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Chapter 5
GIobal Terrorism
I N T R O D U C T I O N
Thinl< about how the escalation of global terrorism affects our daily lives' This global problem is now virtually inseparable from personal concems. Even traveling by plane iorn one city to anothei within the United States and Canada, which was once largely uneven$rl, has become much more compJicated and stressfi:l due to ir.rcreased airport security. National and global institutions have also been profoundly affected by this problem. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security was created in 2003 as a direct iesponse to the terrorist attacks in September 2001. It brought together twenty-two gov- emment agencies with 180,000 workers, making it the largest government reorganiza- tion in forty years. Domestic security has been strengthened, especially around bridges, v/ater suppli;s, government offices, nuclear power plants, scientific laboratories, food supplies, and industrial factories. As we will discuss, political, economic, and culnual components of globalization are intertwined with various aspects of global terrorism'
This chapier emphasizes the growing importance of asymmetrical power in global affairs. When ielatively weak groups use low-tech tools to inflict significant d"-"g" on lt"ry povrerfirl countries that have the most advanced military technolo- gies, ihey
"re oti.tg asyrnmetrical power. Moises Naim argues that terrorism has i"rooy"i the idea "that'technology
can make the American homeland impregnable'l The dominant and largely unchallenged view in the United States prior to the terror- ist attacks on September 11, 2001, was that nonstate threats to national security were relatively unimportant. In 2000, Condoleezza Rice, who became President George W' Bush's National Security Adviser and later the U.S. Secretary of State, clearly and forcefully articulat ed &e foreign poliry priorities of the United States:
1. To ensure that America's military could deter war, project power, and fight in defense of its interest;
2. To promote economic gro*th and political openness;
3. To renew strong and intimate relationships with allies;
4. To focus U.S. energies on comprehensive relationships with the big powers, particularly Russia and China; and
5. To deal decisively with the tlreat of rogue regimes and hostile powers, which is increasingly taking the forms of the potential for terorism and the development of weapons of mass destruction.2
In a speer Defense Rober states are g-€ne tinely disregerr fiom globaliz-1 cusses difficulti rsm; and goalS cases of tenori democracies fac that taking a mu of terrorism.
DEFINING TI
^Many actions hn to the refusal oI cies. Proudlv pr architects oi drr preserve the rad ofPublic Safen, rvas regarded as widespread riok rejected by Edl French terrorisu Paige called the because it opposr administration-{
Although there i that one person'l among the varior dom fighters' am that terrorism is and military cons
As American Falluja in Iraq in eral foreiga ciril -\{ujahedeen Brir -lapanese civilians' hom Iraq within t sas made more p rhroats. Many of t ot terrorism. z4l/ r Our example of d mcation with an : advanced techlolc Department of
Homeland Secuaity Combined 22 intelli:
gence agencies in order to enhance national security against terrorist threats
Asymmetrical Power
Form of conflict in which weaker groups or forces can inflict signifi- cant oamage against more powerful states or forces
Defining Terrorism 1i7
In a speech at Kansas State University in November 2007, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert M. Gates stressed nonstate threats to U.s. national securiw. while states are generally impeded by national boundaries, their nonstate aduersaries rou- tinely disregard national borders. Naim contends that if nation-states have benefited fiom globalization, criminal networks have benefited even more.t This chapter dis_
cusses difficulties involved in defining terrorism; factors conducive to the rise ofterror- ism; and goals, strategies, and weapons of terrorist groups. After examining specific cases of terrorism, we will discuss various responses to tirrorism and the Jilemmas democracies face in attempdng ro eliminate or reduce tiis threat. This chapter shows that taking a multifaceted and a global approach is essential to diminishing the problem
oI Ierroflsn1.
DEFINING TERRORISM
Many actions have been called terrorism: Fron the violence of the French Revolution to the refusal of the National Education Association (|JEA) to support federal poli_
cies. Proudly proclaiming their commirnent to liberty, equaliry and fraterniry, the architects of the French Revolution instituted a Reign of Terro r (1793_17i4) to preser-ve the-radical changes. Headed by Ma-ximilian Robespierre, the commiitee of Public safety ernbraced terrorism in its effort to rule France during a period that was regarded as a national emergency. The French zeal for the Tbryor. the oeriocl of widespread violence, public executions, and intimidation of civilians, was strongly rejected by Edmund Burke, the British conservative philosopher who regard"ei French terrorists as hellhounds. In February 2004, U.S. Secretary of EducatiJn Rod Paige called dre NEA, the country's largest teachers union, a terrorist organizarion because it opposed radical changes in federal education policies adopted bi the Bush administration.+ These two examples represent extreme definitions of ierrorism, Although there is no universally accepted definition of terrorism, the standard view that one person's terrorist is another person's freedom fighter fails to distinguish among the various kinds and levels of terr.orism and fails to acknowledse that f.ee_
do'r fighters' actions are not necessarily justified by their objectives. wiat is clear is that terrorism is a contentious issue that becomes hopelessly muddled by political and military considerations.
fu American troops, tanks, and planes fought insurgents in the besieged city of Fall ,ir in Iraq in early April 2004, opponents of the U.S-. occupation kidnipped sev_
eral foreign civilians and threatened to execute them. A group calling itself the Mujahedeen Brigades appeared on al-Jazeera television *ith-thr". britrdfold"d Japanese civilians and threatened to kill them ifJapan did not withdraw its 550 troops
from Iraq widrin rhree days.J The horror the captives felt, evident fiom their screams, was made more palpable by glns pointed at them and larives and swords held to their throats Many of the hostages were later beheaded. This example illustrates the nature of terrorism. All dcts of nn orimt. at-e duigned ta create fear, to cause people to tremble.
Our example of the hostages in Iraq points to another element of jer.onsm, commu_
nication with an audience that is far from the scene of violence. By using the most advanced technologies of global communication, terrorists seek to frightei people in
Edmund Burke British philosopher who strongly crit!- cized the French Reign of Terror
lra CHAPTER 5 GlobalTerrorism
Defining Terrorism
Martha Crenshaw. a leading expert on terrorism, argues that defining terrorism is difficult because terrorism is a social construction, which is relative to time and place. Because acts of terrorism gen- erally occur within a political context, terrorism is essentially a pol;tical label. As such, this label reflects the struggle for power and the preferred approaches to solving the problem. Social con- struction helps to frame consciousness and to influence how behavior is perceived. Terrorism as a label is essentially subjective and judgmental What Crenshaw is stressing is the politics of
language: the struggle to define terms, and conse- quently to control behavior. Calling adversaries ter.orists, in her view, is a way of depicting them as fanatic and irrational. Doing so forecloses the possibility of compromise, draws attention to the real or imagined threat to security, and promotes solidarity among the threatened. In other words, terrorism is not a neutral descriptive term, and those who define terrorism are usually not neutral parties.
How would you arrive at an objective defini- tion of terrorism?
Sourcej Martha Crenshaw, "Thoughts on Relating Terrorism to Hislofical Contexts," in Terrotism in Context, ed Martha Crenshaw iUniversity Park: Penn State University Press, 1995),9-10.
Guerilla Warlare Use of selective violence against military targets bY insurgency forces Uighurs
Ethnic group that rebelled against China's annexation of Xinjiang in 1759
distant places in order to exert pressure on governments . Tirrorism is essentiafu a Jbrm, af psychakgical warfarz. Llnlike nost conventional wars, terrorism lasts for generations, as we will see in our discussions of the Irish Republican Army, dre Basques in Spain, and the Palestinians. Terrorism is also ittdiscriminate. Most terrorist acrivities aim ro create uncertainty and general fear by communicating that anyone can be a target.6 In nany ways) terrorisrn is closely associated with ideology. This is clearly the case with al-Qaeda: It is less an organization than an ideology that irspires groups and people worldwide to engage in terrorist acts.
Wars of liberation throughout history have generally been accompanied by actions that v/ere defined as terrorism by those in favor of maintaining the status quo.
Distinguishing terrorism fron guerrilla warfare and insurgency is often challenging.
Guerrilla warfare, which means little war, is the use of selective violence against military targets. But when societies experience extensive violence, distinctions between guerrilla warfare and terrorism tend to blur. Following the 2001 attacks in the United States, many govermr.rents applied the label of terrolism to very old con- flicts oftheir own that were previously regarded as insurgencies. For example, China annexed what is now Xinjiang in 1759. The inhabitants, known as Uighurs, Practice Sufi Islarn and speak a Turkic language. They resisted China's rule and launched their first uprising in 1865. The disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the inde- pendence gained by some Muslin conmunities in Central Asia inspired the Uighurs to renew their struggle to establish a separate state. But China was quick to label d.re Uighurs as terroriG after the global developments in 2001.i This raises the ques- tion: Who gets to define terrorism and why? Complicating definitions ofterrorisn is the general acceptance of war as a legitimate instrument of governnelts. Paul Wilkinson argues that "terrorist campaigns inherently involve deliberate attacks on
l n t h e d o c u m U.S. Secretar cussed eleven with World W Vietnam Wart the extensive of Japanese c perspec'ttve,
civilian targer. - military action.
FACTORS CC Examining the : flves ts essenti::_
we try to lden::
interrelated caL!
Pauerll is :: : . in dre United 5:
terrorism. Por'.
hopelessness. r:.:
a fertile breedi:.
naries, called mr in SaudiArabia- families.In add::
to hate the \,\'e.i.
Howeveq terror:
Many of them c:
G lobalizn r i,. ':
uct of resistanc.
and even enr irr instantar-reouslr transportation c:
provide an enr-i:
Legititttatt;
problems often - gins to polirica-.
downplayed. o:
the African \.::
-ri ilian targets and are therefore analogous to war crimes.,,8 But who decides which military actions are war crimes!
FACTORS CONDUCIVE TO TERRORISM
Examining the factors that make terrorism r.useful tool to accomplish certain objec_
tives is essential to any pragmatic effort to eliminate or diminish Lrro'st threats. fu we try_to identi{, the dominant cause, we will see that terrorism has, in fact, many interrelated causes.
.PoaerE is widely perceizted as the root of terroism. Followrng the 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States, a consensus supported the view that p"ovety is a malor cause of i::l:,Tll.. | "..1:f .is closely tinked to economic and political isolation,- feelings of rropelessness, r.rolatrons ol human rights, and the lack of democrary, which all pro:vide a fertile breeding ground for terrorism. In pakistan, students enroil rn religious semi_
naries,.called madrassas. Supported by Muslim charities worldwid"_.rp"-.i"Uy thor"
in Saudi Arabia-they feed, shelter, clothe, and educate students fiom poyerty_stricken families. In_addition to receiwing rraining in the Koran, these stu<Ients are indoctfinated to hare Lhe We.r. especiall) rhe United SLates. \4any terroriss graduale lrom madrassas.q H o w e v e r . t c r r o r i s t s $ h o a r r a c k e d r , h e U r r i r e d S r a t e s . S p a i n . a i d B r i r a i n w e r e n o t p o o r , Many of tlem came fiom the middle class.
Gkbalization is a malor factor in global rerrorism. In many ways, rerronsm is a prod_
i : , , o l . r . j i r ' r 1 . . r o c h a n g e , b r o u g l r t a b o u r b 1 c u l r u r a l . * . o n o r i i . . folirical. m i i i r a r y . rnd even envrronmenral globalization. Individuals in distant plac.s communrcate insrantaneously and are able to coordinate their activities on a global scale. Global transportation enables them to move easily from one counny to aiother Global cities provide an environment in which it is easy for people to b" ,nor1-oor.
,Legitiutnte pnt,.toucer and.theJailure ofgctuerniments ro adeq'uarell addres< rhese D r o b t e m s o h e n lo m e n t t e r r o r i s m . I n f a c t . m o " r t e r r o r i . t o r g a n i z a r i o n s t r a c e t l e i r o r i _ eins to_political, religious, social, economic, and ethnic p.lbl"_, that were rgnored, d o u n p l a l e d . o r d i . m i s s e J b ) r h o s e i n p e \ s 1 a r r d b y sociery i n fene.al. Whr did u \ e A r n c a n t\ a l r o n a t ( . o n g r e s s ( A \ - C ) in Sourh A.[rica, r h e p a ] i . r i n e L i b e r a r i o n
Factors Conducive to Terrorism i 19
Madrassas R e l i g i o u s s e m i n a r - ies supported by l\4uslim charities worldwide
The Difference Between War and Terrorism
In the documentary film, The Fog of War,Iormer U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara dis- cussed eleven lessons of war, using his experiences with World War ll, the Cuban missile crisis, and the Vietnam Warto illustrate his points. Hetalked about the extensive damage caused by the firebombing of Japanese cities by the United States. From his perspective, firebombing and dropping atomic
bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were meam to terrorize the Japanese people. Creating terror
among civilians is an integral and inseparable com- ponent of war, Think of the widespread destruction causeo Dy wars.
What is the difference between war and terrofism?
f2O CHAPTER 5 Global Terrorism
Organization (PLO), and the Irish Republican Army-(IRA) become terrorist orgaru;r' tiois? Specific grievances motivated individuals to form these groups and to use -!et- ro.ism to achiive their obiectives. Violence Iry glael"nntents also causes terrons
Goverrrnents routirrely abuse t\reir monopo\y on \egrtimate vio\ence regarJ
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cate with reduced t virtual nr by the Int the effefti
Some acceptancr legitimac rsr groups nel and b.
launched;
suppofteI5 egy atreml safety.ls Sr goveruner rorists forc them. Ter Palestinian specrfr.c minority gro\ps or maiotity gtoups that \ack signifrcant po\itrca\,
and social power. The efficacy of offrcial violence influences individuals and that want to chanqe tleir circurnstances to resort to violence.
Humiliation is rno:Jter factor conducive to the use of terrorism. l€rronsm.
was not a problem in Iraq before the U.S. invasion, became widespread. Manv felt humiliated by intr-usive American searches, by being occupied, and by beine treated. Thomas L. Friedman, an outstanding journalist with the New York Ti
Thomas L.
Friedman stated: "If I've learned one thing covering world affairs, it is this: The single under-aooreciated force in international relations is humiliation."l0
New York llmes columnist who writes on global- ization, wat and terronsm
Former government of Afghanistan that repressed its peo- o e and supported a i - O a e d a
The lack of democraq,, and widespread and rystematic uiolations of human right:
tribute to the dse of terrorism. The 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States attention to Saudi Arabia and Egypt, countries to which most of the belonged. Eglpt and Saudi Arabia are authoritarian societies in which tiere is no press, no freedom of expression, and no fiee elections. Dissent is not tolerated- i viduals are routinely tortured, and fair trials are rare. Dissidents, such as Osa$l Laden (from Saudi Arabia) and Mohamrned Atta (the Eglptian-born leader of
r Pul
2001 terrorist attacks), were unable to express dissent at home, so they went to Afghanistan to organize al-Qaeda. a globalrerrorist network.ll
Foreign policies contribute to terrorism. Roman occupation of Israel generated strone resistance by theJews, and some Jews adopted terrorism in a futile effort to end Romaa oppression. European expansion and colonization laid the foundation for the emergenc€
of national liberatic.tn inovements that used terrorism to achieve independence.
Tfuoughout the Cold War, the United Sates and the Soiet Union ignored the terror- ism that was used by the side they supported, preferring instead to see the terrorists as freeciom_fighters. Many foreign policy and terrorism analysa view U.S. foreign policies in the Middle East especially those involving the palestinian-Israeli condict, Saudi Arabia, and Eg1,pt-as being conducive to terrorism- For exarnple, Osama biq Laden .^::lglT^:tj:t^.,a_*e stationing of American troops in Saudi tuabia during the 1991 uurr war. r he u.s. porrcies are widely seen in the Middle East and elsewhlre as con_
qroutrng ro rhe oppression ol rhe palestinians by l"rael.t2 Finally.lailed nates proaide an envronment conduciue t0 teTrorisrn. Failed_states generally abuse'human rights; are un_
democratic; are intolerant of ethnic, polirical, a'nd ..tigroo, ai";.riry; and have weak economies. State failure is often accompanied by an irrcr"."se io b*e"o.raflc corrupflon T1 :::ff]iTj lTons goveurment officials and criminats. I".r;;;;", state autiority
*: ijij:.1.-rt-...: severely undermined, and many regions within a counrrF are la;
,i.:I
- i l. mosr obuous example of how state failure breeds terrorism is alieaeda il :CjL1ltt^r:: jlllqed by,the Soviet Union invasion and years of war, th" fouerty_
smcKen countlr became a base for Islamic extremists and holy warriors, Under the leai_
ership of.the-Taliban (i.e., a group of extreme Irl"-i. fr_:1";;;.;ljsts), Albhanistan provided bin Laden with an ideal environment in which ter.o.ir- .i.la g.o_ _d fio_
which terrorist activities could be organized. By the_end of ZOOO f."q _", rncreasingly perceived as a failed state and the breiding ground ofterroriss.
Goals, Strategies, and Weapons of Terrorism 12,
GOALS, STRATEGIES, AND WEAPONS OF TERRORISIVI
The goals, str- ategies, and weapons of terrorism vary from group to group and from one period ofhistory ro another. 7ne gual, E terror-tsm includ.e
1. So,cial and
_political Justice: Grrorism has been used to achieve concrete political and social changes, including o".rthro*;rrg ,";essive regimes.
2. Self-determination: Maly terrorist organizati"*
"_..g.A as part of the struggle ro gain national independence.
3. Racial Superio_riq,: Many white supremacist groups anempt to preserve racia.lsegregation and social, economic, and political"p#er based on skin color.
4. Foreign policies: Terrorism is oftelor.d ro irrfl,..rr"" go,r"mmencs to take or refrain from taking certain actions. In April 200t,-bl Laden offered to stop terrorist attacks aeainst
-European "oooti". tt rt ."a"a _iUt"ry ,.tlorrs ia Muslim countries. fir"t of., -'", .i""rty-J"riglr1i.;'i"n*"ce European policies toward Iraq. 14
5. Prrilicity: A central goal ofrnost terrorist groups is to draw public attentionto their cause_
6. Demoralized Governments: By making govemmens appear weak and incom_
petent, terrorists believe they caa undermine their legitimicy and policies.tj -, T:.-.1 o..tTizadons adopt sev eral strategies to achieve their objectives; all of those strategies include violence or threats of viSlence against governmens and civil_
tf::_C::r""C, tl".rte offear and msecunty, partly to undermine people,s confidence in tlrerr govemment, is an inteeral componeni of terrorists, strategies. 'But
terrorism also depends.on cuhiaating popitar mppin. Terrorists
"r" g";;i;;ff""tive when they operate in an environment that enables them ro hide] obi"ir, ,..oorrr, (including weapons), gather information about govemment operadons and plans, and communi_
cate with each other. However, telecommunication, *a .o_foal, a""t rrologies have reduced the need for popular suppoft as a component of straregy. Terrorists rely on virn'raI-networks' a styre oF organizarion that is Lssentialry readeiiess and is faciritated by the-Internet. tr:rrerica-n righi-wing extremists developei ,lii-.-ol"r"gy .o .ourr"r"o the effecdveness of U.S. law-enforcement agencies.t6
Some terrorist groups rfea the terorist-label tn order to gaingreater legitimary or ljc.eplance in society. Governmenc, on the other hand, redse,S *"f". iry Uol oi :egttmacy on,Trr:rist gr_oups and reject defining terrorism as warfare.r/ These terror_
:tj,{::pi:^: IrSl1' to select governmenr targets, inciuding embassies, mititary person_
ner and Dases, and govemmenl officials. Ln Colombia, for example. teffonst groups launched a campaign of assassinat
supponers. Judgesipro**.*, ;i;T#"T:ffiff n::t:t**ffitrT;il*i:
egy aftempts to undermine assumotions,tlat government poli.ies .an
"ns*e person"l safety.r8 Selectiae kidnapp-rzgs are also used by terrorists to achieve their goals. By aking government officials, soldiers, businesspeople, and prorni"."i
"ilr"* t *oge, the ter_
rorists force tle govemrnent to either ake -itia.y-r.C* ,g"i"ri ,t
"'L o. U"rguir, *i 1, them. Terrorists in Iraq adopted_ Palestinians and Hezbollah in )ooo t.a ,o r..ri't ;;;r;;;i'ilb_;;rhis srraregy. Kidnappings of Israeli soldiers by
Self-Determination Struggles for na- tional independence that often motivate terrorist attacks
Mnual Netwotks A style of organiza- tion that is essen- tially leaderless and facilitated by the Internet
122 CHAPTER 5 clobat Terrofism
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Weapans usedby terrorists vary according to their goals, available technology, and resources_ at dreir disposal. Sarin gas, anthrax, and various poisons have been uied in Japan and the United States. Motor vehicles packed with anmonium nitate and fuel oil were used as bombs in Oklahoma City i; l9g5 and in Bali, Indonesia, in 2002.
Suicide bombers are lethal weapo's in many parts of rie rvorld, inclucling Israel, Saudi Arabia, A1_ lhanistan, and Iraq. The use of airliners fully loaded with fueias missiles to destroy the World Trade C€nter and damage tle pentagon focused global attention on a nerv terrorist weapon. As terrorists use the Intemet to spread their message and organize their activiries,.there.is growing awareness ofcyb.rrp".. -".f"r.
", " *"""pon rn the rerronsrs arsenal.r, Although ferv terrorists are capable of using weaponi of nass destr-uction on a large scale, terrorist attacks in the United States in 2001 and the subsequent U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 put the issue of chemical and biological weapons in t}te possession of terrorists on the elobal asenda.20
FINANCING TERRORISM
Much emphasis has been placed on determining how terrorism is financed and on trndrng ways to disrupt, Jf not eliminate, financial support for terrorism, However, compared with conventional military activities, t"..oiir- is relatively low_cost anj very effective. Consider the artacks on the World tade Center and the pentagon.
The terrorists involved lived middle class lifesryles, took flying lerrorrs, tr".,il.,i around the country and bought first-class tjckers on rhe planes ihey hijacked. Tlie cost of these activities relative to the damage the terrorisis caused using Arnerican planes to bomb American buildings is almostlnsignificant. Bombings in Sp--ain in 2004 rnd rn Britain in 2005 also show that terrorists do not have to be well financed to launch destructive attacks, I{any terrorist cells are self_supporting, and many terror_
rsts do not engage in financial activities that iurmediately Jia* attlention. This makes it extremely difficult-for governments to gather financial information. Furtlermore, manv terrorists use hawalas (i.e,, an informal system of transferring money that is based primarily on rrust and interpersonal relations). Developed in India before the arrir''al of Wr:stern banking, hawalas frustrate efforts to trace mtney because they leave no electronic and virtually no paper trail.2l
. C,ontributions ft-om. indiuiduals md graaps are a ma.jor source of money for terror_
isn. In the case of al-Qaeda, bin Laden usid his considerable wealth to finance global terrorism. Many individuals make charitable conffibutions to organizadons th-at are principally concerned with assisting the poor. However, son e oi this money is also used to support terorism. Gouernments fnance ter rlrism, both directly and inadver- tently. The most obvious way is by sponsoring their actiyities. For many years, Libya,s l:11:i, T""-T":-Qad!afi, openly financed and trained terrorist groups in ihe lvlrddle- Easr and Alrica. In 2004, Qaddafi was embraced by Europe an<I thi United States for his decision to fight terrorism and to compensate relatives of victims who were killed in rhe bourbing of a?-an Am jet over LocGrbie, Scotland, in 19gg. Libyan r n t e l l l g e n c e i g e n l \ w e r e b i a m e d f o r r h a r b o m b i n g . L i b y a e v e n t u r l l y l c c e p r e d r e . p o n _ sjbility and paid $2.7 billion to dre families of thi vicrims.z2 Governments, especially Saudi Arabia, provide substantial financial resources to charities and organizations that are indirecdy linked to terrorism.
Hawalas
Informalsystem of transferring money based primarily on trust and interper- sonal relations
Muammar Oaddafi Libyan leader accused of financ ing and training ter- ronst groups in the Middle East and Africa
The Costs of Terrorism 123
Diamontk, oil, and other narural resour.cet proide revenues for tefforism. Terroriss often prefer diamonds because they are easily transponed, easily hidden, and easily con- verted hto cash. Failed states in A-ffica often provide opportunities for rebel groups to :^."ente wiLb tcroistgroaps. One afa)e bestexarnples 6 S,brra Leone n West Attca, ':'re -aeone 6as some of't6e nchest.diamond fields in the world. It has also been plagued
, polincal instability. The diamond trade helped to n
"a U.,f, Si".r" ieoneb civil wars
:lllt_9..-tli:yl,ierrr|1l of sierra :bel group that challenged the govemment r.o".t n,,onJonoyu"i..i and engaged in n,i.ig. r,.,or,r 6ug, "
"." rr"ti.r)r'i#; #---*
,:1i1.].j11tr5:l:1$,."ft* IXOped in rags,-ac'ross the bo.d". irrto Liberia and chalensed the sov_
:rchansed them for cash from al-eaeda,rd ri.,b"il;, ;ii#;##;:1"1T ili,i,"J"Yi'i ;3,?i
-=banon.. Wdr t-he cooperation oF corrupt .urto,,., ,nd i--ilrrjr" ,fn.r.rri,l. ilr_ Leone throuorr'acts :onds, which were bought at below-market prices, were th.r, a"i.r, ,o d"."#;;X_ of violence a-nd
.: organizations and sold at much higher prices.2r-These dil;; ;;jI; "r *--- terrorism '' itt'lid diamondsbecause of their inextricable finr<s with bruJ.iJ *r., ,rra a...o.ir-. Hezbotah
Crimiml ntiuities tre a maior source of funding t'or rerrorrr.. i..rr.r.,r'.r. .i"rr ;
:r\ olveo ln armed robbeq. credir card fraud. idendry rjleh. kidnappjng, exronion. and groupbasedjn
.1:l i.,lT.:: t,l rhe phitippine.. for er.ampte. the terrorisr il;;fil iil;;'."'* Lebanon
-ier\
k,dnap! people. rncluding rourisrs. ro Fn:rnce its acrivit)is.The Tam iigers in abu sayyat ::- 'anka-control and operate boats that_smuggle contraband in the Indianbce""
ffi;;
:gion often, terrorist groups coerce civilians i'to pafng protection money, some- the phirippines thal ::ines called a revolutionary tax. The IRA is
" gro"p ih", ,ir.d ,his method to fir1"n.. regutarty i<idnaps to :r'rrorism. Other groups use money obtained fiom tie sale ofillegal drugs. finance its activities
Tamil ligers THE COSTS OF TERRORISM
Costs associated with terrorism are so widespread, complex, and intangible that they :re virtually impossible to measure. D-aiJy, ir.rdividuals, families, goverrrrnenrs, conpa_
ries, atd nonstate actors worldwide bear the costs of terrorisi to varying degrees.
Time, money, and other resources are diverted from other global irobi"-s.
I ligration,,trade, travel,.and interpersonal relations are affected. In"September 2001, l r'ery small group ofindividuals, nineteen of them, caused incalculableiamage to the United S^tates as well as the global communiry Almost three tlrousand peoile from roughly fifo' countries were killed. Domestic terrorists, using antirax,
"iso d"-"g"d L .S. government offices, businesses, and individuals. In the fill of 2002, two sniplrs, John Muhammad and Lee Malvo, almost paralyzed the Washington, D.C., area as Lhey $'ent on a rampage ofindiscriminate violence, which left ten "people
dead.
costs to Indiuiduals Individuals usualry suffer the most fiom terrorist acrs rn terms of loss of lives and social, psychological, and physical problems. Many citizens are made rLt by tea.r and a sudden loss of personal freedom. They restrict their activities, limit rheir travel, and often distrust their neighbors, therebyweakening communiq, bonds and support. For example, the 2001 attacks undermined trust 6etween most non_
,\,Iuslim Americans and Muslims in general, especially Arabs. Seven years later, ahnost any'ajor violent act in New York as well as in otler parts of the united states is ini- rially evaluated as terrorism. Relations between non-tr{uslim Americans and Muslims ren.nin problematic.
Group in Sri Lanka that smuggles contraband in the Indian Ocean region
124 CHAPTER 5 GlobalTerrorism
Domestic Terrorism
Economic Costs Calculating the economic costs of terrorism and the responses to lt ls virtually impossible b"."rrsJ th"y ar" ,o complex and far-reaching For exarnple, after the 2001 a;tacks, airlines suffered major financial losses and continue to feel the imDact of terrorism. It is esrimated that the global airline industry lost $18 billion in 20b1 and $13 billion in 2002 following the attacks. Combined, these losses were more than the total profit of all the airlinei since 1945.2a High oil prices and continuing fears aboot terrorism continued to create severe financial problems, including bank- ruptry for the airlines in 2008.
Costs to Goaer nmet rt GoYernments generally increase resources to fight terrorism and to provide their citizens with a heightened sense of security' For example, as you p..prri to board an airline, the costs become obvious. There are more securlq- g.r"id., bugt are carefully checked, and individuals are often searched' While airlines i"y ,o-" Jf these costs, the U.S. federal government is primarily responsible for air- po.t r""otity. The federal, state, and local governments in the United States also ,p"rd -oney to guard bridges, nuclear power plants, train stations, and so on' The -ort ob-,io.r, .osi are associated with military actions against terrorists. The invasion of Afghanistan to destroy al-Qaeda and the tliban, as well as the invasion, occuPa- tion, ind rebuilding ofliaq has cost hundreds ofbillions of dollars and rnany lives' Foreign Policy Costs Several times following the 2001 anacks, the United State-' .lor"i its em6assies in Saudi Arabia and elsewhere. These shutdowns meant tia:
America was paying a price for not being able to conduct norrnal diplomatic rela- tions.25 Furthermor-", hiighten"d r"cority for embassies creates additional expenses.
Cosa tu DentocraE People who are afiaid, as Thomas Hobbes obsewed, are willins to turn to all-powe-rful ruiers who promise to provide security But-part of the price fo:
that security is less fteedom. In a climate of fear, governments often justift violatin:
individuals, rights on the grounds of national security.26 Torturing terrorist suspect=
antl denying tiem the funJamental right to habeas corpus continued to be debated ::
the United States in 2008.
KINDS OF TERRORISM
Although the types of terrorism tend to overlap, they vary in their irnplications aorl
"ffect o-, i' diff.i"rrt ways. For example, the indiscriminate nature of global terrori.o contrasts sharPly with domestic terrorism aimed at specific groups or governmens' b this section we will disctss fiae kinds of terroristtt:
Occurs within bor- ders of a state Nationalist Te orism
Occurs as a result of religious extremism Occurs as a result of struggles {or independence Religious Terlorism
1. Domestic terrorism occurs within the borders of a particular country ani associated with extremisl groups.
2. Nationalist terorism is closely associated with struggles for political omv and indeoendence.
3. Religious terrorism grows out of extreme fundamentalist religious that believe that God is on their side and that their violence is <
inspired and approved.
4. State terrorism is a cold, calculated, efficient, and extremely destructive fo-rrn of terrorism, parrly because of the overwhelmirrg po*er ai the disposal of governments.
5. Global terrorism is pardy an outgrovth of rhe forces of globalization, which enable the different kinds ofterrorism to spread worldwide.
Domestic Terrorism
On April 19, 1995, Americalrs watched with incredulity as bloodied bodies were pulled fiom the federal building in Oklahoma City. Most Americans quckly blamed l.fiddle Eastern terrorists for the Oklahoma City bombing, which killed 16g people. But the leader of this terorist acr was Timothy McVeigh, an Americar and aiecorated Gulf war veteran. Domestic terrorism has existed in the United states and other countries for hundreds ofyears. Unlike most counffies, \i.here terrorist activities have been carried out prirnarily against go.'effrments, terorism in A,merica has been used mostlv apainst racial, ethnic, or religious minorities. American terrorists are predoninantly righfung extremists who embrace white supremacist, anti-Jewish, antiforeign, and antigovernl ment philosoplries based on a religious doctrine knortr as Chistii itlentin. This doc- trine essentially holds that white people are chosen by God, whereas Je-i, Americans rviti A{iican ancesny, Asians, and other racial mhorities are ,,rnud people.,,These ter_
rorists generally believe that the U.S. govemment is dominated byJiwi and is an occu_
pfng power and drat the United States should not participate in the United Nations and other_intemational organizations. Based on these beriefs, *rey have formed heavily armed militias, strongly oppose gun control, and refuse to pay ta_xes.27 Domestic terror_
ist groups include the National Alliance, the Ku KIux Klan, the Aryan Nation, posse comitatus, and the confederate Hammerskins. Many American ierrorists subscribe to the theory of leaderless resistance, which means that small groups of terrorists operate essentially ildependent of a hierarchical organization.
Domestic terrorism has long been a significaniproblem in several European coun- tries. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the Red Brigades, an Italian t"rro.isr gloop, launched a campaign of bombings and assassinations of government officials. Tie ter- rorist act that received the most anention was the kidnapping and murder of former Prime Miriister Aldo Moro by the Red Brigades in 1978. The widely published photo_
graph of Morob body slumped in the back seat of an abandoned car in Rome shocked many Italians.2s Although most Red Brigades fled to France shortly after this terrorist act, in 2003 it was estimated that 140 members were still active in Italv Germanv.
France, ard Greece have also been plagued by domestic terrorism. In Greeie, for exam- ple, the Marxist-Leninisr terrorist group Revolutionary Organization 17 November (or November 17) has been involved in terrorist activities since 1975. November 17 took its name fiom the date of a student protest in 1971 that was violently crushed by Greecet military government. Embracing strong and-American and anii-imperialisi views, November 17 is believed to have killed several American and British citizens.2g Many of the terrorist groups in Germany hold white supremacist, anti-Jewish, and antiforeigler views tlat are similar to those of their Ame.i.an corrrrt rtrars. Bombinm of trains in Spain in 2004 and ir Britair in 2005 bv Muslims. manv of whom were boir in these countries, underscored growing concerns about domesticierronsm.
Kinds of Terrorism 125
State Terrorism Government repressron targeted against civilians Global Tellorism Panly a result of increased globalization
Ku Klux Klan Racist terrorist group operating in the United States Leaderless Resistance Where small groups of terrorists operare Inqepen- dently without hier- archal leadership Red Brigades An ltalian terrorist group that attacked government officials November 17 Marxist-Leninist group that commit- ted terrorist acts ;n Greece
126 CHAPTER 5 GlobalTerrorism
Dirty War
Terrorist camPaign by the Argen'iine military dictatorshiP directed agalnst those critical of their government Shining Path
Latin America has spawned many domestic terrorist organizations Grovrng vio- 1"n..
"n,t terrorist activities by such groups as the Montonero,s and the Ejercitos, Ret;oluciotmres d.el Pue&/o were met with e-ttreme violence lion right-wing groups and ih. P".onirt regime Argentina's military dictatorship launched what became known ,r afr" ai.ay *"?, ittrvlti-.h thousands ofpeople disappe,are.d or were killed' Sendero i"-i".t.i f.ft" Shining lath; in Peru ani the Rivolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (iARC) ale 6ther etarnples of domesric terrorist groups in Latin America' Shinlrlg l"th *"t iormed by university students rnd professors who subscribed to the ntritor,ip}ll ol Mau LcduttqiMao Tie-Trrugt' 1 he1 soughr to weaken the gorernment-s l",fr"tilr lv in'piring briian. and or-heri to rebel' Volence b1 Shining Parh and the P;;;; s;t";"te,ti resulted in rnore than 30,000 deaths Many Asian countries also face consi-ant threats from dornestic terrorists. For example, in 2006 an Islarnic group, Lashkar-e-Taiba, bombed trains in Mumbai, lndia, killing roughly 135 people and wouncling another 800. Such bombings continued to occur in 2008'
Nationalist Terrorism
Marry nationalist Sroups attemPted to achieve nonviolent political change but were oftei brutally suppressed by governments. Often, nationalist terrorism rs accompa-
"i"J u" f.*irrr,ii,gitinate pJlitical activities designed to achieve autonorny' political fieed# and .q,r"lilty, o. it.td"p"ndence. Nationalist grouPs-are routinely labeled ter- rorists by the goverrunents they oppose, and labeled national liberation movements or freedom fight"ers by their support-rs, including other gov-ernments' In this section' we will discusls nationalist terrorism in tl.re Middle East (focusing on the Palestinian- Israeli conflict), Northern Ireland, and Spain.
Petuvian terrorist g roLrp
FARC
Colombian Marxist guerilla grouP Prac- ticing terrorism against civilians and governmenr officials
Holocaust Mass murder of millions of Jews driven by ethnic and religious hate and discrimination
The MiMle East The Palestinian-Israeli conflict stands out as the most prominent contemDorary e.{ample ofnadonalist terrorism This conflict has plunged the Middle i.r, i't,i ft"l ,nrp. trrr rnd fucls ongoing nolence in r'he region' Failure lo resolve thi, .onfli.t has global irnplications] lrrgely because of the.world's dependence or'r o.*ut.o^ irnp"ort, fro- ilr" Middle Eait Furthermore, global terrorists' such as
"i-6""a"."* *iJ .onflict to justi!' their activities and to recruit members throughout tir.lrh-'i. -o.ld. -Ihe
spiritual and emotional components-of this conflict' combined with the sufferings of both Jews and Palestinians, make any discussion ofit highly con- t.o,r..rial
"n,l ofr"tt subjective. In many ways, the pain and humilia.tion of both Jews ,"i Fni.r.i"i"". oftetl pre-r"nt both iidei from ernpathizing- with each other and ..".f.i"g tt"*"lfy lenedcial solutions to their problems' Instead'.both sides have been io.t"a it an increasingly dearlly embrace from which neither side is capable of,extri-
."ii"g ;"if- Tt
" r"rgJ.","r.r., the Palestinian-Israeli conflict is an outgrowth of viru- lent a'nti-Jewish pracices in Europe that culminated in the Ilolocaust'
Nationalist terronsm, one could argue, began whenJews attempted to end Roman o..op"riott of Israel by killing Romarisoldieis and officials Tl.re modern period of nationalist terrorisn has its orlgrn in the British efforts to establish a national homeland i"r-t"*t i" Palestine under th". B"lfott' Declaration Palestine was controlled by the Oialn* f".ks. However, after the Ottoman Empire disintegrated followrng Tirrkey's Jefeat in World War I, Palestine became a British rnandate under the League ofNations
