowledge to assist in decision making, reasoning, weighing up the consequences of actions, life planning and career development.
Figure 1.1 Health is made up of a number of interacting dimensions Physical Physical Cognitive/intellectual Social Emotional/mental Spiritual Dimensions of health
The key to good health is exercising each of the dimensions and maintaining a balance between them. This skill often requires practice. Balancing the different dimensions of one’s health may not necessarily
mean devoting equal time and energy to each dimension but rather combining them in such a way that a person gains an overall sense of wellbeing. As the dimensions are interrelated, a person may fi nd that prioritising one dimension may see a fl ow-on of benefi cial effects in other areas. For example, a focus on the physical dimension of health may help a person reach a desired level of fi tness and lower their blood pressure and cholesterol. They may do this through involvement in team sports, which in turn will have positive outcomes in the social and emotional dimensions of their health. The opposite can also be true. Prioritising one dimension of health may be detrimental to other aspects of a person’s health. A person who spends all their spare time at the gym, excluding time for social activities, family and friends, may fi nd they are stressed, experience recurring injuries, are unable to see the consequences of their actions and may not be able to relate to anyone outside the gym scene.
Many health-enhancing behaviours that a person can incorporate into their lifestyle fall into each of the dimensions of health.
5 Spiritual—the spiritual dimension of health involves fi nding purpose and meaning to life. While it can include a belief in a higher being, it can simply mean having a sense of one’s self as part of a bigger picture and is closely related to one’s personal value system. It often involves fi nding a sense of inner peace or strength, a connection with nature, or optimism for the future.
Wellbeing a person’s
experience of feelings of happiness, contentment and satisfaction.
Relative and dynamic nature of health
As can be seen from the health defi nitions and dimensions discussed, health is not something that remains static. Our health can alter almost daily according to our circumstances, age, environment and interactions. A person may rate their health highly on a particular day as they are employed, have a number of friends, are involved in various social and sporting activities and, as a result, have a positive self-image and high self-esteem. However, they may arrive at work one day to discover they have been made redundant. This can result in a change in economic circumstances, an inability to participate in social activities due to a lack of funds, which in turn leads to a decrease in their feelings of self-worth. This person would then rate their health very differently.
Health is seen as dynamic in nature as it is constantly changing. It is not something that we achieve and then do not have to worry about any more. If we were to rate our health on a continuum ranging from extremely good
Figure 1.2 A person’s health is constantly changing depending upon their circumstances, age, environment and
interactions with others EXTREMELY
POOR HEALTH EXTREMELY GOOD HEALTH A month ago Last week A year ago Today
Table 1.1 Health-enhancing behaviours
Dimension Health-enhancing behaviours
Physical • Consider the Dietary Guidelines for Australians and seek advice on nutrition
• Adhere to the National Guidelines for Physical Activity
• Adhere to the Australian Guidelines to Reduce Health Risks from Drinking Alcohol • Have regular health checks e.g. pap smears, cholesterol checks
Social • Spend time with family and friends
• Join recreational, sporting and/or leisure groups
• Practice good communication skills such as listening, complementary body language and confl ict resolution • Be a positive thinker
Emotional/ mental
• Learn and adopt a variety of stress management techniques
• Recognise positive and negative emotions and respond to them accordingly • Have strategies in place to cope with anger and disappointment
• Identify people and/or agencies that can help in diffi cult times Cognitive/
intellectual
• Learn and practise effective decision making skills • Set goals to work towards
• Regularly challenge yourself
• Stimulate yourself through courses, further study and reading
• Make informed decisions based on factual information and after weighing up the consequences of various choices
Spiritual • Volunteer for community service or charity work • Practise yoga
• Become involved in a church or religious group • Read inspirational books
• Find time for meditating and/or quiet thinking • Take nature walks
Dynamic characterised by
energy or effective action, active, forceful; the opposite to static.
Relative something that exists in comparison to something else; it has some relation to something else.
Potential the possibility of
something occurring, a yet to be reached capacity.
health to extremely poor health, the placement of our rating would move continually, as we shift from being well to unwell to well again, happy to unhappy or productive in our work or study to struggling with workplace demands. Our health will also change, refl ecting its dynamic nature, as we mature, develop, interact with others and take on new life experiences.
Health is also seen as relative, that is, it tends to be defi ned in relation to something else. We see our health in relation to our previous health, the health of others, our current circumstances and our potential for health. A 22-year-old professional athlete with a persistent injury may consider themself unhealthy in relation to their health when they are at peak fi tness and performance. Alternatively, a 70-year-old man who is recovering rapidly from major surgery, which has increased his life expectancy, may consider his health excellent in relation to what it was before the operation. A child in Iraq may equate health to whether or not they can attend school without being in constant fear for their life, whereas a child in Australia may see health as being able to participate in sports and games at school.
Our health may also change in relation to the different contexts we may fi nd ourselves in. For example, a social runner may rate their health highly when they are with family and friends but if they join a serious running group with people who are training for an event, the social runner may rate their health differently compared to the other people in this context.
We all have a maximum health potential, which changes throughout our lifetime. Our health potential can be at a high level when all fi ve dimensions of health are interacting smoothly, however, we may suddenly be subject to an illness or injury, such as diabetes or chronic back pain. We can still lead a healthy lifestyle and function well in the circumstances but our level of health and our health potential has changed in relation to others and ourselves.
Health is also relative according to the stage of a person’s life. Younger people may relate their feelings of health and wellbeing to fi tness, energy, wellness or physical strength whereas older people may equate health to wholeness, an ability to cope and inner strength. Each will rate their level of health accordingly and this does not mean that one is more or less healthy than the other is.
Understand
and
apply
1 Discuss the different defi nitions of health, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses.
2 Synthesise your understandings of the dimensions of health and write your own defi nition
of health.
3 Draw up your own continuum of health and place yourself on it, based on how you rate
your health now. Be sure to take into account all fi ve dimensions of health. Do the same for a week ago, a month ago and a year ago. Compare your ratings with a friend’s and explain why you placed yourselves where you did.
4 Outline which of the dimensions of health you feel you could improve upon, if any. Propose
realistic strategies that you could employ to include more health-enhancing behaviours in these areas.
Perceptions of health
When we talk about health and what it means to individuals, it is important to consider how and why people form their varying views. Through our life experiences and interacting with others, we gain and use knowledge to form understandings and beliefs about different things. An individual’s picture of what health means, how it looks, and what they recognise as good or poor health can be referred to as their perceptions of health.
Perceptions of their health
A variety of factors shape an individual’s perceptions of health, including their education, family, culture and personal experiences along with their values and opinions. Individual perceptions of health are also related to widely held beliefs or understandings within society. If a particular society or group has a certain way of seeing, talking and thinking about things, then these ideas tend to shape the way we perceive the world and ourselves within that world. It is often diffi cult to judge one’s own health, as everyone has different perceptions about what is normal. When asking the questions ‘How healthy am I?’ and ‘How healthy do other people think I am?’, an individual needs to take into account a number of factors.
It is very important to consider who sets the criteria that determine whether an individual is healthy or not. Very often, perceptions of our own health are based on appearances and physical health measures. An individual may establish their judgments of individual health on narrow ideals, such as the idea that someone can only be healthy if they are slim and tanned or tall and muscular. As an individual moves through life, they tend to become more informed and gain a wider range of knowledge about what makes up health, which can then assist them in evaluating how realistic their perceptions of health are. When making judgments about health, an individual should also remember the relative nature of health and be careful in comparing their health to that of others, who may have different circumstances or contexts.
Studies have shown that a person’s own perceptions and self-assessment of their health are good indicators of their actual health and wellbeing, and a valid predictor of their future health. In the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare’s (AIHW) 2007 report, Young Australians: Their health and wellbeing, more than 90 per cent of young people rated their health as excellent, very good or good.
Criteria standards or
principles by which something can be judged or decided.
Table 1.2
Self-assessed health status of young people aged 15–24 years, sex and age group, 2004–05 (per cent)
Health status 15–17 years 18–24 years 15–24 years
Males Females Males Females Males Females Persons
Excellent or very good 85.1 79.3 64.7 64.1 70.9 68.5 69.7
Good 11.3 15.7 28.0 27.9 22.9 24.4 23.6
Fair or poor 3.6 5.0 7.3 8.0 6.2 7.1 6.7
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Note: parents responded for young people aged 15–17 years.
Perceptions of the health of others
When an individual makes judgments about their own health based on their values, attitudes and beliefs, it is easy to use those same measures to judge the health of others. Generally, one’s perceptions of the health of other people are based on their experiences when interacting with others. These experiences can be positive or negative. Individuals will use these experiences to make comparisons and/or judgments about the health of that group of people. For example, older people may perceive young people to be lazy, self-centred and not concerned about their health and may base their perceptions on a combination of media messages, a possible negative altercation with a young person and by watching young people in their local community. Based on these experiences they may have a tendency to generalise about the health of all young people.
The meanings different people give to health will also be a contributing factor to their perceptions of whether they believe others to be healthy or not. A person who equates health to socialising, enjoyment and fun may perceive someone who works long days and weekends as unhealthy. However, that person may consider themself healthy, as they are able to work everyday and provide for their family. Due to stereotyping, many people would perceive a homeless person as unhealthy, based on our beliefs of the prerequisites for health. On the other hand, that homeless person may see themself to be healthy, as they may have removed themself from an abusive situation, their homelessness may be only temporary and they consider they now have some control over their life.
An elderly person may evaluate their health based upon the presence or absence of chronic disease, while someone else may automatically judge them as unhealthy because they are less able to do the things they could once do. Children tend to use social measures to judge their health, for example, they may feel they are healthy when playing with their friends and, therefore, perceive their parents or other older people as unhealthy because they do not partake in the same activities.
Mental health is an area where perceptions may skew our judgments about the health of others. Many people are not well informed about mental illnesses and there is some stigma associated with them. Someone who does not have a mental illness and has a lack of understanding about this area may perceive a person with a mental illness to be very unhealthy. However, if a person’s mental disorder has been diagnosed and they are taking medication, that person may well rate themself at the extremely healthy end of the continuum, as they will be functioning at an optimum level.
Implications of different perceptions of health
We have highlighted how different people have different perceptions of health and how these perceptions can form the basis of our decisions about whether or not we, or others, are healthy. A number of implications may arise from these different perceptions of health. A person’s beliefs about health may infl uence their perceptions of the costs and/or benefi ts of engaging in various health-compromising behaviours. For example, a young person’s perception of parental disapproval about a particular behaviour they are considering may serve as a deterrent to them making a poor health choice.
Young people can become stigmatised by the behaviour of a minority of youth. This behaviour is reported in the media and informs society’s
Implication what might
happen as a result of something else.
Stigmatise to disapprove
of a person or group because they are perceived as being different; making it clear that something is socially unacceptable.
perceptions about young people’s health and wellbeing. Young people may then miss
opportunities that would otherwise be available to them because of these stereotypical
perceptions.
In addition, we may treat people differently based on our perceptions of health. For example, we may automatically assume that a person in a wheelchair is unhealthy and not involve them in activities we are planning, as they do not conform to our perceptions of what it means to be healthy. We could also miss warnings signs that someone is depressed, which affects their health. The person may satisfy society’s general criteria for being physically healthy but many people do not perceive health to be made up of other dimensions.
Perceptions of health as social constructs
As discussed, health is much more than a matter of being sick or well. Our perceptions of health are recognised as being based on social constructs, that is, formed or put together because of social infl uences such as culture, religion, media, education, income, family and friends. The degree to which perceptions of health are socially constructed can be illustrated by looking at young people and their health behaviours around cars. Cars and driving are extremely important to young people and can mean independence, status, credibility and a social avenue. Individuals may decide to engage in many health-compromising behaviours while driving such as speeding, drink driving, overcrowding, driving without a seat belt, text messaging and drag racing. While a young driver may realise the health risks associated with these behaviours, many other sociocultural and socioeconomic factors
infl uence their decision to sometimes take these risks. These include the value placed on peer acceptance, approval and connectedness; the gender messages they receive from society about expected driving behaviour for males and females; the role models they see around them; and the norms and rituals associated with independence.
The extent to which sociocultural factors play a role in constructing health perceptions can vary. Most people are well aware of the dangers associated with smoking, binge drinking, eating foods high in fat and speeding while driving but many still choose these behaviours. This may be because the other factors infl uencing their health behaviours are stronger than the knowledge of what is ‘good’ for their health. For example, body image is an important issue for young women. Some girls smoke as a weight-control measure. Although they know the health risks associated
Figure 1.3 Wheelchair sports help promote positive perceptions of health for groups with special needs
Figure 1.4 Cars play a role in peer approval for young men
A construct is something
that is formed or put together as a result of various ideas or infl uences.
with smoking, the sociocultural pressure of body image is a far stronger infl uence on their health perceptions and their health behaviours than the fact that if they smoke they may reduce their life expectancy.
Impact of the media, peers and family
The media, along with a person’s family and peers, can have both positive and negative impacts upon our perceptions of health. We are subjected to media messages about health and how to be healthy every day. These messages emphasise particular ideas or meanings about health, which are not necessarily accurate. For example, the media very often promotes a slim body as an ideal for women and a muscular body as an ideal for men. Unrealistic images of this perceived health norm can be detrimental to an individual’s beliefs about their health, and many individuals go to damaging lengths to mimic them. The media can also structure its coverage to support certain stereotypes about health and the health of subgroups within society, such as young people. For example, the media often depicts young people as an unhealthy group highlighting incidents of extreme risk taking, a propensity to abuse alcohol and other drugs, and a sedentary lifestyle coupled with poor eating habits. If this negative picture of young people is all that is shown in the media, eventually young people will believe that they all fi t into this picture, regardless of whether their health behaviours are different to the ones portrayed. The mass media’s perpetuation of negative stereotypes can damage the self-esteem of young people and possibly lead to
decreased opportunities.
The media can also have a positive impact upon our
perceptions of health. For example, a concerted media campaign designed to de-stigmatise mental illness has led to greater awareness and a changed community perception of the health status of people who suffer from illnesses such as depression, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.
Families can have a tremendous impact on an individual’s perception of health and the meanings they give to health. If a person’s family perceives physical activity as a healthy pursuit and a fun way to spend time with friends, then the individual is more likely to participate in physical activity and value the health benefi ts it brings. If a person is surrounded by active people, they are more likely to be active themself. Conversely, families who perceive physical activity as boring or diffi cult tend to be more sedentary and would judge their health according to other measures. Families infl uence the health perceptions of their members by the values they hold and the lifestyles they espouse.
A young person’s peer group can also have an impact on their perception of health concerning health-compromising behaviours such as binge drinking. If the peer group perceives binge drinking to be an important part of their social agenda, those who do not participate may be ostracised from the group and, therefore, rate their health as poor. Alternatively, the peer group can view binge drinking as a health risk, which in turn will affect an individual’s health choices and what they perceive to be healthy behaviours.
Figure 1.5 Family and friends can have an impact on our perceptions of health and on the way we value health.
Health behaviours of young people
The media constantly highlights the health status and health behaviours of young people, provoking much discussion and debate.
The positive health status of young people
In order to discuss the health status of young people, it is important to fi rst defi ne who young people actually are. According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), young people range from 12 to 24-years-old and make up 18 per cent of the total Australian population. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people account for less than 1 per cent of young Australians. Young people in Australia are an eclectic group made up of those born in Australia, those born overseas, those living in cities, those living in rural, regional and remote areas, a relatively equal mix of males and females, varying religions, different socioeconomic status (SES) and a diversity of family types. Young people certainly are not a homogeneous group and this should be considered when exploring their health status.
The authors Strauss and Howe said in 1991, ‘If you believe what you see and read, you would think our schools are full of kids who can’t read in the classroom, shoot one another in the hallways, spend their loose change on tongue rings, and couldn’t care less who runs the country’. This is an interesting quote, as it refers to the broad generalisations that are very often made about young people in society. Commonly, the media and other groups of people like to clump all young people into one group and make statements about their health and wellbeing. More often than not, these statements highlight negative features or behaviours and would have you believe that all young people act, feel, relate and behave in this manner. For example, articles about illicit drug use often imply that all young people are using drugs, stories about teenage pregnancy would have you believe that all young people are engaging in unprotected sex, and stories about the ‘obesity epidemic’ suggest that all young people lead a sedentary lifestyle and have poor nutritional habits. Are these accurate societal perceptions or is there another side to the story of the health status of young people?
According to recent studies into the health and wellbeing of young people, there is a lot of good news regarding their health status.
Understand
and
apply
1 Explain why people have different perceptions of health and how these perceptions are
formed.
2 Consider whether the health status of your group of friends would be different from another
group of Year 11 students who may have had different experiences. Justify your answer.
3 Critically analyse whether media images and newspaper stories challenge or reinforce
people’s perceptions of the health of young people.
4 Examine how people’s perceptions of the health of others can infl uence the way they relate
to them.
5 Discuss how an individual’s perceptions of health may affect their behaviours and wellbeing.
Socioeconomic status
(SES) individual’s or a family’s
income, education, occupation and standing in the community.
Homogenous alike
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Year Male Female Deaths per 1 00 ,000 y oung people 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Male Female Persons Year Deaths per 1 00 ,000 y oung people
The AIHW’s 2007 report, Young Australians: Their health and wellbeing, gives the key message that most young Australians’ health and wellbeing is faring quite well. While the report emphasises some areas for concern, the overall health status of young Australians is positive and many young people are engaging in health-enhancing behaviours. This is highlighted by the following fi ndings:
Over 90 per cent of young people rate their health as excellent, very good or good.
The life expectancy of young Australians has improved.
Mortality rates have halved since the late 1980s.
Mortality rates for motor vehicle accidents and suicide have decreased. The rate of melanoma has decreased.
Asthma prevalence rates have declined and the number of asthma hospitalisations have halved since the 1990s.
The incidence of vaccine-preventable illness such as measles, rubella and meningococcal disease is low.
There has been a decline in the notifi cation rates for communicable diseases such as Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B and HIV.
A large number of young people are free of tooth decay. Most young people live in two-parent families.
Most Year 7 students meet the benchmarks for literacy and numeracy.
Mortality rates death rates.
Melanoma a malignant
cancer of the skin. Melanoma is the fourth most common cancer.
HIV Human Immunodefi ciency Virus. Notes 1 Age-standardised to the Australian population as at 30 June 2001. 2 Includes deaths registered during 2004 for which an ‘external cause’ was coded as the underlying cause of death (ICD-9 codes E800–E999 and ICD-10 codes V01–Y98).
Figure 1.6 Trends in injury and poisoning deaths for young people aged 12–24 years, 1985–2004
AIHW National Mortality Database AIHW National Mortality Database
Note: age-standardised to the young Australian population as at 30 June 2001.v
Data from the Roads and Traffi c Authority (RTA) shows a decline in road deaths across the population and in particular for young people. The national road toll in 2008 was 395, which is the lowest since 1944 despite Australia having twice the population, eleven times as many drivers and fi fteen times more vehicles on the road.
Other major studies also point towards the many positive aspects of the health status of young people. The NSW Schools Physical Activity and Nutrition Survey 2004 (SPANS) found that almost three quarters of the boys and girls in the survey met the recommendation of at least one hour of moderate to vigorous physical activity daily, and that physical activity levels had increased for both males and females since the last similar survey. They also found that the performance of fundamental movement skills such as running, throwing, catching, jumping and kicking had improved markedly. Research indicates that young people who have better fundamental movement skills are more likely to be more active, fi tter and have better self-esteem than those who have poor skills in these areas.
0 1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 1999–00 2000–01 Year 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Male Female Hospital separ ations per 1 00 ,000 y oung people
AIHW National Mortality Database Notes 1 Age-standardised to the Australian population as at 30 June 2001. 2 ICD-9-CM code 493 (1996–97 to 1997–98) and ICD-10-AM codes J45 & J46 (1998–99 to 2004–05).
Figure 1.8 Asthma hospital separation rates for young people aged 12–24 years, 1996–97 to 2004–05
Figure 1.9 Proportion of students spending at least an hour a day on moderate to vigorous activity, by gender and school year (summer) for 1997 and 2004
0 Year 8 boys Year 8 girls Year 10 boys Year 10 girls 1997 2004 20 40 60 80 100 Year Pr ev alence of 1 hour/da y of MVP A
NSW Centre for Overweight and Obesity (2006). NSW Schools
Physical activity and Nutrition Survey (SPANS) 2004: Short Report,
NSW Centre for Road Safety 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 Year 0 to 18 All ages
Injuries per 100 000 population
5 0 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 Year 0 to 18 All ages
Fatalities per 100 000 population
10 15 20 25 30 100 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Year
Total road deaths Speed related deaths Speed related crashes involving young drivers or riders 200 300 400 500 600 Figure 1.10 Road traffi c injuries per 100 000 population, 0–18-year-olds, all ages, 1976–2007
Figure 1.11 Road traffi c fatalities per 100 000 population 0–18-year-olds, all ages 1976–2008
Figure 1.12 Road-related deaths 2002–2007
The 2007 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (conducted by AIHW every three years) looks at the use of non-illicit and illicit drugs across the Australian population. A comparison of the use of these drugs from survey results since 1998 shows a decline in the use of almost all categories of drugs. In particular, there has been a decrease in the number of females and males in the 14–19 year age group who report recently using cannabis. Information about the age of initiation for tobacco and alcohol use varies depending on the source, but generally appears to be at about 14 years for both drugs.
Figure 1.13 Recent use of cannabis: males 1995 to 2007
Figure 1.14 Recent use of cannabis: females 1995 to 2007
Table 1.3 National Drug Strategy Household Survey 1998—2007, summary of drug use: proportion of the population aged 14 and over
Drug
Lifetime Use Recent Use*
1998 2001 2004 2007 1998 2001 2004 2007 Tobacco 50.8 49.4 47.4 44.6 24.9 23.2 20.7 19.4 Alcohol 86.9 90.4 90.7 89.9 80.7 82.4 83.6 82.9 Cannabis 39.1 33.6 33.6 33.5 17.9 12.9 11.3 9.1 Inhalants 3.9 2.6 2.5 3.1 0.9 0.4 0.4 0.4 Heroin 2.2 1.6 1.4 1.6 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.2 Methamphetamine 8.8 8.9 9.1 6.3 3.7 3.4 3.2 2.3 Cocaine 4.3 4.4 4.7 5.9 1.4 1.3 1.0 1.6 Hallucinogens 9.9 7.6 7.5 6.7 3.0 1.1 0.7 0.6 Ecstasy 4.8 6.1 7.5 8.9 2.4 2.9 3.4 3.5
* Recent use means used in the last 12 months. * For tobacco and alcohol recent use means daily, weekly
14–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60+ Age Percentage 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 14–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60+ Age Percentage 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cocaine Heroin Ecstasy Hallucin-ogens
Meth/amp-hetamine
Inhalants Cannabis Tobacco Alcohol
Percentage 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
2007 National Drug Strategy Household Survey
These surveys tend to report on the amount of people who have used drugs, which means looking at drug usage from a defi cit model. If we are to focus on the positive health status of young people and break down the common perception that all adolescents use drugs, it is a valuable exercise to view the statistics from a non-usage perspective.
Figure 1.15
Recent non-use of all drugs: 14 years and over
Regarding sexual health, the 2008 National Survey of Secondary Students and Sexual Health reports that young people have high levels of confi dence when talking to their parents about sex and sexual health-related matters. A large percentage of students surveyed have sought information from a variety of sources in relation to sexual health and there has been a marked improvement since the previous similar survey in 2002 in the knowledge levels of young people around sexually transmitted infections. Of those students surveyed who are sexually active, 69 per cent reported using a condom the last time they had sexual intercourse and half of the sexually active students reported always using a condom.
This data, from a variety of sources, serves to provide a pleasing and positive picture of the health status of young people and certainly challenges some of the widely held societal perceptions, which are often sensationalised by the media. However, while not losing sight of the positives, it is important to acknowledge that there are still areas of concern about the health status of young people. Identifying ways to
achieve further gains in adolescent health and wellbeing is very important. In particular, there are a number of inequities between the health status of young Indigenous Australians, youth from low SES backgrounds and young people living in rural and remote areas, when compared with the health of other young people throughout Australia. We will discuss other areas of concern later in this chapter, in relation to protective and risk behaviours.
Figure 1.16 Recent surveys suggest that a large percentage of young people are confi dent and well-informed about sexual health matters.
Protective behaviours and risk behaviours
Adolescence is an important stage of development not just physically but also socially and emotionally. It is a period when young people begin to form their values and attitudes and is a critical time for the development of health behaviours. Health behaviours are modifi able actions taken by a young person that have the potential to enhance or compromise their health. Studies have shown that the health patterns young people develop in their adolescent years will often continue into adulthood. These health behaviours are an important determinant of both current and future health status. As our health-related behaviours affect our short and long-term health, adolescence is the perfect time to establish and reinforce positive health and social behaviours.
Protective behaviours are those actions a young person engages in that support good health, for example regular physical activity, not smoking, being actively involved in leisure and community activities, having a range of friends and having people to talk to when feeling anxious or sad. Protective behaviours also include skills such as effective communication, decision making and confl ict resolution. Most protective behaviours need to be learned, developed and practised and, often, may not be the most popular or easiest choice, particularly when a young person is interacting with their peer group.
Risk behaviours are those that a young person engages in that may
be detrimental to their health, for example speeding, having unsafe sex,
excessive dieting, substance use, deliberate self-harm or binge drinking. Everything we do has a degree of risk associated with it, however, for young people, engaging in high risk behaviours may seem part of growing up and establishing their sense of identity. They may be prompted by a need to connect with other people, to push boundaries, to infl uence others or to fi t in with their peers.
A young person’s perception of what is and is not risky behaviour may be clouded and may differ from what an older person believes is risky. Current research around brain development indicates that a person’s brain may not be fully developed until they reach their early to mid-20s. The front parts of the brain, which control judgment and caution, are shown to be the last to develop. Therefore, a young person may not be aware of the potential risks of a situation and may not consider the resulting consequences of a particular behaviour. This, coupled with inexperience and possible peer pressure, can mean that young people may engage in much more high-risk behaviour than other people do. A further issue related to the health behaviours of young people is that they tend to engage in a number of risky behaviours at the same time and this can increase the risk, along with any negative consequences. For example, young
Modifi able able to be
changed or altered.
Detrimental damaging or
making something worse.
Reinforce to strengthen.
Understand
and
apply
1 According to the information provided on the previous pages, there appears to be many
positive trends relating to the health status of young people. Explain why you think the picture that many people have of the health of young people is different to this.
2 Outline the benefi ts of presenting statistics about young people and drug usage from the
point of view of how many people have not used particular drugs as opposed to how many people have taken a particular drug.
people who choose to binge drink may then put themselves in danger from other risk behaviours, such as engaging in unprotected sexual activity, being a passenger or driver in a vehicle while under the infl uence of drugs or alcohol or becoming involved in a violent altercation.
Not all risk behaviours are harmful and there are both positive and negative outcomes of risk taking. Adolescence is a time of opportunity, creativity and learning. Taking risks can result in a person learning about themself and others, developing skills such as confl ict resolution and problem solving and, perhaps, fi nding a fl air or ability for something. However, it all depends on what type of risk behaviours a person is involved in. There is a difference between the controlled risks of playing extreme sports or challenging yourself to do something you have not done before and uncontrolled risks such as train surfi ng, drug use or drink driving.
A young person’s practice of protective and risk behaviours tends to occur in key contexts,and these may infl uence the type of behaviour a person engages in and the degree of risk associated with it. For example, in the school and home environment protective behaviours are often taught and modelled and there is more opportunity to participate in safe and controlled risk taking. However, a young person’s peer group may discourage certain protective behaviours and encourage risk taking in various forms; this means the degree of risk is increased, as the safety of the situation may be decreased. For young people to stay safe and healthy, while at the same time enjoying new experiences and taking on challenges and adventures, it is important to be able to recognise risk behaviours associated with health issues relevant to them. Once these behaviours are recognised, a young person can then reduce the potential for harm around these health issues by developing a suite of protective behaviours that allow them to plan for the safety of themselves and others; to seek help if required and, in doing so, enhance their health and wellbeing.
A number of health issues are relevant to young people and it is
worthwhile to explore the protective and risk behaviours that are associated with these. Some of these health issues are more signifi cant to some groups than others. Many protective factors are protective for general health and wellbeing and can be employed in a variety of situations, while others are specifi c to a particular health issue.
Mental health
As discussed earlier in this chapter, one of the dimensions of health is our emotional or mental health, which refers to the way we think, act and feel, and to our ability to cope with challenges. While many young people rate their health highly, recent studies indicate that just over 25 per cent of young people, aged 18 to 24 have been diagnosed with a mental disorder. Mental disorders are the leading contributor to the burden of disease for young people, with anxiety and depression being the most common problems. Mental disorders can affect almost every aspect of a young person’s life and, if untreated, can be a risk factor for self-harm and suicide. While many young people experience mental disorders, very few seek help and, therefore, they may suffer unnecessarily. Diagnosis, treatment and appropriate management can greatly reduce a person’s suffering and allow them to
increase their level of health and wellbeing. Life is a rollercoaster for young people and having a broad repertoire of skills and strategies to help deal with all the things life throws in their direction can be extremely empowering.
Context the circumstances
surrounding a particular situation, the setting in which something occurs.
Table 1.4 Protective and risk behaviours for mental health
Protective behaviours Risk behaviours
• Acknowledging that ordinary people can suffer from mental health issues and that everyone is different
• Understanding the mental health issues can be treated and managed
• Being able to put things in perspective
• Making connections with a supportive and caring adult in your life e.g. teacher, coach, church leader
• Learning and practising stress management skills • Regularly expressing feelings through keeping a journal or
blog, talking to someone or writing a letter
• Knowing where you can go for help e.g. the internet, youth centres, school counsellor
• Developing social networks with a variety of people • Participating in community, volunteer or service activities • Taking some time out
• Avoiding the use of drugs and alcohol • Exercising and eating well
• Developing and practising coping skills such as goal setting, problem solving and assertive behaviour
• Knowing it is okay to say ‘no’ sometimes • Having a positive family environment
• Blocking feelings and emotions
• Believing that mental problems are a sign of weakness • Believing that you can solve all your problems yourself • Thinking you are the only person in this situation and that
others will not understand
• Not seeking help from friends, family or qualifi ed professionals • Catastrophising • Overgeneralising • Self-harming • Taking drugs • Binge drinking
• Isolating yourself and not being involved in social events or activities
• Seeking out opportunities to engage in high risk and unsafe activities
Understand
and
apply
1 A protective behaviour for mental health is being involved in community, volunteer or
service activities. Visit the ActNow website at <www.actnow.com.au> and explore some of the ways this site can assist you to become more community minded.
a Go to Health >Actions. Select two of the action topics (such as Body Image Action and
Depression Awareness Action) and as a class, choose one of the actions they suggest e.g. writing letters to your member of parliament about different issues or holding a seminar at school to undertake as an activity.
b Go to My Community >Organisations >Centre for Volunteering. Investigate the Student
Community Involvement Program that this organisation runs to discover ways your class can get involved in your local community.
c In a small class group, select an issue you feel strongly about and contribute an opinion,
story, interview, blog comment or discussion post to the ActNow site.
2 Investigate what services are available to young people in your local community to assist
them with a mental health issue or concern. Using this information, compile a directory that could possibly be included in your school diary. Include the name of the organisation, contact details and a short summary of the services they offer. Do not forget to include internet sites as well as physical organisations.
Food habits
Waistlines are increasing in Australia society and the results of SPANS support this with the fi nding that 25 per cent of young people are overweight or obese. Other fi ndings from the survey showed that a large proportion of young people exhibit poor eating habits.
Less than a quarter of young people eat the recommended amount of vegetables per day (4 serves).
55 per cent of boys and 4 per cent of girls drink more than one glass of soft drink per day.
Less than a quarter of young people drink low fat milk.
80 per cent of young people eat at fast-food outlets at least once a week. Many young people skip breakfast.
Around 30 per cent of young people eat their evening meal in front of the television.
Being overweight or obese can have a signifi cant impact on the lives of young people. It can seriously affect their self-esteem and may subject them to bullying and negative stereotypes. Poor eating habits, which lead to being overweight or obese, can
increase the likelihood that a young person will suffer from asthma, diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, fatty liver disease and a range of other social, emotional and physical problems in both the short and long term. The incidence of type 2 diabetes, which was normally associated with older people, is increasing among young people. Poor eating habits are also associated with being under weight and disordered eating in young people, and these factors can also lead to health problems.
Many factors infl uence a young person’s food habits and these will be discussed in chapter 2, however, the following table identifi es some common risk behaviours associated with food habits and some protective behaviours that can be put in place.
Figure 1.17 The Australian Guide to Healthy Eating
Table 1.5 Protective and risk behaviours associated with food habits
Protective behaviours Risk behaviours
• Enjoying foods without overindulging
• Seeking out good information about food through magazines, the internet, health clubs and your local doctor
• Eating a variety of foods in accordance with the Dietary Guidelines for Children and Adolescents and the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating • Making plans to eat more healthily
• Establishing healthy routines, such as getting up a bit earlier to allow you to eat breakfast or preparing healthy snacks to keep in the fridge • Bringing lunch from home rather than buying it every day
• Being proactive in your school by organising a group to survey students and give suggestions to the canteen as to what healthy foods you would like to see on the menu
• Experimenting with fruit and vegetables to fi nd some you enjoy • Not being too strict on yourself in relation to foods—it is okay to have
chocolates or chips sometimes
• Talking to other people about their food habits • Drinking plenty of water
• Learning to read food labels
• Talking to your parents about family meals, offering suggestions for health choices, going on food shopping trips and helping in preparing family meals • Asking to eat meals as a family around the table a few times a week rather
than sitting in front of the television
• Overindulging in foods e.g. having large helpings and going back for seconds or thirds • Drinking soft drinks, energy drinks and sports drinks that are high in sugar on a regular basis • Skipping meals and then snacking on foods that
are high in fat, salt and sugar
• Not being informed about the nutritional value of foods
• Eating meals in front of the television or computer
• Not eating breakfast
• Regularly eating at fast-food outlets • Rarely eating fruit and vegetables
• Always buying lunch and recess snacks from the school canteen
• Getting in the habit of coming home from school, sitting in front of the computer or television and snacking on high-fat foods • Not being aware of what is in processed foods
i.e. not reading food labels
Physical activity
Many young people are involved in physical activity and although the general trend is towards an increase in physical activity levels, there are still concerns in this area. The Australian Physical Activity Recommendations for Children and Young People state that all young people should be involved in at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day. While a high percentage of young people meet this recommendation, activity levels tend to decline with age. Other issues relating to physical activity include that more boys are physically active than girls, that younger students tend to be more active than older students, all young people are more active in the summer months of the year, and young people who live in rural areas tend to be more active than those who live in urban areas.
The amount of time spent in sedentary activities is also of concern. The Australian Government recommends that students should not spend more than two hours a day using electronic entertainment such as television, computers and hand-held games. However, the SPANS found a high proportion of boys and girls spending much more time than this engaged in these non-active pursuits. Less young people are using active means of transport to get to school and to get around on the weekends than in the past. It is more common for young people to be driven to school and other activities or to take public transport than to walk or ride a bike. While there are many reasons for this trend, it means that a potential avenue for physical activity is not often used.