University of Windsor University of Windsor
Scholarship at UWindsor
Scholarship at UWindsor
Electronic Theses and Dissertations Theses, Dissertations, and Major Papers
1-1-1967
Creativity, intelligence and cognitive controls.
Creativity, intelligence and cognitive controls.
F. Xavier Plaus University of Windsor
Follow this and additional works at: https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/etd
Recommended Citation Recommended Citation
Plaus, F. Xavier, "Creativity, intelligence and cognitive controls." (1967). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 6051.
https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/etd/6051
C R EA T I V I T Y , I N T E L L I G E N C E AND
C O G N I T I V E C O N T R O L S
by
F. X A V I E R P L A U S
M.A., U n i v e r s i t y of Win d s o r , 1965
A D i s s e r t a t i o n
S u b m i t t e d to the F a c u lt y of G r a d u a t e S t ud ie s through the D e p a r t m e n t of P s y c h o l o g y in Partial F u l f i l l m e n t of the R e q u i r e m e n t s F o r the Degree of D o c t o r of P h i l o s o p h y
at the U n i v e r s i t y of W i n d s o r
UMI Number: DC52614
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This study b e g a n on the h a p p y c o i n c i d e n c e of
e n c o u n t e r i n g W a l lach and K o g a n ' s book "M o d e s of T h i n k i n g in
Y o u n g C h i l d r e n " w hi l e r e a d i n g an a r t i c l e on c o g n i t i v e c o n t
rols. The p o s s i b l e r e l e v a n c e of c o g n i t i v e c o n t r o l s to
c r e a t i v i t y i m m e d i a t e l y s u g g e s t e d itself. A sur v e y of the
l i t e r a t u r e i n d i c a t e d that c o n s i d e r a b l e w o r k had been done
on the i n di v i d u a l c o n t r o l s . L i t t l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , h o w e v e r ,
had been c o n d u c t e d in r e g a r d to a) c o g n i t i v e c o n t r o l s as
a c o n s t e l l a t i o n b) t h eir r e l a t i o n s h i p to c r e a t i v i t y and
c) t he i r f u n c t i o n i n g in c h i l d r en . This s t udy was c o n c e r n e d
with these three basic issues. P i a g e t ' s general epi s to m o l o gf
ical m odel was a d o p t e d to e n c o m p a s s these issues in full
r e a l i z a t i o n that the end re s u l t m i g h t b e a r li t t l e r e l e v a n c e
to his c o n c e p t i o n of it.
I wish to a c k n o w l e d g e a debt of g ra t i t u d e to my
m e n t o r , Or. B. P Rourke, w h o s e d i r e c t i o n and c l a r i f i c a t i o n
w a s h el p f u l and s u p p o r t i v e t h r o u g h o u t the p a s t year; Dr. D.
N. J a ckson, the o u t s i d e e xa m i n e r , was c o n s t r u c t i v e l y c r i t
ical and v e r y m uc h a p p r e c i a t e d . Thanks are due as well to
the three r e a ders Dr. R. C. Fehr, Dr. R. M. Daly and Mr. M.
Starr. D a v i d Se a t o n p e r f o r m e d a m u c h a p p r e c i a t e d task in
c o n d u c t i n g the c o m p u t e r a n a l ys es . A special thanks is due
my wife Pat for h e r s u p p o r t and e n c o u r a g e m e n t d u r i n g the
A B S T R A C T
This s tudy was c o n c e r n e d with a) the i n d i v i d u a l ' s
e n c o u n t e r with h i s e n v i r o n m e n t and b) the d i m e n s i o n s by
w hi c h the i n di v i d u a l o r g a n i z e s this e n c o u n t e r . The
t h eo re ti c al p e r s p e c t i v e a d o p t e d was P i a g e t ' s c o n c e p t i o n of
i n t e l l i g e n c e as i n v o l v i n g a d a p t a t i o n and o r g a n i z a t i o n . The
m o d e s of the i n d i v i d u a l ' s a d a p t a t i o n c o n s i d e r e d w e r e i n t e l l
igence and c re a t i v i t y , w h i l e the d i m e n s i o n s o r g a n i z i n g this
e n c o u n t e r were the c o g n i t i v e c o n t r o l s of f ield d e p e n d e n c e -
i n d e p e n d e n c e , c o n s t r i c t e d - f l e x i b l e , f o c u s i n g - s c a n n i n g ,
t o l er an ce for a m b i g u i t y , e q u i v a l e n c e range and l e v e l i n g -
sh ar pe n i n g. It was h y p o t h e s i z e d that a) h i g h c r e a t i v e ,Ss
w o u l d be c h a r a c t e r i z e d , in the ext r e m e , by the f o l l o w i n g
c o g n i t i v e c o n t r ol s: f ield i n d e p e nd en ce , t o l e r an ce for
a mb i g u i t y , and s c a n n i n g ; b) no d i s t i n c t i o n w o u l d be d e m o n
s t r at ed b e t w e e n high a n d low c r e a t i v e _Ss on the f o l l o w i n g
c o g n i t i v e c o n t r o l s : c o n s t r i c t e d - f l e x i b l e , e q u i v a l e n c e
range and level i n g- sh a r p e n i n g .
The sample c o n s i s t e d of 60 boys from the fifth
grade of e l e m e n t a r y school. They were a d m i n i s t e r e d three
m e a s u r e s of i n t e l l i g e n c e and three of c r e a t i v i t y , and eight
tests for c o g n i t i v e c o nt r o l s : E m b e d d e d F i g u r e s Test, Stroop
C o l o u r - W o r d Test, O b j e c t S o r t i n g Test, C a t e g o r y Width Test,
S c h e m a t i z i n g Test a n d two tests d e s i g n e d by the a u t h o r for
h ig h a n d / o r low on c r e a t i v i t y and i n t e l l i g e n c e ; the r el a t i o n
ship of each control to each group of Ss_ was then c o n s i d e r e d
The h y p o t h e s e s we r e c o n f i r m e d in regard to the
c o n t r o l s of f o c u s i n g , c o n s t r i c t e d - f l e x i b l e , and e q u i v a l e n c e
range. H ow ev e r , c o n t r a r y to e x p e c t a t i o n , field i n d e p e n d e n c e
and t ol e r a n c e for a m b i g u i t y did not d i s t i n g u i s h the high
c r e a t i v e from the low c r e a t i v e S£. The r e s u l t s for l e v e l -
in g - s h a r p e n i n g we r e c o n f l i c t i n g , but there was i n d i c a t i o n s
that the h i g h c r e a t i v e Sts, t e n d e d to be s h a r p e n e r s a n d the
low c r e a t i v e Ss, level e r s . The r e s u l t s we r e d i s c u s s e d in
T A BLE OF C O N T E N T S
P R E F A C E .
L I S T OF T A B L E S .
Chap ter I II III IV V
I N T R O D U C T I O N .
A d a p t a t i o n , . . .
O r g a n i z a t i o n .
S t a t e m e n t of the P r o b l e m
M E T H O D O L O G Y A N D P R O C E D U R E
E x p e r i m e n t a l Sample . . T e s t i n g M a t e r i a l s .
P r o c e d u r e * . . . .
P R E S E N T A T I O N A N D A N A L Y S I S OF R E S U L T S .
D I S C U S S I O N OF R E S U L T S
S U M M A R Y A N D C O N C L U S I O N S .
of V a r i a n c e for S u b s i d i a r y Scores
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
V I T A A U C T O R I S
Pa ge v vi i 1 2 16 48 53 53 53 66 68 108 124
A P P E N D I X A C r e a t i v i t y Tasks . . • 127
A P P E N D I X B I n s t r u c t i o n s for C r e a t i v i t y Tasks • 133
A P P E N D I X C I n s t r u c t i o n s for O b je ct S o r t i n g Tasks • 135
A P P E N D I X D Cate gor y - W i d t h Test . . . • 138
A P P E N D I X E T o l e r a n c e for A m b i g u i t y : Series F • 142
A P P E N D I X F I n s t r u c t i o n s for C r e a t i v i t y and Co g n i t Ta sk s
ion
• 147
A P P E N D I X G IQ & C r e a t i v i t y Index Scores . • 152
A P P E N D I X H I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s a m o n g all sc o r e s • 1 54
A P P E N D I X I Me a n s , S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s and A n a l y s i s
1 59
175
T a ble 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Pa ge S p e a r m a n - B r o w n S p li t - H a l f R e l i a b i l i t y C o e f f i
c i e nt s for the Six C r e a t i v i t y V ar i a b l e s . * 35
S p e a r m a n - B r o w n T e s t - R e t e s t R e l i a b i l i t y C o
e f f i c i e n t s for W, C, CW, CW-C, and C/(C+W) . 59
S p e a r m a n - B r o w n R e l i a b i l i t y C o e f f i c i e n t s for 10
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n s for W, C, CW, CW-C, and C/(C+W) 59
R e l i a b i l i t y C o e f f i c i e n t s for F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g
and T o l e r a n c e for A m b i g u i t y . . . . 68
P e r c e n t a g e A g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n ju d g e s for A l t e r nate Uses, S i m i l a r i t i e s , P a t t e r n M e a n i n g s and
O b j e c t S o r t i n g Test . . . 69
I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s a m o n g C r e a t i v i t y M e a s u r e s - A l t e r n a t e Uses, S i m i l a r i t ie s, P a t t e r n M ea n i n g s ,
F le xi bi li ty , U n i q u e ne ss , A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s ,
T r a n s f o r m a t i o n and C r e a t i v i t y Index . . 7 0
I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s a m o n g I n t e l l i g e n c e M e a s u r e s . 71
I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n C r e a t i v i t y and
I n t e l l i g e n c e . . . 72
M e d i a n Split for I n t e l l i g e n c e and C r e a t i v i t y . 73
Sc o r e s d e r i v e d from the C o g n i t i v e Control Tests 74
I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s of Scores M os t D i r e c t l y In
d i c a t i v e of C o g n i t i v e C o n t r o l s . . . 77
M e a n s for Total Time on the E m b e d d e d F ig u r e s
Test for the F o u r Groups . . . . 78
M e a n s f o r C W - C score on the Stroop C o l o u r - W o r d
Test for the F o u r Groups . . . . 79
I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n F i e l d D e p e n d e n c e -I n d e p e n d e n c e and C o n s t r i c t e d - F l e x i b l e for the
Fo u r Groups . . . 81
vi i i
T a b l e Page
15 M e a n s for the N u m b e r of O b j e c t s score on the
F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g A Test for the F o u r Gro u p s . 82
16 M e a n s for the D i f f e r e n t i a l score on the
F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g A Test for the Fo u r Gr o u p s . 83
17 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g A ( n u m be r of o b j e c t s ) and F i e l d D e p e n d e n c e -
I n d e p e n d e n c e and C o n s t r i c t e d - F l e x i b l e . . 8 4
18 M e a n s for N u m b e r of O b j e c t s score on the
F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g B Test for the Four Gr o u p s . 85
19 M e a n s for the D i f f e r en ti al Score on the
F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g B Test for the Four Gr o u p s . 87
20 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g A and Field D e p e n d e n c e - I n d e p e n d e n c e , C o n s t r i c t e d -
F l e x i b l e and F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g A . . 8 8
21 M e a n s for the N u m b e r of Gr o u p s score ( E q u i
v a l e n c e Range) for the Four G ro u p s . . 89
22 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n E q u i v a l e n c e Range ( n u m be r of groups) and F i e l d D e p e n d e n c e - I n de p en de n ce , C o n s t r i c t e d - F l e x i b l e , and
F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g A and B . . . 9 0
23 M e a n s for the N u m b e r of S i n gles Score on the
O b j ec t S o r t i n g Test for the Fo u r Gro u p s • . 9 1
24 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n N u m b e r of S i n g l e s and F i e l d D e p e n d e n c e - I n d e p e n d e n c e , C o n s t r i c t e d - F l e x i b l e , F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g A and B and E q u i
v a l e n c e R a n g e . . . . 93
25 M e a n s on Band Width for the F o u r G r o u p s . . 9 4
26 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n Band Width and F ie l d D e p e n d e n c e - I n d e p e n d e n c e , C o n s t r i c t e d - F l e x i b l e , F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g A and B, E q u i v a l e n c e Range,
and N u m b e r of S i n gles . . . 95
27 M e a n s for Trials of First R e s p o n s e on T o l e r a n c e
for A m b i g u i t y for the F o u r G r o u p s . . . 97
Tabl e
29 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n T ol e r a n c e for A m b i guity (trials of first r e s p o n s e ) and Field D e p e n d e n c e - I n d e p e n d e n c e , C o n s t r i c t e d - F l e x i b l e , F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g A a n d B, E q u i v a l e n c e Range, N u m b e r of O b j e c t s a n d Ba n d Width
30 M e a n s for P e r c e n t a g e R a n k i n g A c c u r a c y on the S c h e m a t i z i n g Test for the F o u r Groups
31 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n Level i n g - S h a r p e n i n g a n d F i e l d D e p e n d e n c e - I n d e p e n d e n c e , C o n s t r i c t e d - F le x i b l e , F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g A and B, E q u i v a l ence Range, N u m b e r of Singles, Band Width and To l e r a n c e for A m b i g u i t y . . , .
32 M e a n s for P e r c e n t a g e I n c re me nt E r r or on the S c h e m a t i z i n g Test for the F o u r Gr o u p s . .
33 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n P e r c e n t a g e I n c r e m en t E r r o r and F i e l d D e p e n d e n c e - I n d e p e n d e n c e , C o n s t r i c t e d - F l e x i b l e , F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g A and B, E q u i v a l e n c e Range, N u m b e r of Singles, Band Width, T o l er an c e for A m b i g u i t y and P e r c e n t a g e R a n k i n g A c c u r a c y ,
34 A n a l y s i s of V a r i a n c e for C r e a ti vi ty , I n t e l l i gence and C o g n i t i v e C o n t r o l s
Pa ge
99
100
102
103
104
C H A P T E R I
I N T R O D U C T I O N
S u b s u m i n g all c o n s i d e r a t i o n of c o g n i t i o n and p e r
c e p t i o n is a basic e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m - the r e l a t i o n
ship b e t w e e n the k n o w e r and the known. Of vital r e l e va nc e
to this issue is the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of Ind i v i d u a l c o n s i s t e n
ci e s in c o g n i t i v e b e h a v i o r . The p r e m i s e i nv ol ve d is that
H the w id e range of b e h a v i o r s with w hi c h an individual
e n c o u n t e r s r e a l i t y m a y be e n c o m p a s s e d by r e l a t i v e l y few
d i m e n s i o n s of o r g a n i z a t i o n (Gardner, H ol zm an , Klein, Linton,
a n d Spence, 1959; p. 1 ) . N This study is c o n c e r n e d with
a) the i n d i v i d u a l ' s e n c o u n t e r with his e n v i r o n m e n t and b)
the d i m e n s i o n s o r g a n i z i n g this e n c o u n t e r . The theore t i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e w h ich will be a d o p t e d in o r d e r to e n c o m p a s s
these two a s p e c t s is P i a g e t ' s c o n c e p t i o n of i n t e l l i g e n c e .
This c o n c e p t i o n i n v o lv es the f u n c t i o n a l i n v a r i a n t s of
a d a p t a t i o n and o r g a n i z a t i o n .
For the p u r p o s e s of this study, a d a p t a t i o n will be
c o n s i d e r e d to i n v o l v e two b asic m o d e s - the i n t e l l i g e n t and
the c r e at iv e. In o p e r a t i o n a l terms, i n t e l l i g e n c e is d e f i n e d
as that b e h a v i o r d e m o n s t r a t e d on c o n v e n t i o n a l IQ tests.
This d e f i n i t i o n is a n a l o g o u s to G u i l f o r d ' s c o n c e p t i o n of
c o n v e r g e n t t h i n k i n g since this w o u l d a p p e a r to be the type
c r e a t i v i t y is d e f i n e d in terns of an i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e s p o n se s
to s pe c if i c c r e a t i v i t y tasks. P e r f o r m a n c e on these tasks
w o u l d a p p e a r to n e c e s s i t a t e w h a t G u i lf or d c o n c e i v e d of as
d i v e r g e n t thinking. In o r d e r to e l u c i d a t e t h e o r e t i c a l l y
these two m o d e s of i n t e r c o u r s e with o n e ' s e n v i r o n m e n t , the
f o l l o w i n g will be c o n s i d e r e d u n d e r a d a p t a t i o n : a) a s s i m
i l a t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n , b) a u t o c e n t r i c and a l l o c e n t r i c
p e r c e p t i o n and c) c r ea t i v i t y .
E m pi ri c al ly , this s tudy is c o n c e r n e d with e l u c i
d a t i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the i n t e l l i g e n t and the
c r e a t i v e m o d e s of a d a p t a t i o n . S p e c i f i c a l l y , this s t udy is
c o n c e r n e d with i n v e s t i g a t i n g the d i m e n s i o n s by w hi c h an
i n d i v i d u a l o r g a n i z e s his e n c o u n t e r with his e n v i r o n m e n t
in r e l a t i o n to these m o d e s of a d a p t a t i o n . The d i m e n s i o n s
of o r g a n i z a t i o n h a ve been termed c o g n i t i v e c o n tr ol s. The
a s s u m p t i o n is that these c o g n i t i v e c o n t r o l s will c o r r e l a t e
with c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n s of t h i n k i n g and thus that they
will be r e l a t e d d i f f e r e n t i a l l y to i n t e l l i g e n c e and c r e a t i v
ity. In this f i r s t cha p t e r , a d a p t a t i o n and then o r g a n i z
a t i o n will be c o n s i d e r e d .
A d a p tat ion
A s s i m i l a t i o n and A c c o m m o d a t i o n
The i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s is c o n c e i v e d of by P i a g et
as an a c t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n the o r g a n i s m and the e n v i r
3
c o p i n g a n d i n wa rd ly as o r g a n i z a t i o n (Hunt, 1961; p. 1 1 1 ) . "
A d a p t a t i o n and o r g a n i z a t i o n are thus c o n c e i v e d of as two
c o m p l e m e n t a r y a s p e c t s of one p ro ce s s . P i ag et sees a d a p t
a t i o n as i n v o l v i n g the f u r t h e r f u n c t i o n a l i n v a r i a n t s of
a s s i m i l a t i o n and a c c o m m o d a t i o n .
A s s i m i l a t i o n h e r e r e f e rs to the fact that e v ery c o g n i t i v e e n c o u n t e r with an e n v i r o n m e n t a l o b j e c t n e c e s s a r i l y i n v ol v e s some
kind of c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r i n g (or r e s t r u c t ur i n g ) of that o b j e c t in a c c o r d w i t h the n a t ur e of the o r g a n i s m ' s e x i s t i n g i n t e l l e c t ual o r g a n i z a t i o n (Flavell, 1963; p. 48).
H o w e v e r , the k n o w e r m u s t in some s en s e a d a p t h i m s e l f to the
special p r o p e r t i e s of the object.
The e s s e n c e of a c c o m m o d a t i o n is p r e c i s e l y this p r o c e s s of a d a p t i n g o n e s e l f to the v a r i e g a t e d r e q u i r e m e n t s o r d e m a n d s w h i c h the w o r l d of o b j e c t s i m p o s e s on one (Flavell, 1963; p. 48).
These two p r o c e s s e s are i n v o l v e d in all i n t e l le ct ua l a c t i v
ity and i n t e l l i g e n t a d a p t a t i o n to the e n v i r o n m e n t is seen
as an e q u i l i b r i u m b e t w e e n a s s i m i l a t i o n and a c c o m m o d a t i o n .
The e q u i l i b r i u m p r o c e s s thus i n v o l v e s b r i n g i n g a s s i m i l a t i o n
and a c c o m m o d a t i o n into a b a l a n c e d c o o r d i n a t i o n . In a sense,
a s s i m i l a t i o n and a c c o m m o d a t i o n are a l w a y s in a state of
e q u i l i b r i u m , the c r u cial p o i n t is the de g r e e of s t a b i l i t y
of this state. An u n s t a b l e c o o r d i n a t i o n is seen w h e n one
o r o t h e r p r e d o m i n a t e s as, for e xa mp l e , in i m i ta ti on or play.
I mi t a t i o n is d e f i n e d as the p r i m a c y of a c c o m m o d a t i o n to
e x t e r na l r ea l i t y o v e r a s s i m i l a t i o n , w h i l e p la y is termed
the a s s i m i l a t i o n of e x t e r n al real i t y to p r e - e x i s t i n g c o n
c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s is o f t e n i n t e r p r e t e d in terms of play.
P i a g e t c o n t e n d s that
pl a y m a n i f e s t s the p e c u l i a r i t y of a p r i m acy of a s s i m i l a t i o n o v e r a c c o m m o d a t i o n w h ic h p e r m i t s it to t r a n s f o r m r ea l i t y in
its own m a n n e r w i t h o u t s u b m i t t i n g that t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to the c r i t e r i o n of o b j e c t i v e fact (Piaget, 1966; p. 111).
He then goes on to s t r e s s that pl a y b e c o m e s m o r e and mo r e
a d e q u a t e l y a d a p t e d to natu r e . It is in this l a t t e r sense
that he s p e a k s of p l a y as d i m i n i s h i n g with age. The e s s e n
tial p r o p e r t y of play, as P i a g e t d e f i n e s it, is thus the
d e f o r m a t i o n and s u b o r d i n a t i o n of r e a l i t y to the d e s i r e s of
the self. The issue of p l a y and a s s i m i l a t i o n will be
r e t u r n e d to wh e n c r e a t i v i t y is c o n s i d e r e d .
A u t o c e n t r i c and A l l o c e n t r i c P e r c e p t i o n
One of the m o s t p r e v a l e n t a s s u m p t i o n s of b e l i e f s
of " e v e r y m a n " is that wh a t he p e r c e i v e s through h i s senses
is true, that is, it is in p o i n t of fact N r e a l i t y w . H o w
ever, re s e a r c h c a r r i e d o u t o v e r the last several d e c a d e s
h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d the c o m p l e x, c o n f l i c t i n g i n f l u e n c e s w h i c h
d e t e r m i n e n o t o n ly " h ow * an i n d iv i d u a l p e r c e i v e s a n d u n d e r
s t a nd s the o b j e c t s of h i s e n v i r o n m e n t but a l s o **whatN he
p e r c e i v e s . C o n s i d e r a b l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l e n e r g y has be e n
i n ve s t e d in d e t e r m i n i n g the c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w hi c h an
ind i v i d u a l m o r e o r less a d e q u a t e l y r e l a t e s to h i s e n v i r o n
c o n c e p t i o n of a u t o c e n t r i c ( s u b j e c t - c e n t e r e d ) and a l l o c e n t r i c
( o b j e c t - c e n t e r e d ) p e rc e p t i o n .
For S c h a c h t e l, a u t o c e n t r i c and a l l o c e n t r i c p e r
c e p t i o n a r e two basic m o d e s of p e r c e p t i o n ; he f u r t h e r d i s
t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y a u t o c e n t r i c i t y .
In p r i m a r y a u t o c e n t r i c i t y there is no o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n ; the
s e ns or y q u a l i t y and the f e e l i n g s of the i nd iv i d u a l are fused.
A l t h o u g h this m od e p r e d o m i n a t e s in the in f a n t and the y o u n g
child, it fades in i m p o r t a n c e o r r e l e v a n c e as a m o d e of
p e r c e p t i o n a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y is n o t of c o n c e r n here. S e c o n d
ary a u t o e e n t r i e i t y , h o w e v e r , is c r u c i al to this d i s c u s s i o n
of i n t e l l i g e n c e and c r e a t i v i t y . S e c o n d a r y a u t o c e n t r i c i t y
e s s e n t i a l l y is p e r c e i v i n g the o b j e c t s of o n e ' s e n v i r o n m e n t
fr o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of s o c i e t y ' s d e m a n d s on w h a t s h o u ld be
p e r c e i v e d . What this m e a n s is that in an i n d ividual w h o se
p e r c e p t i o n is p r e d o m i n a n t l y s e c o n d a r y a u t o c e n t r i c , the
p r i m a r y f e a t ur e is n ot of the p e r c e p t i o n of an o b j ec t as it
is in its own right but w h a t the ind i v i d u a l n e e d s to p e r
c eive in terms of s o c i e t y ' s dem a n d s . The p r e d o m i n a n c e of
a u t o c e n t r i c p e r c e p t i o n i m pl ie s the s la v i s h a s s i m i l a t i o n of
p e r c e p t s to f ixed s c h e m a t a , f i xed p e r s p e c t i v e s of o n e ' s
e n v i r o n m e n t , and thus s t i f l e s any p o s s i b i l i t y for c r e a t i v e
f u n c t i o n i n g . The p o i n t is that w h e n s e c o n d a r y a u t o c e n t r i c -
ity p r e d o m i n a t e s to the e x c l u s i o n of a l l o c e n t r i c p e r c e p t i o n ,
the re s u l t is s t e r e o t y p e d t h i n k i n g and c r e a t i v i t y b e c o m e s
v o l v e s an o p e n n e s s tow a r d the o b j e c t s of o n e ' s e n v i r o n m e n t .
the p e r c e i v e r u s u a l l y a p p r o a c h e s or turns to the o b j e c t a c t i v e l y and in d o i n g so
e i t h e r o p e ns h i m s e l f to w a r d it r e c e p t i v el y, o r f i g u r a t i v e l y o r l i t e r a l l y takes h o l d of
it, tries to grasp it ( S chachtel, 1959; p. 83).
Fr o m this, then, it is o b v i o u s that a l l o c e n t r i c p e r c e p t i o n
is n e c e s s a r y for the true e n c o u n t e r wi t h o b j e c t s w h i c h is
vital to the c r e a t i v e p r oc e s s . This e n c o u n t e r with o bj e c t s
in a l l o c e n t r i c p e r c e p t i o n a p p e a r s to be P i a g e t ' s c o n c e p t of
a c c o m m o d a t i o n . H o we ve r , the c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s h a s b ee n c o n
c e i v e d of by some (Taylor, 1959) as i n v o l v i n g play, w h ich
s u g g e s t s P i a g e t ' s c o n c e p t of a s s i m i l a t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , a
t h e o r e t i c a l d e l i n e a t i o n of c r e a t i v i t y is w a r r a n t e d at this
point.
Crea t ivi ty
E x a m i n a t i o n of the t h e o r e t i c a l issues on c r e a t i v
ity r e v e a l s two f u n d a m e n t a l issues of p r i m a r y c on ce rn . The
first r e l a t e s to the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d d i s c u s s i o n of play, that
is, does the c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s i n v o l v e a t e m p o r a r y s u s p e n s i o n
of logic in o r d e r to p e r m i t f r e e r p l a y of f a n t a sy a n d i m a g
i na t i o n or is it a d i r ec t re s u l t of l o g ical r ea so n i n g . The
s ec o n d issue is w h e t h e r c r e a t i v i t y is the e x c l u s i v e p r o p e r t y
of the s e l e c t few o r r a t h e r is it c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of m a n in
g e n e r a l •
In r e g a r d to the f irst p ro bl em , the o p p o s i n g
and p e r h a p s also d e m o n s t r a t e s the t h e o r e t i c a l bias of the
f ields they r e p resent. For H a r ris, a b u s i n e s s e x e c u t i v e
c o n c e r n e d with c r e a t i v i t y in m a r k e t i n g , the c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s
is s y s t e m a t i c and g o a l - d i r e c t e d with the only d i s t i n c t i o n
b e t w e e n the genius and " e v e r y m a n " b e i n g the speed with
w h ich the p r o c e s s is c o m p l e t e d . For Taylor, a p s y c h o l o g i s t ,
"the rules of t r a d it i o n a l logic are e s s e n t i a l l y a p s y c h o l o g
ical strai g h t - j a c k e t for c r e a t i v e t h o u g h t (Taylor, 1959;
p. 53)". To him, the vital a s p e c t of c r e a t i v e i n s i g h t is
u n c o n s c i o u s play.
W allas (1926) first d e s c r i b e d the four basic
s t a g es of the c r e a t i v e pro c e s s . These are e s s e n t i a l l y the
same as T a y l o r ' s and it is the latter* s d e v e l o p m e n t which
will be p r e s e n t e d here. This d e l i n e a t i o n of c r e a t i v i t y is
a d o p t e d on the a s s u m p t i o n that c r e a t i v i t y is a f u n c t i o n of
ind i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s in p a t t e r n s of t h i n k i n g and since
i n d i v i d u a l s d i ff e r in these c o g n i t i v e p a t t e r n s , they will
al s o d i f f e r in their a b i l i t y to be c r e a ti ve . T a y l o r ' s four
st a g e s are e xp o s u r e , i n c u b a t i o n , i l l u m i n a t i o n and e x e c u t i o n .
D u r i n g the e x p o s u r e phase, the i n d ividual a c c u m u
l a te s an a b u n d a n c e of i n f o r m a t i o n from his e n v i r on me nt .
The d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the c r e a t i v e and the n o n - c r e a t i v e
i nd iv i d u a l d u r i n g this stage is that the c r e a t i v e p e r s o n is
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a " m a r k e d s e n s i t i v i t y to and v o r a c i o u s
c o n s u m p t i o n of the e n v i r o n m e n t w h ich is m o s t a p p a r e n t in
e ar l y y ea r s (Taylor, 1959; p. 62)". On the o t h e r hand, the
b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t w h en i n d i v i d u a l s are loo k e d at in r e l at io n
to the c o n t i n u u m of t o l e r a n c e - i n t o l e r a n e e for a m b i g u i t y .
The c r e a t i v e i n d ividual is able to t o l e r at e a m b i g u o u s p e r
c e p t i o n s of the w o r l d a r o u n d him; the n o n - c r e a t i v e i n
d i v i du al , h o we ve r, only d e a ls wi t h those p e r c e p t i o n s which
are easy to u n d e r s t a n d o r w h ich do not c ause c o n f l ic t. The
m a j o r p oi n t to be m a d e for this stage is that if an i n d i v i d
ual is free not to i n c o r p o r a t e all e x p e r i e n c e into p r e
d e t e r m i n e d s t r u ct u re s, then there e x i s t s the p o s s i b i l i t y
of a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the facts of e x p e r i e n c e w hich is
the e s s e n c e of c r e a t i v i t y .
D u r i n g the i n cu b a t i o n phase, e x p e r i e n c e s are
fluid eno u g h that they do not b e c o m e s t e r e o t y pe d, even
though the c r e a t i v e p e r s o n is a w a r e of these s t e r e o t y p e s .
C o n s e q u e n t l y if e x p e r i e n c e s are i m m e d i a t e l y s t e r e o t y p e d
l i t t le i n cu b a t i o n occurs.
The third or i l l u m i n a t i o n p h a s e is o ften r e f e r r ed
to as the m o m e n t of insight, that is, wh e n a n e w o r g a n i z a
tion is a c h i e v ed , b e y on d the o r i g i n a l facts o r p r e v i o u s
s t e r e o t y p e s . F o r the n o n - c r e a t i v e ind i v i d u a l there is no
i n s i g h t into a n y t h i n g n e w since he is not able to esc a p e
p r e v i o u s c a t e g o r i e s and n e w e x p e r i e n c e s h a v e e s s e n t i a l l y no
impac t .
The final stage, e x e c u t i o n , inv o l v e s the c o m m u n
i c a t i o n of these s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s into o b j e c t i v e
c o m m u n i c a t e d will l ar g e l y d e t e r m i n e a n d o f t en m o d i f y the
o r ig i n a l insight. It is d u r i n g this stage that m an y c r e a t i v e
i n si g h t s m ay be lost due to an i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n a bi li ty or
e ve n u n w i l l i n g n e s s to c o m m u n i c a t e his e x p e r i e n c e s in an
o b j e c t i v e form w h ic h is m e a n i n g f u l to others. It is the
p r o d u c t then w h i c h p e r m i t s some o b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n of the
d e g re e of c r e a t i v i t y involved. In this c o n te xt , J a c k s o n
and M e s s i c k (1965) d i s c u s s four c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a c r e a t i v e
p r od u c t . They are u n u s u a l n e s s , a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s , t r a n s
f o r m a t i o n and c o n d e n s a t i o n .
U n u s u a l n e s s refers to the i n f r e q u e n c y of a r es po ns e
r e l a t i v e to n o r ms and t h e reby p r o v i d e s a s ta nd a r d for m a k i n g
an e v a l u a t i o n of u n u s u a l n e s s . H o w ev e r , u n u s u a l n e s s is not
s u f f i c i e n t as an e v a l u a t i o n of the c r e a t i v e n e s s of a p roduct.
It m u s t also be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from a p r o d u c t w h ich is simply
b i z a r r e - h e n c e the se c o n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s .
"It m u s t m a k e s e nse in the l ight of the d e m a nd s of the
s i t u a t i o n and the d es i r e s of the p r o d u c e r ( Jackson and
M e s s i c k , 1965, p. 3 1 3 ) . M A l t h o u g h a a p r o d u c t m a y p o s s e s s
the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of u n u s u a l n e s s a n d a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s , it
m a y h o w e v e r v a ry c o n s i d e r a b l y in the level of its q u a l i t y
as a c r e a t i v e pr o d u c t . H o w e v e r , a c r e a t i v e p r o d u c t m u s t
i nv o l v e the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of m a t e r i a l to o v e r c o m e the
c o n s t r a i n t s of c o n v e n t i o n a l s t r uc tu r e s . The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
p o w e r of the c r e a t i v e p r o d u c t is thus ju d g e d in the c o n t e x t
of the c o n s t r a i n t s which it has to o v e r c o me . C r e a t i v i t y
forms; it m e a n s the p r o d u c t i o n of n e w forms. In J a c k s o n
and M e s s i c k ' s view, the fourth c r i t e r i o n of a c r e a t i v e
p r o d u c t is that of c o n d e n s a t i o n . In t h eir words:
The c o n d e n s a t i o n a c h i e v e d by a c r e a t i v e
p r o d u c t s u m m a r i z e s e s s e n c e s , and the s u mm ar y m ay be e x p a n d e d a n d i n t e r p r e t e d in a m u l t i p l i c i t y of ways - i n t e l l e c t u a l l y and a f f e c t
ively, in terms of image or idea. It may be i n t e r p r e t e d d i f f e r e n t l y by d i f f e r e n t v i e w e r s or by the same v i e w e r on d i f f e r e n c e o c c a s i o n s .
This m u l t i p l i c i t y of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d the e x t e n s i v e n e s s of the e x p a n s i o n s g e n e r a t e d by the c o n d e n s a t i o n are an i n d i c a t i o n of its s u m mary power, and an a p p r a i s a l of s u m m a ry p o w e r p r o v i d e s an i m p o r t a n t jud g m e n t a l
s t a n d a r d for the e v a l u a t i o n of c r e a t i v e
c o n d e n s a t i o n ( J ackson & M es si c k , 1965; p. 320).
There a r e thus two ways, at least, of l o o k i n g at
c r e a t i v i t y - from the p o i n t of v i e w of p r o c e s s or in terms
of p r o d u c t s . O bv i o u s l y , c r e a t i v i t y as a p r o c e s s can not be
o b s e r v e d d i r e c t l y but only inferred. H owever, light can be
shed on the p r o c e s s if it can be d e m o n s t r a t e d that c r e a t i v e
Ss d i f f e r c o n s i s t e n t l y from n o n - c r e a t i v e Sjs in terms of
c o g n i t i v e c o n t r o l s . The i m p l i c a t i o n or h y p o t h e t i c a l
a s s u m p t i o n b e i n g a d o p t e d h e r e is thus that i n d i v i d u a l s
d i f f e r i n g in terms of c r e a t i v i t y will also d e m o n s t r a t e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g and c o n s i s t e n t d i f f e r e n c e s in c o g n i t i v e c o n
trols. On the o t h e r side, the p o s s i b i l i t y of a s s e s s i n g
c r e a t i v i t y in t e rms of p r o d u c t s can be p r o v i d e d through
tests d e s i g n e d s p e c i f i c a l l y to p r o v i d e an o p p o r t u n i t y for
c r e a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n which can then be eva l u a t e d .
The a b o v e c o n c e p t i o n of the c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s can
11
C r e a t i v i t y c o u l d be v i ew ed as i n v o l v i n g a p r e p o n d e r a n c e (at
least in the initial stages) of a s s i m i l a t i o n , in a f as h i o n
a n a l o g o u s to P i a g e t ' s d e l i n e a t i o n of play. P e r h a p s this
c o n c e p t i o n of c r e a t i v e p l a y can be m a d e m or e e x p l i c i t if it
is c o n s i d e r e d in the l i ght of the f o l l o w i n g : Kris' no t i o n
of " r e g r e s s i o n in the s e r v i c e of the ego" (Kris, 1952); and
b) G u i l f o r d ' s c o n c e p t of " d i v e r g e n t t h i n k i n g " (Guilford,
1956).
For Kris, the a b i l i t y to relax ego f u n c t io n
( r e g r es s i on ) is central to c r e a t i v i t y . What this m e a n s is
that w h e n an u n c o n s c i o u s idea rises to c o n s c i o u s n e s s , the
ego s u s p e n d s its c e n s o r i n g f u n ct io n m e m e n t a r i l y , this in
v o l v e s a " d i s r e g a r d of ext e r n a l s t r i n g e n c i e s (Kris, 1952 ;
p. 253)". The reg a r d for e x t er n a l s t r i n g e n c i e s (normal ego
f u n c t i o n ) is s i m i l a r to a c c o m m o d a t i o n in P i a g e t ' s sy s t e m
and also S c h a c h t e l ' s s e c o n d a r y a u t o c e n t r i c i t y .
What d i v e r g e n t t h i n k i n g i n v o l v e s for G ui l f o r d is
the f r e e d o m to c h a n g e d i r e c t i o n of thinking.
In c o n v e r g e n t t h i n k i n g there is u s u a l l y one c o n c l u s i o n or a n s w e r that is r e g a r d e d as unique, and t h i n k i n g is c h a n n e l e d or c o n t r o l l e d in the l i ght of that a n s wer.
In d i v e r g e n t t h i n k i n g , on the o t h e r hand, there is much s e a r c h i n g , or g oing off in v a r i o u s d i r e c t i o n s (Guilford, 1956; p. 289).
What these two p e r s p e c t i v e s e l a b o r a t e is basic d i s t i n c t i o n s
b e t w e e n the n o n - c r e a t i v e and the c r e a t i v e indiv i d u a l . In
the p r e s e n t c o n c e p t i o n , then, they d e l i n e a t e an i n d ividual
who is ab l e to p l a y with his e n v i r o n m e n t - who is not tied
s t a te d earlier, w h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s the true c r e a t i v e p r o d u c t
from p h a n t a s y is that it mu s t be a p p r o p r i a t e , in o t h e r words,
it m u s t i n v o l v e some a c c o m m o d a t i o n to the d e m a n d s of " r e a l
ity", w hi c h i n v o l v e s ego c o ntrol. In Kris' view, the ego
r e g r e s s i o n is on l y tem p o r a r y ; "one c o n t r o l l e d by the ego
w hi ch r e t a i n s the f u n c t i o n of e s t a b l i s h i n g c o n t a c t with the
a u d i e n c e (Kris, 1952 ; p. 167)". This q u o t a t i o n s ug ge s t s
that c r e a t i v i t y can be m o r e f r u i t f u l l y c o n c e i v e d of as a
p r o c e s s i n v o l v i n g both a s s i m i l a t i o n and a c c o m m o d a t i o n .
C r e a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s w o u l d at times be a b l e to ignore c o n
v en ti on a l lines of t h o u g h t a n d p r e v i o u s s t r u c t u r e s and then
at o t h e r times be a c u t e l y a w a re of e x t e r n al objects. Thus
the c r e a t i v e p e r s o n is c o n e i v e d of as an individual who in
his c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g is a bl e to m o v e freely b et w e e n
a s s i m i l a t i o n and a c c o m m o d a t i o n in the c o u r s e of h i s a d a p t a
tion with h i s e nv i r o n m e n t . F i n a l l y P i a g e t states that the
c o m p l e m e n t of a d a p t a t i o n is o r g a n i z a t i o n ; c r e a t i v i t y is
d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the o r d i n a r y i n t e l l e c t u al p r o c e s s in
that it inv o l v e s a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the facts of e x p e r i e n c e
into n e w schemata.
A t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e of i n t e l l i g e n c e and
c r e a t i v i t y has been p r e s e n t e d , but t he i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p
n e e d s to be ma d e expli c i t . The p e r s p e c t i v e a d o p t e d here
i mp l i e s that c o n v e n t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e and c r e a t i v i t y are
d i s t i n c t m o d e s of thought. How e v e r , a n o t h e r fe a s i b l e
p o s i t i o n is that c r e a t i v i t y is b a s e d u p o n a general i n t e l l i
13
The p o s i t i o n w hich a p p e a r s to be b e c o m i n g i n
c r e a s i n g l y p o p u l a r in some c i r c l e s is that c r e a t i v i t y is
a s e p a r a t e a s p e c t o£ i n te l l ec tu al f u n c t i o n i n g from " i n t e l l i -
g e n c e N , d e f i n e d as a score on a c o n v e n t i o n a l IQ test. It
h as been c o n t e n d e d that the c r e a t i v e a s p e c t of i n t e l l e c tu al
f u n c t i o n i n g is not tapped by c o n v e n t i o n a l tests (Guilford,
1950; G e t z e ls & J ac ks o n , 1962; and Torra n c e , 1963). Sigel
(1963) d e s c r i b e s c o n v e n t i o n a l e v a l u a t i o n s of i n t e l l i g e n c e
as a s s e s s i n g only "the a b i l i t y to see things as o r g a n i z e d
in c o n v e n t i o n a l c l a s s e s or u n i ts". A ls o there is the a f o r e
m e n t i o n e d d i s t i n c t i o n of G u i l f o r d (1959) b et w e e n c o n v e r g e n t
a n d d i v e r g e n t thinking. H o w e v e r , several w r i t e r s ha v e
q u e s t i o n e d w h e t h e r c r e a t i v i t y is a d i s t i n c t d i m e n s i o n . In
s u p p o r t of this p o s i t i o n is the fact that several studies
h a v e r e p o r t e d s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n c r e a t i v i t y
and c o n v e n t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e . R i c h ards, Cline a nd N e e d ha m
(1954) o b t a i n e d c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n m e a s u r e s of i n t e l l i
gence a n d c r e a t i v i t y w h ich ra n g e d b e t w ee n .20 and .41,
w h i l e in the M e e r a n d Stein study (1955), the range was
b e t w e e n .06 and .54. S i m i l a rl y, T ho r n d i k e (1963) and M a r s h
(1964) both f a c t o r e d the c o r r e l a t i o n table r e p o r t e d by
G e t z e l s and J a c k s o n (1962, p. 20), but fa i l e d to o b t a i n a
h i g h l y l o a d e d f a c t o r for c r e a t i v i t y w h i c h was not s u b s t a n
tially l o a d e d by c o n v e n t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e tests.
Part of this d i s a g r e e m e n t is u n d o u b t e d l y a c c o u n t
p a r t i c u l a r l y since wh a t is i n v ol ve d is v al u e j u d g m e n t s on
w hi c h r e s p o n s e s fit some c r i t e r i a (Maltzman, 1960; M ed ni ck ,
1962; Taylor, 1964; J a c k s o n & M e s s i c k , 1965). In a d d i t i o n ,
W od t k e (1964) has shown that c r e a t i v i t y tests ha v e low
r e l i a b i l i t i e s . In an a t t e m p t to c l a r i f y this issue, C r o p l e y
(1965) c a r r i e d out a f a c t o r a n a l y t i c study e m p l o y i n g six
c o n v e r g e n t tests and s even d i v e r g e n t tests. The r es u l t s he
o b t a i n e d were two large f a c t or s d e f i n e d by the c o n v e r g e n t
tests and the d i v e r g e n t tests, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The f a c t o r
m a t r i x was o r t h o g o n a l l y r o t a t ed and 81 p e r c e n t of the v a r i
a n c e of the first f a c t o r was d e f i n e d by two IQ m e a s u r e s and
a c a d e m i c ave r a g e . H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h 85 p e r c e n t of the v a r i
a n c e of the s e c on d f a c t o r was a c c o u n t e d for by five c r e a
tivity m e a s u r e s , 12.3 p e r c e n t of its v a r i a n c e was d e f i n e d
by the p r e v i o u s three scores. A l t h o u g h o b l i q u e r o t a t i o n s
re du c ed the l o a d i n g s of the tests i n v o l v i n g c o n v e r g e n t p r o
c es s e s , they still d e m o n s t r a t e d that the s e c o n d f a c t o r was
p a r t i a l l y d e p e n d e n t on c o n v e r g e n t p r o c e s s e s . C r o p l e y in-
t e r p r e t e s the f i n d i n g s as s u p p o r t i n g the n o t i o n that " c o n
v en t i o n a l skills m a y p r o v i d e the b a s i s up o n w h ich c r e a t i v e
p r o d u c t i o n s rest (Cropley, 1966; p. 264)".
Wallach a n d K o gan (1965) a d o p t a v i e w w h ic h is a
c o g e n t a r g u m e n t in f a v ou r of the p o s i t i o n that there is a
d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the i n t e l l i g e n t and c r e a t i v e m o d e s of
c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g . They c r i t i c i z e d p r e v i o u s stud i e s
G u i l f o r d group on the grounds that i m p o s i n g e x p l i c i t or
i m p l i c i t time l i m i t s and a t e s t - l i k e a t m o s p h e r e m e d i a t e s
a g a i n s t c r e a t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g , and the c o r r e l a t i o n s r e p o r t
ed si m p l y in d i c a t e that the c r e a t i v i t y m e a s u r e s e m p l o y e d
to date are not a p p r o p r i a t e , for the reason just indicated.
This p o s i t i o n also finds i n direct s u pp or t fr o m the r ep or t e d
r e l i a b i l i t i e s of W a l l a c h and K o g a n (1965). Two of their
c r e a t i v i t y m e a s u r e s y i e l d e d c o r r e l a t i o n s of .51 and .75,
h o w e v e r all o t h e r c o r r e l a t i o n s were b e t w e e n .87 and .93.
W o d t k e (1964) i n v e s t i g a t e d the r e l i a b i l i t i e s of the T o r r a n c e
test b a t t e r ie s, by t e s t - r e t e s t wi t h a two m o n t h interval.
F o r the n o n - v e r b a l c r e a t i v i t y tests, the total score c o r
r e l a t i o n s ( a m o n g c h i l d r e n in grade five) r a n g e d b e t w e e n .05
and .59, with a total n o n - v e r b a l c o r r e l a t i o n of .64. For
the verbal c r e a t i v i t y tests, the total score c o r r e l a t i o n s
r a n g e d b e t w e e n .43 and .66. The total verbal score c o r r e l a
tion was .73 and the total c r e a t i v i t y score c o r r e l a t i o n was
.75. He also i n v e s t i g a t e d the r e l i a b i l i t i e s for grades two,
three a n d four; the r e l i a b i l i t i e s for these grades were
g e n e r a l l y l o w e r than just o u t l i n e d for grade five. The
a u t h o r p o i n t s out that the low r e l i a b i l i t i e s were not a
f u n c t i o n of low i n t e r s c o r e r a g r e e m e n t w h e r e the c o r r e l a t i o n s
r a n g e d f r o m .95 to .99 for total b a t t e r y scores. W o d t k e
a l s o c o r r e l a t e d the c r e a t i v i t y sc o r e s with the L o r g e -
T h o r n d i k e Group I n t e l l i g e n c e test. F o r the total c r e a t i v i t y
b e t w e e n .36 and .46. This data w o u l d a p p e a r to lend s u p p o r t
to the p o s i t i o n of W a l l ac h and K ogan (1965), h ow ev er , the
c o n t r o v e r s y is still far from s e t t l e d and a w a i t s m o r e
e x t e n s i v e i n v e s t i g at i on .
P i a g e t ' s c o n c e p t of a d a p t a t i o n h a s been taken to
be the t h eo re t i c a l c o n s t r u c t e n c o m p a s s i n g all c o g n i t i v e
a c t i v i t y of which m e a s u r e s of i n t e l l i g e n c e and c r e a t i v i t y
d e l i n e a t e two m a j o r d i m e ns io ns . This m od e l also e n c o m p a s s e s
c o g n i t i v e c o n t r o l s since they are the r e g u l a t i v e f un c t i o n s
o r g a n i z i n g an i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n t e r c o u r s e with the e n v i r o n
ment.
O r g a n i z a t i o n
A d a p t a t i o n , in r e l a t i o n to c o g n i t i v e a c t i v i ty ,
e x p r e s s e s the m a n n e r in w h ich an i n d ividual c o p es with his
e n v i r o n m e n t . H o w e v e r "ev e r y a c t of i n t e l l i g e n c e p r e s u m e s
some kind of i n t e l l ec t u al s t r u c t u re , some sort of o r g a n i z a
tion, w i t h i n w h ic h it p r e c e d e s (Flavell, 1963; p. 46)*'. As
s t a t e d i n i t i a l l y , the a s s u m p t i o n a d o p t e d is that there is a
w i d e range of b e h a v i o r w h i c h can be e n c o m p a s s e d by a few
d i m e n s i o n s of o r g a n i z a t i o n , n a m e l y , c o g n i t i v e contr o l s .
C o g n i t i v e c o n t r o l s are
... c o n c e i v e d of as s l o w - c h a n g i n g d e v e l o p - m e n t a l l y s t a b i l i z e d s t r u c tu re s: a) they are
17
I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of these c o n t r o l s ha v e been c a r r i e d out by
Klein, Gardner, H o l z m a n and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e s , c e n t e r e d at
the M e n n i n g e r clinic. The c o n t r o l s w h i c h they h av e d e l i n e
a t e d (some of w h ich are given b i - p o l a r names) are the
f o ll o w i n g : c o n s t r i c t e d - f l e x i b l e (Smith & Klein, 1953);
s c a n n i n g o r f o c u s i n g (Schl esin g e r , 1954); e q u i v a l e n c e range
(Gardner, 1953); t o l e r a n c e for u n r e a l i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e s
(K l e i n & S ch l e s i n g e r , 1951); a n d 1 e v e l i n g - s h a r p e n i n g (Klein
& H ol z m a n , 1950). A n o t h e r c o g n i t i v e c o n trol w h ich will be
d ealt with in this study is that of f i eld d e p e n d e n c e -
i n d e p e n d e n c e (Witkin, Lewis, H e r t z m an , M ac h o v e r , M e i s sn er ,
an d Wapner, 1954).
In the v i e w of G a r d n e r and his a s s o c i a t e s , these
c o n t r o l s b e c o m e r e l a t i v e l y a u t o n o m o u s d u r i n g d e v e l o p m e n t
a n d are s h ap ed by both c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and e x p e r i e n t a l f a c
tors.
... they r e p r e s e n t c e r t a i n b r o a d a r e as of ego organi z a t i o n tha t seem to be i m p o r t a n t to the i n d i v i d u a l ' s e f f o r t s to a c h i e v e his own p a r t ic u l a r s t y l e of a d a p t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n to his w o r l d (Gardner, 1962; p. 185).
S tu d i e s c a r r i e d o u t c h i e f l y by the M e n n i n g e r group have
d e m o n s t r a t e d that, in r el at io n to each c o n trol and the
s pe ci fi c tests p u r p o r t e d to m e a s u r e these c o n t r o l s , i n d i v i d
u a l s d i f f e r c o n s i s t e n t l y in these a s p e c t s of c o g n i t i v e c o n
trol. Each of these c o n t r o l s will be d e f i n e d in turn.
F i eld d e p e n d e n c e - i n d e p e n d e n c e e n c o m p a s s e s an in
d i v i d u a l ' s a b i l i t y to o v e r c o m e the i n f l u e nc e of the s u r
W i t ki n et_ a l . (1962 ) state that p e o p l e g e n e r a l l y ra n g e d on
a c o n t i n u u m from f i e l d d e p e n d e n t to f ield i n d e p e n d e n t . Those
Ss toward the f i eld d e p e n d e n t end of the c o n t i n u u m are
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a) general p a s s i v i t y in d e a l i n g with the
e n v i r o n m e n t , b) lack of s e l f - a w a r e n e s s , and low s e l f - es te em ;
w h e r e a s f i e l d i n d e p e n d e n t are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a) a c t i v i t y
in d e a l i n g with the e n v i r o n m e n t , b) a w a r e n e s s of " i n n e r life"
a n d c) high s e l f - e s t e e m .
C o n s t r i c t e d - F l e x i b l e Control d e l i n e a t e s m o d e s of
r e a c t i n g to c o n t r a d i c t o r y and i n t r u s i v e cues. When d e a l i n g
with d i s t r a c t i n g stimuli, c o n s t r i c t e d S_s r e s p o n d to the
m o s t d o m i n a n t cu e s in the field and ig n o r e the others.
F l e x i b l e S s , on the o t h e r hand, are m o s t c o m f o r t a b l e in
s i t u a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g c o n t r a d i c t o r y c u e s and are a b l e to
ignore the m os t d om i n a n t s t i m u l u s if it is i n a pp ro pr ia te .
F o c u s i n g - S c a n n i n g r e f er s to the e x t e nt of a t t e n t
ion d e pl oy m en t. The i n di v i d u a l at the f o c u s i n g end of the
c o n t i n u u m c o n s t a n t l y scans the s t i m u l u s field and is thus
a wa r e of r e l a t i v e l y m an y a s p e c t s of the field, w h i l e the
s c a n n e r is m o re r e s t r i c t e d in h i s a t t e n t i o n d e p lo ym e n t .
E q u i v a l e n c e R ange is c o n c e r n e d with individual
d i f f e r e n c e s in c a t e g o r i z i n g stimuli. N a r r o w e q u i v a l e n c e
range d e l i n e a t e s the r e la t i v e t e n de n c y to use m a n y c a t e g o r
ies w h i l e in b road e q u i v a l e n c e range, there is the ten d e n c y
to use few a l l - i n c l u s i v e c a t e g o r i e s or groupings.
19
an i n d i v i d u a l ' s w i l l i n g n e s s to a c c e p t p e r c e p t i o n at v a r i a n c e
w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l e x pe ri e n c e .
Level in g - S h a r p e n i n g is c o n c e r n e d with m o d e s of
o r g a n i z i n g a s e q u en c e of stim u l i c h a r a c t e r i z e d by e i t h e r
a low level of a r t i c u l a t i o n of n e w stimuli ( l e veling) or
a h i g h level of a r t i c u l a t i o n (sharp e n i n g ) .
C o n c e r n i n g the genesis of these c o n t r o ls , the
v i e w taken is that they are s ha p e d by both c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
a n d e x p e r i e n t i a l factors. To date no i n v e s t i g a t o r s have
d e m o n s t r a t e d that these c o n t r o l s h a v e a n t e c e d a n t s in p a r
t i cu l a r life e x p e r i e n c e s a n d / o r s p e ci f i c genetic fact o r s
as such. How e v e r , there are i n d i c a t i o n s as to the d e v e l o p
m e n t a l s e q u e n c e, a n d some s t u d i e s e m p l o y i n g b r a i n - d a m a g e d
Ss ha v e s u g g e s t e d, in part, the role of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
f ac tors.
In re g a r d to d e v e l o p m e n t , W i t k i n e_t al_. (1962)
h a v e i nd i c a t e d that the normal c o u r s e of d e v e l o p m e n t is
from field d e p e n d e n t to m o r e f i e l d i n d e p endent. The d e v e l o p
m e n t of this control and c o n s t r i c t e d - f l e x i b l e ha v e been
e x p l a i n e d in terms of W e r n e r ' s o r g a n i s m i c - d e v e l o p m e n t a l
theory, with its e m p h a s i s on the i nc re as e of p e rc ep tu al
a nd c o g n i t i v e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n with i n c r e a s i n g m a t u r i t y
( W i tkin e_t a_l_., 1962 ; Comraalli, Wapner, and Werner, 1962).
S i m i l a r l y , S a n t o t e f a n o and P a ley (1964) s u g g e s t e d that the
s c a n n i n g end of the f o c u s i n g - s c a n n i n g c o n t i n u u m and c o n
c h a r a c t e r i z e d the c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g of the y o u n g e s t
c h i ld re n . In regard to t o l e r a n c e for u n r e a l i s t i c e x p e r
ien c e s ( t ol er an ce for a m b i g u i t y ) F r e n k e 1- B r u n s w i c k * s (1949)
d e l i n e a t i o n a p p e a r s to a t t r i b u t e its d e v e l o p m e n t s o l e l y to
e x p e r i e n t i a l factors.
Three of the c o n t r o l s (field d e p e n d e n c e - i n d e p e n d -
ence, f o c u s i n g - s c a n n i n g , and 1e v e l i n g - s h a r p e n i n g ) h a v e at
l e a s t some m a j o r c o m p o n e n t of a t t e n t i o n , the m a j o r d i m e n s
ions of w h i ch m i g h t be d e l i n e a t e d as a) m o m e n t a r y a t t e n t i o n
span, b) s e l e c t i v e a t t e n t i o n , c) s u s t a i n e d a t t e n t i o n , and
d) e x t e n s i v e n e s s of a t t e n t i o n d e p l o y m e n t (Gardner, 1966).
In regard to m o m e n t a r y a t t e n t i o n span, it is gener a l l y
m o r e l i m i t e d in c h i l d r e n than in a d u l t s and is s e v e r e l y
l i m i t e d in the b r a i n - d a m a g e d i n d i v i d u a l . I m p a i r m e n t of
s e l e c t i v e a t t e n t i o n is one of the m o s t s er i o u s h a n d i c a p s
fo r the b r a i n - d a m a g e d s ince an ind i v i d u a l is u n a b le to
d i s t i n g u i s h the e s s en ti al from the n o n - e s s e n t i a l . These
i n d i v i d u a l s w o u l d be e x p e c t e d to be f i eld d e pe nd en t.
G a r d n e r (1964) s ug g e s t s that the E mb ed de d F i g u r e s Test(a
m e a s u r e of f i el d d e p e n d e n c e - i n d e p e n d e n c e ) can be used as
a c r i t e r i o n m e a s u r e for s e l e c t i v e n e s s of a t t e n t i o n . In
r eg a r d to s u s t a i n e d a t t e n t i o n , a d ef e c t in this a s p e c t is
r a t h e r w i d e s p r e a d a m o n g the b r a i n - d a m a g e d . The r e l a t i o n
ship e x t e n s i v e n e s s of a t t e n t i o n d e p l o y m e n t to c o g n i t i v e
c o n t r o l s is mo r e d i r e c t l y evident. G a r d n e r (1964) p o i n t s
o ut the great i n d ividual v a r i a t i o n s in e x t e n s i v e n e s s of
21
d e c i s i o n s a b o u t stimuli. G a r d n e r (1966) s u g g e s t s that the
d e g r e e of f o c u s i n g - s c a n n i n g in c h i l d r e n may be e f f e c t e d
by the i m p u l s i v i t y of c h i l d r e n in general and the still
g r e a t e r i m p u l s i v i t y so o f t e n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the b r a i n
d a m a g e d child. The c o g n i t i v e c o n t r o l s ha v e been c h a r a c t e r
ized as m o d e s of i n t e r c o u r s e with o n e ' s e n v i r o n m e n t , but
it is c l e a r from the a b o v e that a t t e n t i o n p l a y s an i m p o r t
ant role in this i n t e r c o u r s e and s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g of a t t e n t
ion can only reduce the c l a r i t y of e x p e r i e n c e .
The r e l e v a n t r e s e a r c h on each of the c o g n i t i v e
c o n t r o l s will be c o n s i d e r e d in turn.
F i e l d D e p e n d e n c e - l n d e p e n d e n c e
W i t k i n (1950) r e p o r t e d a study on " I n d i v id ua l
D i f f e r e n c e s in Ease of P e r c e p t i o n s of E m b e d d e d F i g u r e s " ,
in w h i c h he d e m o n s t r a t e d that i n d i v i d u a l s d i f f e r r e l i a b l y
in t h eir a b i l i t y to e x t r a c t an item from the field in w h ich
it a p p e a r s . The c r i t e r i o n m e a s u r e i n v o l v e d was the E m b e d d e d
F i g u r e s Test (EFT), a set of d r a w i n g s which W i t k i n a d a p t e d
from the G o t t s c h a l d t figures. W it k i n ejt al_. (1954) r e p o r t
ed i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s in m o d e of o r i e n t a t i o n in that
t i 1 t i n g - r o o m - t i 1 t i n g - c h a i r (TRTC) and the r o d - a n d - f r a m e
(RFT) test. These v a r i o u s tests, but e s p e c i a l l y the EFT,
h a v e come to d e f i n e a d i m e n s i o n of c o g n i t i v e control which
W i t k i n a n d his a s s o c i a t e s first ter m e d field d e p e n d e n c e -
i n d e p e n d e n c e . In general, it seems to a pp l y to s i t u a t i o n s
s h o w e d a ready c a p a c i t y to d i f f e r e n t i a t e o b j e c t s from t h eir
b a c k g r o u n d s . On the o t h e r end of the c o n t i n u u m , field
d e p e n d e n t Ss w er e those who d e m o n s t r a t e d a r e a l a t i v e l y
p a s s i v e s u b m i s s i o n to the d o m i n a t i o n of the b a c k g r o u n d , and
w e r e u n a b l e to keep an item s e p a r a t e from its co n t e x t .
W i tk i n (1960) r e p o r t e d the f i n d i n g that " c h i l d r e n tend to
be f ie l d d e p e n d e n t e a r l y in t h e i r p e r c e p t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t and
to b e c om e m o r e f i e ld i n d e p e n d e n t as they grow up . " In r e
gard to s p ec i f i c i n d i v i d u a l s , the f i n d i n g s were that a
c h i l d who was r e l a t i v e l y f ield i n d e p e n d e n t at one age
w o u l d s h o w the same te n d e n c y at l a t e r ages. I n d i v i d u a l s
w e re also c o n s i s t e n t a c r o s s tests, i.e., a c h i ld who was
f ie l d d e p e n d e n t on the EFT was apt also to be f i eld d e p e n d
ent on the RFT and TRTC. G o o d e n o ug h and Karp (1961), in
t h e i r f a c t orial study, o b t a i n e d a f a c t o r w hich w a s loaded
by c o r r e l a t i o n s from three s u b t e s t s on the WISC (block
design, p i c t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t , and o b j e c t a s s e m b l y ) a n d the
EFT. This was i n t e r p r e t e d by the a u t h o r s as t e n d i n g to
su pp or t the W i t k i n h y p o t h e s i s that r e l a t i o n ships o b t a i n e d in m a n y s t u d i es b e t w e e n tests of field d e p e n d e n c e and s t a n d a r d tests of
i n t e l l i g e n c e stem, at least in part, from c om m o n r e q u i r e m e n t s s h a r e d by m e a s u r e s of field d e p e n d e n c e and of c e r t a i n kinds of i nt el le ct ua l a b i l i t i e s ( G o o d e n o u g h & Karp,
1 9 6 1 ; p. 2 4 5 ) .
W i tk i n and his a s s o c i a t e s h a v e b r o a d e n e d the
c o n c e p t of field d e p e n d e n c e - i n d e p e n d e n c e . This c on c e p t
The a u t h o r s , h o we ve r, felt that s t y l e s of f u n c t i o n i n g ta p p e d
by these tests e x te nd to i n t e l l e c t u a l f u n c t i o n i n g as well;
they gat h e r e d c o n v i n c i n g e v i d e n c e to s u p p o r t the general
a p p l i c a b i l i t y of this c o n c e p t (Witkin et, al_. , 1962). The
terras that W i t k in et_ al_. (1962) ha v e a d o p t e d to d i c h o t o m i z e
c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g are those of global v e r s u s a n a l y t i c .
Thus, a c c o r d i n g to F a t e r s o n (1962), " fo r the r e l a t i v e l y field
d e p e n d e n t S s , o b j e c t and f i e l d tend to 'fuse', so that the
s e p a r a t i o n c a l le d for by the task c a n n o t e a s il y be made".
The f ie l d d e p e n d e n t S s 1 c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g is thus said
to be global. On the o t h e r hand, the field i n d e p e n d e n t :S
c an keep o b j e c t a n d field s e p a r a t e a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y his
f u n c t i o n i n g is sa i d to be a n a l y t i c .
Klein, G a r d n e r and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e s ha v e also
i n v e s t i g a t e d f ield d e p e n d e n c e - i n d e p e n d e n c e , e m p l o y i n g W it k i n ' s
c r i t e r i o n tests - EFT a n d RFT. They have, h ow e v e r , felt that
there a r e c e r t a i n s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n field d e p e n d e n c e and
c o n s t r i c t e d - f l e x i b l e con t r o l . On the basis of their results,
G a r d n e r et_ al_. (1959) include both d i m e n s i o n s u n d e r the
c o n c e p t of field a r t i c u l a t i o n . H o w ev er , a s u b s e q u e n t study
( G a r d n e r et_ <al_. , 1960) f a i l e d to c o n f i r m the f i n d i n g s that
they both l o a d the same factor. A p p a r e n t l y , they h a v e not
r e v a m p e d t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n on this point. G a r d n e r (1962)
o b t a i n e d a f a c t o r which he l a b e l l e d f ield a r t i c u l a t i o n , h o w
e v e r the c o r r e l a t i o n s it in c l u d e d were from the EFT and RFT
o n l y and not from the m e a s u r e for c o n s t r i c t e d - f l e x i b l e c o n t
