Fraud Examination
FOURTH EDITION
W. STEVE A L B R E € H T
Brigham Young University
CHAD ©. ALBRE'CHI
Utah State University
COSNSA§\1 C . A L B R E C H T
-Brigham Young University
MARK F. ZIMBELEVSAW
Brigham Young University
SOUTH-WESTERN
CENGAGEAbout the Authors xii
Foreword xv
Preface .xvii
PART 1 Introduction to Fraud
CHAPTER 1
The Nature of Fraud 3
Seriousness of the Fraud Problem 4What Is Fraud? 6
Fraud, Greed, Deception, and Confidence 8
Types of Fraud 9
Employee Embezzlement 10 Vendor Fraud 11
Customer Fraud 11 Management Fraud 11
Investment Scams and Other Consumer Frauds 12
Criminal and Civil Prosecution of Fraud 13 .
Criminal Law 14 . , Civil Law 15
-How to Prepare to Be a Fraud-Fighting Professional 16
Certified Fraud Examiners 17
Academic Requirements 17 ».v
Professional Requirements 17 "* ** '
Fraud-Related Careers 17
Review of the Learning Objectives 19 Key Terms 20 Questions 20 Short Cases 23 Case Studies 25 Internet Assignments 28 Debates 28 End Notes 28 CHAPTER 2
Why People Commit Fraud.
Who Commits Fraud 33 The Fraud Triangle 34 The Element of Pressure 36Financial Pressures 36 Vice Pressures 37
31
Work-Related Pressures 38 > 7 - "
Other Pressures 38 , : ,; : The Element of Opportunity 39
Controls That Prevent and/or Detect Fraudulent
Behavior 39. "...' .. , :"';. ... •..'•'•. •'. • "
Summary of the Controls That Prevent or Detect
Fraud 44 ',.', ' 'J ' \ , '; :• 'y./.'tw}- • ' ', •,, ,
•-Inability to Judge the Quality of Performance 45 Failure to Discipline Fraud Perpetrators 46
Lack of Access to Information ;4 7 ; '; , •:
Ignorance, Apathy, and Incapacity: 4 7 ; : • > • • Lack of an Audit Trail 48 '•'•"'•)., '•" '"'.""':'.'•' ' :\ : T h e E l e m e n t o f R a t i o n a l i z a t i o n 4 ?
S u m m a r y o f t h e F r a u d T r i a n g l e 51 ; • : F r a u d R e c r u i t m e n t , 5 3 •!.'.•-,./• -;•;';,' , _••:, '-.•yyy}
P o w e r 5 3 • - • • • • . . • " • " .•.'•:.•••, ;; - v ] •'••' '•
Review of the Learning Objectives 55 ;
K e y T e r m s 5 6 •,.-: :'•"•.-; .;•• v ' - , " , - ' . ' '; •:•'•'•.• •'""'' Q u e s t i o n s 5 6 "''•'...'•' Short Cases 58 • '• • . :'•:.'•"•'. [.'•; ,*.'••-; Case Studies 63 Internet Assignment 65 , % Debate 65 E n d N p t e s 6 5 ' . " ' . ' .,,;.. ' . ' . ' ;•'. ";•';" '.' •..•'..'.'.'., • CHAPTER 3 F i g h t i n g F r a u d : An Overview ; ' . . . ' . ' . , . . . . 6 9 K n o w i n g Different W a y s T h a t O r g a n i z a t i o n s Fight F r a u d 7 0 ' . •..•'•:'-::. •...---'.;'-'.:-''- ••••• - ' ,;-:- "• ' •" Fraud Prevention 71 :
Creating a Culture of Honesty and High Ethics 71 Assessing and Mitigating the Risk of Fraud 75 F r a u d D e t e c t i o n 7 7 , '•^-•"'''•'•'••/."-'y.,','.; i •:["•': ,''. ,
Fraud Investigation 79 ;; V ; , ; Approaches to Fraud Investigation 80' ,''. Conducting a Fraud Investigation 81, ',
Follow-Up Legal Action 82 ! '
. C i v i l A c t i o n ' 8 3 ; '"• . *-;''':"V •''-••;.:- - . - . v .:; ' - ': :• .'.'\- , ,
C r i m i n a l A c t i o n 8 3 ' " " ' • , : • - * • , , ,:;.' .,,-;•,.
Review of the Learning Objectives : 84 .." ;
K e y T e r m s . 8 5 '. ' . : ' '"••. ,,••.'- f :-;;•.•': •]'•'- : • • •
vi Contents Short Cases 88 Case Studies 89 Internet Assignments 91 Debates 92 End Notes 92
APPENDIX A: Red Hat Code of Business Conduct and Ethics 93
PART 2 Fraud Prevention
CHAPTER 4
Preventing Fraud .101
Just About Everyone Can Be Dishonest 103 Creating a Culture of Honesty, Openness,
and Assistance 103
Hiring Honest People and Providing Fraud Awareness Training 103
Creating a Positive Work Environment 106 Implementing Employee Assistance Programs
(EAPs) 112 :
Eliminating Opportunities for Fraud to Occur 113
Having a Good System of Internal Controls 113 Discouraging Collusion between Employees and Others
and Alerting Vendors and Contractors to Company Policies 116
Monitoring Employees and Having a Whistle-Blowing • System 117
Creating an Expectation of Punishment 119 Conducting Proactive Fraud Auditing 119
Preventing Fraud—A Summary 120 •" A Comprehensive Approach to Fighting Fraud 120 Organizations and Fraud—The Current Model 121 Review of the Learning Objectives 124
Key Terms 125 Questions 125 Short Cases 126 Case Studies 129 Internet Assignments 130 Debates 131 End Notes 131
PART 3 Fraud Detection
CHAPTER 5
Recognizing the Symptoms of Fraud Symptoms of Fraud 137
Accounting Anomalies 139
.135
Irregularities in Source Documents • 139
Faulty Journal Entries 140 :
Inaccuracies in Ledgers . 141^ ; . . ' • • • • • :
Internal Control Weaknesses 143 L . Analytical Fraud Symptoms 144
Extravagant Lifestyles 148 , Unusual Behaviors 149
Tips and Complaints 151
Company Employees Are in the Best Position to Detect Fraud 152
Tips and Complaints Are Fraud Symptoms 152 New Laws Protect Whistle-Blowers and Promote
Fraud Detection 153
Review of the Learning Objectives 158 Key Terms 159 Questions 159 Short Cases 161 Case Studies 163 Internet Assignments 165 End Notes 165 CHAPTER 6
Data-Driven Fraud Detection.-. ... 167
Anomalies and Frauds 168
Audit Sampling and Fraud 169
The Data Analysis Process 169
Step 1: Understand the Business 169
Step 2: Identify Possible Frauds That Could Exist 170 Step 3: Catalog Possible Fraud Symptoms 171 ; ••••'/• Step 4: Use Technology to Gather Data about •"••
Symptoms 171
Step 5: Analyze Results 172 Step 6: Investigate Symptoms 172
Data Analysis Software 172 Data Access 173
Open Database Connectivity 173 Text Import 174 . Hosting a Data Warehouse 174
Data Analysis Techniques 175
Data Preparation 175 Digital Analysis 175
Outlier Investigation 179 . , Stratification and Summarization 179
Time Trend Analysis 180 Fuzzy Matching 181
Real-Time Analysis 182
Analyzing Financial Statement Reports 183 Review of the Learning Objectives 190 Key Terms 190
-Questions 191 Short Cases 193 Case Studies 196 ' Internet Assignments 202 Debates 202 End Notes 202
APPENDIX A: Examples of the Data-Driven Approach 203
PART 4 Fraud Investigation
CHAPTER 7Investigating Theft A c t s 2 0 9 When to Investigate 210
Theft Act Investigative Methods 212 Developing a Vulnerability Chart 213 Surveillance and Covert Operations 214 Invigilation 216
Physical Evidence 218 .
Electronic Evidence 218 . Forensic Software Packages 221 . E-mail Systems 221
A Comprehensive Example of Using Theft Act Investigation Methods 2-22
Review of the Learning Objectives 224 Key Terms 224 Questions 225 Short Cases 226 Case Studies 229 Internet Assignments 230 Debates 230 End Notes 230 CHAPTER 8 Investigating Concealment.. 231 Concealment Investigative Methods 233
Aspects of Documentary Evidence 233 Obtaining Documentary Evidence 237 Audits 237
Document Experts 242
Review of the Learning Objectives 246 Key Terms 246 Questions 246 Short Cases 248 Case Studies 249 Internet Assignments 250 Debates 250 End Notes 250 C H A P T E R 9 . • . ,;;;:•;'•.. '- V , v , y , . ' 7 .,-,:',• C o n v e r s i o n I n v e s t i g a t i o n M e t h o d s ; . . . I.. Conversion Searches 253 ' "•••' ;•.'.':,' Government Sources of Information 254
Federal Sources 254 " •,.',-, : .. '-•'.'
State Sources of Information 255 County and Local Records 256 Private Sources of Information -.2.57 Online Databases 258,
Internet Search 260 The Net Worth Method 261
Review of the Learning Objectives 263 Key T e r m s . 264.'' .• ''•;;••. V:"C'.•:.': ' "...V -Q u e s t i o n s 2 6 4 ; • ','•,".•" •'••:'•••.•'.• ••''',- '.-'.-," S h o r t C a s e s 2 6 6 : ^ C a s e S t u d i e s ' ' 2 7 0 ' .'.. " ;. . > '••:••',-:\ >'• -:;';'';-. I n t e r n e t A s s i g n m e n t s 2 7 2 ...". •; , ; •[• D e b a t e s 2 7 2 .'^ ,;';v •, • :; ["•:' ,[' ; '," )': ' ^ - y . E n d N o t e s , 2 7 3 ' . v . ,'' . '''•:-; ' :y- > ; V . v , . ' - . ; • , . C H A P T E R T O '.,;:' ' •-." , '••' ;',;, •-;;,-:•••' ,' ; , f
Inquiry Methods and Fraud Reports, v. .•.'...
Interviewing—An Overview 276 '•"• • ; :
Characteristics o f a Good Interview 276 Characteristics of a Good Interviewer 277 Understanding Reaction to Crisis: 277
Stage 1. Denial • 279 . , - ,. :'.,,: ; : :. '.'•'[ Stage 2. Anger. . 2 7 9 . - •'.., -.-,,•' \ •••'•*,/ Stage 3 . Bargaining a n d Rationalization 2 8 0 Stage 4. D e p r e s s i o n 280; ".'•.': Stage 5. A c c e p t a n c e : 2 8 0 / .
Planning an Interview 280: ' ,
The Interviewer's Demeanor 281 ' ' > . . " The Language of Interviews 281
Question Typology 281
Elements of Conversation 282 • Inhibitors of Communication 283 v . Facilitators of Communication 284 Mechanics of the Interview 2 8 5 . ,: .
Introductory Questions 285
Methodology. 286 ; * , , . . ; ' . . . ; .;
Informational Questions 288 : .
Question Sequence 289 ; ':•'• : Informational Question Techniques 289
Note-Taking 289 "-, , ,: ;,: iv,» • ; ./: ^ ;
Observing Respondent Reactions 290 Theme Development 291- :'•: •
Transition Methodology 2 9 1 ': ;.
Dealing with Resistance 292 V Difficult People 292 . ; > ; : Volatile Interviews 293 ' . :
. 2 5 1
viii Contents
* Assessment Questions 294 Detecting Deception 294
Methodology of Assessment Questions 296 Closing Questions 298
Admission-Seeking Questions 299
Steps in the Admission-Seeking Interview 300 Refute Alibis 303
Motive for the Fraud 305 Others Involved 306 Physical Evidence 306 Specifics of Each Offense 307 Signed Statements 307
Key Points in Signed Statements 308
Honesty Testing 308
Pencil-and-Paper Test 309 Graphology 309
Voice Stress Analysis and Polygraphs 309
The Fraud Report 309
Review of the Learning Objectives 310 Key Terms 311 ' Questions 311 Short Cases 313 • Case Studies 316 Internet Assignments 318 Debates 318 End Notes 318
APPENDLX A: Sample Signed Statement 319 APPENDIX B: An Example Fraud Report 320
PART 5 Management Fraud '
CHAPTER 11
Financial Statement Fraud 357
The Problem of Financial Statement Fraud 359 Financial Statement Fraud in Recent Years 359 Why These Problems Occurred 360
Element 1: A Booming Economy 361 Element 2: Decay of Moral Values 361 Element 3: Misplaced Incentives 361 Element 4: High Analysts' Expectations 361 Element 5: High Debt Levels 362
Element 6: Focus on Accounting Rules Rather Than Principles 362 '
Element 7: Lack of Auditor -Independence 362 Element 8: Greed 363
Element 9: Educator Failures 363
Nature of Financial Statement Fraud 364
Financial Statement Fraud Statistics 364 Phar-Mor: An Example of Financial Statement
Fraud 366
Motivations for Financial Statement Fraud 367 A Framework for Detecting Financial Statement
Fraud 368
Management and the Board of Directors 370
Managements' Backgrounds 370 Managements' Motivations 371
Managements' Influence in Making Decisions for the Organization 371
Relationships with Others 372
Relationship with Financial Institutions 373 Relationship with Related Organizations and
Individuals 373
Relationship with Auditors 373 ; Relationship with Lawyers 374
Relationship with Investors 374
Relationship with Regulatory Bodies 374 Organization and Industry 376
Financial Results and Operating Characteristics 377 Review of the Learning Objectives 379
Key Terms 379 Questions 380 Short Cases 382 Case Studies 383 Internet Assignments 387 Debates 387 End Notes 388
APPENDIX A: Recent Laws and Corporate Governance Changes Following the Sarbanes-Oxley Act 389
CHAPTER 12
Revenue- and Inventory-Related Financial
Statement Frauds .399
Revenue-Related Fraud 400
Acceptable Alternatives 401
Ease of Manipulating Net Income Using Revenues and Receivables 401
Identifying Revenue-Related Fraud Exposures 402 Identifying Revenue-Related Fraud Symptoms 404 Actively Searching for Revenue-Related Fraud
Symptoms 406
Actively Searching for Revenue-Related Analytical Symptoms 407
Actively Searching for Accounting or Documentary Symptoms 410
Actively Searching for Control Symptoms 411 Actively Searching for Behavioral or Verbal and Lifestyle
Symptoms 412
Actively Searching for Tips and Complaints 413 Following Up on;Revenue-Related Fraud Symptoms 413
Inventory and Cost of Goods Sold Frauds 414
Identifying Inventory-Related Fraud Exposures 415 Identifying Inventory-Related Fraud Symptoms 416 Proactively Looking for Inventory-Related Fraud
Symptoms 418
Searching for Inventory and Cost of Goods Sold Analytical Symptoms 419
Actively Searching for Accounting or Documentary Symptoms 422
Actively Searching for Inventory-Related Control Symptoms 422
Actively Searching for Behavioral or Verbal and Lifestyle Symptoms 422
Actively Searching for Tips and Complaints 422
Review of the Learning Objectives 423 Key Terms 423 Questions 424 Short Cases 427 Case Studies^ 431 Internet Assignments 433 Debates 434 End Notes 434
APPENDIX A: Strategic Reasoning and Detecting Revenue- and Inventory-Related Fraud 435
CHAPTER 13
liability, Asset, and Inadequate Disclosure Frauds. 445
Understating Liabilities 446Ways to Manipulate Liabilities 447
Identifying Understatement of Liability; Fraud Exposures; 448
Understating Accounts Payable 448 Understating Accrued Liabilities 449
Recognizing Unearned Revenue (Liability) as Earned Revenue 450 .
Underrecording Future Obligations 450
Not Recording or Underrecording Various Types of Debt (Notes, Mortgages, etc.) 451
Omission of Contingent Liabilities 451
Detecting Understatement of Liability Fraud Symptoms 451
Analytical Symptoms 452
Accounting or Documentary Symptoms 452
Proactively Searching for Symptoms Related to the Underreporting of Liabilities 453
Focusing on Changes in Recorded Balances from Period to Period 453
Focusing on Changes in Relationships from Period to Period 454
Comparing Financial Statement Information with Other Companies 454
Comparing Financial Statement Amounts with Assets They Are Supposed to Represent or with Nonfinancial Statement Factors 456
Actively Searching for "Accounting and Documentary" Symptoms 456
Overstatement of Asset Fraud 456
Identifying Asset Overstatement Fraud 458
Improper Capitalization of Costs as Assets That Should Be Expensed in the Current Period 458
The Slippery Slope of Earnings Management 459
Inflated Assets through Mergers and Acquisitions (or Restructuring) or by Manipulating Intercompany Accounts and/or Transactions 459
Overstatement of Fixed Assets (Property, Plant, and Equipment) 462
Cash and Short-Term Investment Fraud 462 Overstatement of Accounts Receivable (Not Related to
Revenue Recognition) or Inventory (Not Related to Cost of Goods Sold) 463
Summary of Overstatement of Asset Fraud , Exposures 463 '
Identifying and Actively Searching for Asset —-v. Overstatement Fraud Symptoms 463
Inappropriately Capitalizing Costs That Should Be Expensed 464
Overstating Assets through Mergers, Acquisitions, or Restructurings or Manipulating Intercompany Accounts or Transactions 466
Overstatement of Cash and Short-Term Investments (Including Marketable Securities) 468
Overstatement of Receivables and/or Inventory (Not Revenue- or Cost of Goods Sold-Related) 469 Inadequate Disclosure Fraud 469
Kinds of Disclosure Fraud 470 .
Misrepresentations about the Nature of the Company or Its Products 470
Misrepresentations in MD&A and Other Nonfinancial Information in Financial Reports 471
Misleading Footnote Disclosures 471
Detecting Inadequate Disclosure Fraud 472
Symptoms Related to Overall Misrepresentation about the Company or Its Assets 473
Disclosure Fraud Related to Financial Reports and Financial Statement Footnotes 474
Other Types of Financial Statement Fraud 475
Inappropriate Accounting for Nonmonetary Transactions 475
Inappropriate Accounting for Roundtrip Transactions 475
Improper Accounting for Foreign Payments in Violation of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) 476 Improper Use of Non-GAAP Financial Measures 476
x Contents
Improper Use of Off-Balance-SheeJ; Arrangements 476 ' Review of the Learning Objectives 477
K e y T e r m s 4 7 8 • •,••'•. " "} [ "•'•'•' Questions 478 -'•:•:•'.••'•'•- ' . S h o r t C a s e s 4 8 1 /,;;\' ... •;...-,.-.,. . • , . • C a s e S t u d i e s 4 8 5 ' :"'• '..'::.,., I n t e r n e t A s s i g n m e n t s : 4 8 8 '•]' D e b a t e s 4 8 8 ' " , . •.':•.••':•/ • ' ] ' 7 " ',"-'*.'' E n d N o t e s 4 8 9; ;;:. , ' y ' • • ' • • • , ' , . ' " , v . ':
APPENDIX A: Strategic Reasoning and Detecting Liability, Asset, and Inadequate Disclosure
' • - F r a u d s . ; 4 9 0 ' \ ,,•' ';' .-•"•"'- > ' ' ,', •":• •'
PART 6 Other Types of Fraud
CHAPTER 14
Fraud against Organizations 503 Fraud Statistics 505 , :
Asset Misappropriations 506
, . Theft of Cash through Larceny 507 Theft of Cash through Skimming 508
Cash Theft thrbugh Fraudulent Disbursements 508. Theft of Inventory and Other Assets 514
'. C o r r u p t i o n 5 1 6 \ ' " •'••'-. '*'• ' • •
B r i b e r y ' - 5 1 6 ' ..'• ; , . **•'''' ''"/•' ; , , ' ••• ' > •
-Conflicts of Interest 518 ";'••
Economic Extortion and Illegal Gratuities 519 Review of the Learning Objectives 520
Key Terms' 520 '.:•, ': • , , .' • "• '. . Questions : 520 , , 'Short Cases- .522-,. •'.•-'•'•'.''-. .'; ''-;';'/ Case Studies 525 Internet Assignments 526 . D e b a t e s 5 2 6 '•""•:•"" '"'•' V , . • • ' : , ' ' • E n d N o t e s ' ' 5 2 6 "v' - ' '•"• :•' ••'•'."'" , '"''.'• • ' ' CHAPTER 15 Consumer F r a u d . . . : , . . v i . . . ' . .
Consumer Fraud and Its Seriousness 530 Identity Theft 531 f
How Identity Theft Occurs 532 j
How Fraudsters Convert Personal Information to Financial Gain 534 ; , Stealing a Victim's Identity 535 . Minimizing the Risk 536
Prosecution of Identity Theft 539 Once Identity Theft Has Occurred 540 Identity Theft—Concluding Comments 541
.529
Other Types of Consumer and Investment Scams 543
Foreign Advance-Fee Scams 543
Work-at-Home Schemes 545 ••'.'.'. . : :
Bogus Mystery Shopping Scams 549 Telemarketing Fraud 549 . Investment Scams 553 .
Review of the Learning Objectives 555 Key Terms 556 Questions 556 : Short Cases 558 Cases Studies 560 Internet Assignments 562 Debates 562 End Notes 562 CHAPTER 16
Bankruptcy, Divorce, and Tax Fraud .565
Overview of Tax, Divorce, and Bankruptcy Frauds 566
Fraud Examiners' Roles in Bankruptcy and Divorce Cases 566
Tax Fraud 567
Fraud and the Criminal Investigation Division 568 CI Investigative Careers 571
Divorce Fraud 571
Participants in Divorce Cases 572 .'• ;
Bankruptcy Fraud 572 r : The Bankruptcy Code 574
Civil and Criminal Bankruptcy Fraud Statutes 574 Civil Bankruptcy Statutes 575
Participants in the Bankruptcy Process 576 Fraud Investigator's Relationship to Participants in
Bankruptcy Proceedings 578 '••
Bankruptcy and Divorce Fraud Schemes—The Planned Bankruptcy (Bust-Out) 579
Fraudulent Concealment of Assets or Income in Bankruptcies or Divorces 580
The Debtor's or Divorcee's Estate 580 Bankruptcy Statutes Concerning Concealment of
Assets 580 ,
Means of Concealing Assets or Income 581 Indicators of Concealment 581
Fraudulent Transfers 581
Civil Liability for False Accusations 582 Money Laundering 582
The Money Laundering Process 583 Efforts to Combat Money Laundering 583 Detecting Money Laundering Schemes 583
Review of the Learning Objectives 585 Key Terms 586
Short Cases 588 Case Studies 592
Internet Assignments 593 End Notes 593
APPENDIX A: Affidavit of Proposed Investigator 594 APPENDIX B: Application for Retention of
Investigator 598
CHAPTER 17
Fraud in E-Commerce 601 Fraud Risks in E-Commerce 603
E-Commerce Risks Inside Organizations 603 E-Commerce Risks Outside Organizations 606
Preventing Fraud in E-Commerce 607
The Control Environment 608 Risk Assessment 609
Preventing Fraud through Control Activities 609
Detecting E-Business Fraud 611 Review of the Learning Objectives 612 Key Terms 612
Questions 612 Short Cases 614 Cases Studies 615 ,
End Notes 617" ' • , - ^
PART 7 Resolution of Fraud
C H A P T E R 1 8 Legal F o l l o w - U p . The Court System
. 6 2 1
State Courts .622 , '/-•:' • •• "'.y'']'y-'''. \'....< -', / , Federal Courts 623 *." ','"'•"''"'"' : . .* .'•''•.-".' -*:. Civil a n d Criminal Fraud Trials ; 624 7 :•' \
Overview of the Civil Litigation Process 625
Investigation and Pleadings 625 ;: <•'<•• '• ,•'.
D i s c o v e r y 6 2 5 • ,." • . • , : • • ' • •:; ' ' 7 * 7 [ " ; - ' • ' : ? • : ' ' . ' . •":.'.--: .'. S e t t l e m e n t N e g o t i a t i o n s . , 6 2 7 " ' : . , : .''••:• f.';-.;'-\ •.-•',_'•: T r i a l a n d A p p e a l , 627, r: . . •. '• -•/",•- :-'-.'.;'.'".; ',•':'':; ; ;•
Overview of the Criminal Litigation Process 628 ; Filing Criminal Charges 628 , ...-,.',•• ' Arresting and Charging the Defendant 628 ,
Preliminary Hearings 628 ; G r a n d J u r y ' 6 2 9 - . . ' . ' . •':'-'-•""'••".'::• -:.,'•'•-::• '.'• -.'.-- /•. • • A r r a i g n m e n t 6 2 9 , . ,- ... ' \[ ",*"' •'"•>:•:"' • D i s c o v e r y 6 2 9 . .•'.. •-'•':•'•••"•,',',.;:':; • ' • ' , • ; • • " • ' ; ; -.'.'• P r e t r i a l M o t i o n s 6 2 9 , ; T r i a l a n d A p p e a l - 6 3 0 . : , ' : ,,7: .';..' - ,;;:. '••,•-. " , 1
Being an Expert Witness 63T : ;•; > y ..., Review of the Learning Objectives 633
Key Terms.. 633 ' , ' :' ' •'••:'•'•:;.;,' ':-:' \:.'.'-. :'; ... : Q u e s t i o n s 6 3 4 • :• ,- •••'-, . .;- .'•;. ';' ,•-."•,. ; '; S h o r t C a s e s 6 3 5 -•- . '• :" ;' . .'."':'"f,-:..';;;' .•,.-,"' .';•",-.''-•.:, • . C a s e S t u d i e s . 6 3 8 " • • :-,:; : •'.../} ( '• ; > ' ' ; ^ . ' ; " ' ' .'.",' " / ; . I n t e r n e t A s s i g n m e n t s 6 3 9 : , . ; , , . D e b a t e s 6 4 0 .,- : ; ,"••'.-;; ./': 7 ' ; ..••',,-.. ' •. , ; - , { * . ' " , . • . , - ': E n d N o t e s ' 6 4 0 . • . '••• '. ' " • ' • , ' .:\ , . , . ' ; • • * " • ' - ^ . v ' - . " ; • ' : ' ' - ' . '
Appendix Financial Statement Fraud Standards.
..'.-641-B i b l i o g r a p h y . . . . 1 . . . ,>. .v. . . . .648 Glossary.. . . . . . . . ; . ; . . . , ; . ; . . . ' . ' . . .652 Index . , . . : . ; , - . . \ : . . . 7 . . ; . . . . ; . . .664 622
