University of California Davis, CA

1

FARMSCAPING:HEDGEROWAND ROADSIDE

PLANTINGS

FOR BIOINTENSIVE PEST MANAGEMENT

Robert L.

Bugg

Information

Group

Sustainable

Agriculture Research

and

Education Program

University

of

California

Davis,

CA 95616-8533

John

H.

Anderson

Yolo

County

Resource

Conservation

District

221 West Court Street

No. 5

ABSTRACT

Farmscaping is the conscious and integrated modificationof agricultural settings,em¬

phasizing management of field margins,hedgerows, windbreaks, and specific vegetation planted along roadsides, ditches, and adjoiningwildlands. The ultimate aim of farmscaping is

toachieve moresustainable _{farmingsystems. Biologically-intensiveorbiointensive pestman¬}

agementrelies primarilyonbiological and cultural controls and host plant resistance. Taken together, these could be thoughtof as "agroecosystem resistance" to pests. Hedgerows and

otherborder_{plantings can have important impacts on biointensive integrated pest manage¬}

ment;_{properly designed and managed hedgerows and vegetationally-diverse field borders can}

assist inboth _{biological and cultural control of arthropod pests of agriculture. Untilnow, the} bulk of the researchonthis_{subject has been conductedinEngland andEurope. Most priorstudies}

sufferfrom lackoftrue_{replication and insufficient spatial scale. Moreover, in the vastmajor¬}

ity ofcases, the hedgerows employed have notbeenplanned with arthropods in mind. Based

on our_{many yearsof practical and research experience, we have developed a design fora}

bio-diverse_{hedgerow comprising native and introduced shrubs, perennialgrasses,and herbaceous} perennial and annual broadleafplants known to attract and sustain beneficial arthropods and other desirable wildlife. The estimated costof establishment _{per 1/2-mile strip is $1,378.00.}

Roadside _{plantings ofnative perennialgrasses and associatedspecies have been usedin} Iowa and other midwesternstates to_{suppress weeds, reduce the need for herbiciding and other}

maintenance tools, and restore wildlife. In California, conventional managementof agricul¬

tural roadsides leads todomination_{by noxious weeds. Availability of seed forvarious native} grasses is increasing,asis public interest in their restoration. Agricultural roadsides typically contain several_{topographiczones orniches withvaryingenvironmental conditionsand man¬}

agementrequirements. Growth form, height, and environmentaloptima and tolerances of the various _{speciesdictate the niches towhich theymaybe assigned. Complexes ofnativegrasses}

can be established _{using either herbicide-intensive ornon-herbicidal techniques, which are} summarized here. _{Once the grasses areestablished, herbicidesareseldomneeded.}

Farmscaping is the conscious and integrated modification ofagricultural settings, em¬

phasizing management of field margins, hedgerows, windbreaks, and specific vegetation

planted alongroadsides, ditches,and adjoining wildlands. Theproximal goals of farmscaping

maybe toprovidehabitat for wildlife, enhance the esthetics of the farm, provide natural

weed control_{through competition, andestablish arthropod pestcontrol through enhancement}

of natural_{enemyactivity. Plants maybeemployed that have specialentomological associa¬} tions. The ultimate aim of _{farmscaping is to achieve more sustainable farming systems.} Biointensive _{pest managementrelies primarilyon biological and cultural controlsand host} plant resistance (Frisbie and Smith, 1989). Taken together, these could be thought of as

"agroecosystem resistance" topests. Hedgerows and other border plantings canhave important impacts on biointensive integrated pest management; properly designed and managed hedgerows and vegetationally-diverse field borders canassist inbothbiological and cultural

control of_{arthropod pestsof agriculture. Until now,the bulk ofthe research onthis subject has}

been conducted in_{England and Europe. Mostpriorstudies suffer fromlackoftruereplication and} insufficient_{spatial scale. Moreover, inthe vast majority ofcases, the hedgerows employed} havenotbeen _{planned with arthropods inmind. Based on our manyyears of practical and re¬} search_{experience,we havedeveloped a design fora biodiverse hedgerow comprising native} andintroducedshrubs, _perennialgrasses,and herbaceousperennial and annualbroadleafplants knownto attractand sustainbeneficial _{arthropods and otherdesirable wildlife.}

Roadside _{plantings of native perennialgrassesand associated species havebeen used in}

Iowaand othermidwesternstates to_{suppress weeds, reduce the need forherbiciding and other}

maintenance tools, and restore wildlife. InCalifornia, conventional managementof agricul¬ turalroadsidesleadstodomination_{by noxious weeds. Availability ofseed for various native} grassesis increasing, as is public interest intheir restoration. Agricultural roadsides typically contain several _{topographic zones or nicheswith varyingenvironmental conditions and man¬}

agementrequirements. Growth form, height, and environmental optima and tolerances of the various_{speciesdictate the niches towhichtheymaybe assigned. Complexes of nativegrasses}

canbeestablished _{using either herbicide-intensive or non-herbicidal techniques, which are}

summarized here. _{Once the grasses areestablished, herbicidesareseldom needed.}

Here we will discuss the _{theory and practiceofhedgerow and roadside plantings in} California.

Hedgerows

The_{goldenageof windbreaks in theUrdted States occurred during the 1930s and 1940s,}

when, to staveoff wind erosionoftopsoil, the U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service (S.C.S.) su¬

pervised the planting of thousands of acres in shelterbelts throughout the Midwest (Van

Eimern, 1967). Yet the broad and tall windbreaks planted by the S.C.S. are merely hedgerows

of_{special types. The tradition of fostering hedgerows extendsmuch furtherback than the Dust}

Bowl_{Days. From time immemorial, hedgerows have played key roles in agriculture. In an¬} cient _{Europeand the British Isles, hedgerows comprising trees, shrubs,and perennial grasses} demarcated _{propertylines, sheltered farmlands and dwellings from winds, and provided food} (game animals, hazelnut, walnut, quince), fodder (acorns), and coppicingtree specieswere re¬

peatedly harvested for bothstructural and fuel wood (Pott, 1989). Moreover, research has re¬

peatedly shown thathedgerows and windbreakscan play importantroles in agriculturalpest

management, both negative and positive (see reviewsby Van Eimern, 1964, Van Emden, 1965, Altieri and _{Letourneau, 1982).}

Perennial_{vegetation harborssomearthropods that donot venture much into surround¬}

ingarable crops("hard-edgespecies" inthe usageof Duelli et al., 1990). For example, Bishop andRiechert _{(1990)showed that there were few species incommonbetweenthe spiderfauna of}

vegetable gardens and that ofa nearby wooded area. Similar results were obtained by Maelfaitand De Keer_{(1990) in comparingthe spider faunaeof intensively-grazed pastureland} and itsborderareas. On the other hand certain_{"soft-edge species" mayshow increased abun¬}

dance inthe arable lands_{adjoining perennialvegetation,suchashedgerows. Therecanbeneg¬}

On the _{negative side, hedgerows might includeplants thatserve as reservoirs}

for

_in¬ sect-borne viruses,or as _{overwintering sites for boll} weevil (Slosseretal., 1984), and poplars

and cottonwoods_{{Populusspp.) arerequired alternatehost for variousrootaphids {Pemphigus}

spp.) thatattack beets and lettuce (Davidsonand Lyon, 1986). In

South Africa,

windbreaks of

silky oak {Grevillea robusta)can predisposeforproblems with citrus

thrips

{Scirtothrips

au-rantii) (Grout and Richards, 1990). Windbreakscanalsopredispose forlocalinfestations

of

aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) and thrips (Thysanoptera; Thripidae) because

the

winged

colonizingforms settle insheltered areas (Lewis,1965a, 1965b).

Onthe _{positiveside, hedgerowscan harbor importantbeneficial arthropods.}

Much of

the relevantresearch has beendone in _{England and Germany. Ground beetles (Carabidae:}

Coleoptera)mayoccupyhedgerowsduring winter, thendisperseto adjoining

field

crops

with

the advent of_{spring,aswassuggested forPlatynus dorsalts inanunreplicated study ofan inten¬} sively-run farm nearKiel, Germany (Knauerand Stachow, 1987). In

England,

willows

{Salix

spp.) andanalder {Alnusglutinosa) canharbor predatory truebugs (Hemiptera:

Anthocoridae,

Miridae) that later disperse to orchards and attackcodling moth {Cydia pomonella) or pear

psylla {Psylla pyricola) (Solomon, 1981; Gangeand Llewellyn, 1989). Wind shelter (Lewis,

1965a;Pollard, 1971) and flowers(Bowdenand Dean, 1971) provided byhedgerows canbecru¬

cial to hoverflies _{(Diptera: Syrphidae) which attack aphid pests ofcrops. Nectarsources in} hedgerows arealso importantto parasiticwasps (Van Emden, 1962). In California, perennial

grasses (whichcanbecontained in hedgerows)canprovide sitesforaestival-hibernal diapause

by convergentlady beetle {Hippodamia convergens, Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) (Hagen, 1962,

1974). In South Africa, facultatively-pollinivorous predatory mites {Euseius addoensis a

d-doensis) can be particularlyabundant in citrus (Citrus sinensis) sheltered bywindbreaks of pollen-producing Montereypine (Pinus radiata) (Grout and Richards, 1990). Anagrus epos, a

key parasite ofgrape leafhopper (Erythroneura elegantula) and westerngrape leafhopper

(Erythroneura variabilis) can be harbored onoverwintering eggs of leafhoppers that infest

and _{Nakata, 1965, 1973) orcultivated plants (e.g., prune leafhopper, Edwardsiana prunicola,}

onFrench prunes_{[Kidoetal., 1984, Pickettetal., 1990]). Frenchprunes are now} being planted

alongside Californiavineyardsto enhancebiological control.

Relatively few of thedust-bowl-erashelterbelts and the prehistoric hedgerows re¬ main,duetothe push in the U.S. andin Europe during the 1960s and 70sto plantarablecrops

fencerowtofencerow inorderto"feed the world." Moreover,the trend towards "cleanfarming"

hasentailed indiscriminate _{herbicidingordisking ofnon-croppedground in ordertoavoidweed}

problems. These agriculturaltrendshave led to a greatloss of wild, and often native, vegeta¬ tion thatonce _{persisted in roadsides and along} sloughs. As _a result, biodiversity has been

greatly reducedon farmlands. The erosionof foreign markets hassomewhatlessened the col¬

lective_{urge to farm marginal lands, and there is increased awareness of the need topreserve} and restore native _{vegetationand wildlife habitat.}

Hedgerows, those valuable and venerable features of the farmscape, can makea major

contributiontowards_{improving this situation. Thishasbeen clearly shownby 10yearsofexpe¬}

rienceat _{Hedgerow Farms (owned byJ.H. Anderson). This site nearWinters, Yolo County,}

California) features roadside and hedgerow plantings that bya conservative estimate com¬

prise 14 native and 9 introduced speciesof native perennialgrasses, 9 native and 6 introduced

genera of shrubs, and 6 nativeand 5introduced treespecies. Many ofthese plants have

clear

as¬

sociations withbeneficial insects and otherdesirable wildlife. _{Eighty-eightspecies of birds}

have been observed atthe site_{(Table 1), reflecting the richnessof the habitats provided. We} believethat the _{knowledge developedat HedgerowFarms can now be applied in designing}

multispecies hedgerows to attractbeneficial insectsand otherdesirable wildlife, and topro¬ mote _{biologically-intensiveintegrated pestmanagement.}

California_{agriculture has longused both exoticand native trees for windbreaks, inar¬} eas where windsare a _{persistentproblem. Coastal and desert areas have especially benefited} fromwind shelter_{provided by Arizona cypress {Cupressusglabra), athel {Tamarix aphylla),} blue gum{Eucalyptusglobulus), Lombardy poplar(Populusnigi-avar. italica), Montereycypress

{Cupressus macrocarpa), and Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila). However, these species wereusu¬

allyemployed in single-species windbreaks, and without regard to their value (or lack thereof) tobeneficial arthropodsor otherdesirable wildlife. These facts have almost cer¬

tainly lessenedanypositive contribution that these windbreaks could have made to biologi¬ cally-intensive integratedpestmanagement. Basedonourlong experience and ourreviewof the

relevantliterature, we conclude thathedgerow and windbreak compositioncanbe improved

and diversified, withaneye to enhancing activityby beneficial arthropods. Anancillary ben¬ efit will be_{provision of habitat fora diversity of desirable wildlife species, including am¬} phibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Therural landscape will be beautified through addi¬ tionof _{esthetically-pleasing nativegrasses and shrubs. Webelieve that by such approaches,} restoration_{ecology and production agriculturecan dovetail.}

Hedgerow Designand Implementation

Our_{objective is toestablish multispecies hedgerows to enhance biological controland} desirable wildlife_{species, through provision of shelter, overwinteringhabitat, nesting sites,} and food.

Hedgerow Species Composition

Weare _{testingnew hedgerow designs. Wind isnota majorproblem in Yolo County,so} we focus _{mainlyonshrubs, perennial grasses, and herbaceous perennials and annuals, rather}

thanon trees,so as to minimize the shading of adjacent farmlands. Weemphasize a rangeof

native Californianshrubs _{easilygrownin Yolo County, and knownto attract largenumbers of} beneficial insects: blue _{elderberry {Sambucus caerulea), coyote brush (Baccharis pilularis)} (Kido et al., 1981; Bugg and Heidler, 1981), California coffeeberry {Rhatnnus californica),

California lilacs _{{Ceanothus spp.) (Bugg and Heidler, 1981), California wild buckwheat}

{Eriogonum fasciculatum) (Swisher, 1979), holly-leaved cherry (Prunus ilicifolia), toyon

{Heteromeles arbutifolia), and various native willows {Salix spp.). Wealso use exotic species

known for_{entomological associations: soapbarktree {Quillaja saponaria) (Bugg, 1987), sweet} fennel _{{Foeniculum vulgarevar.dulce) (Maingayetal., 1991), and toothpickammi {Ammi}

vis-naga)(Buggand Wilson,1989). See Appendix 1 fora discussionof beneficial

insect/plant

asso¬

ciations thatwehave observed. Outofconcern forother wildlife, weinclude the low-mainte¬ nance_{fruit-producingpersimmon{Diospyroskaki) andpomegranate {Punica granatum),} which arebothuseda sourcesof winter food_{by native bird species. The understories}of the hedgerows

will be_{assigned tomixtures ofnativeCalifornianperennialgrasses: bluewildrye{Elymus} glau-cus), California brome {Bromuscarinatus),slenderwheatgrass {Agropyron trachycaulum var.

majus), creepingwildrye {Leymus triticoides), meadowbarley {Hordeum brachyanther um)

and

purpleneedle grass {Stipa pulchra). Our extensive experience shows that

several

of these

grasses haveexcellent seedling vigor, establish rapidly, and will thereaftersuppress

the

inva¬

sive annual weeds that dominate_{conventionally-managed fencerowsandroadsides. Perennial} grassesare well knownas the major siteforaestival-hibernal diapause

of

convergent

lady bee¬

tle _{{Hippodamia convergens) (Hagen, 1962, 1974). Once the hedgerow is}

reasonably weed free,

we willestablish ablend of_{insectaryplants (Harmony Farm} Supply, Sebastopol, California).

Together,the hedgerow plants would supplyaccessiblenectar, pollen, and alternate

hosts

and

prey through mostof theyear (see Figures 1 and 2,basedon our ownobservations

and

Munz,

1973).

HedgerowDesign andImplementation

Our_{approach is tousestandard farming implements and practicesto}

install hedgerow

shrubsamid stands of native_{perennialgrasses. Hedgerowswill be4.58m (180")wide, and}

will

each_{comprise 3, 1.52-m (60") beds,separated by irrigation furrows.}

All beds

will be seeded

_to

native _{grasses;thecentral bed will containshrubsas well. Seedof the}

perennial

_grasses

will

be

drilled to a _{depthof 1.27cmduring October. Theouteredgesofeach of theouter}beds will be

seeded to_{creepingwildrye, becauseourobservationsshow that itcanrecover}

rapidly from

_in¬

advertent _{diskingorherbicide application. The remainder ofeachof the two outerbeds and} the entire central bed will be seeded with _{appropriate mixesof the other species. Sections will}

be_{randomlyassigned tomixturesofblue wildrye, California brome,meadow}

barley, and

_slen¬ der_{wheatgrass (by-weight 1:1:1:1 blend of seeds)orof meadowbarleyand}

purple

_needlegrass

(1:1). Grass isseeded using a Truaxnativegrassseed drill. Shrubsand herbaceous

perennials

(1-year-old liners)will beplanted during NovemberthroughMarch into the

central bed

amid

a matrixof_{perennialgrasses.}

After grasses areestablished (year 2) andweedsaresuppressed, astrip will be disked outand _{replaced with a seeded commercial insectary mixture, and native Lomatium spp.,} Perideridia spp.,Achillea borealis, andAsclepiasfascicularis.

Theschedule of_{operationsand approximatecosts for hedgerowestablishmentare pre¬} sented inTable2. Theestimated cost_{of establishment per1/2 -mile (0.8km) strip is $1,378.00.}

Roadside _Plantings

Roadside_{plantings of native perennialgrasses andassociated species have been used in} Iowa and othermidwesternstates to_{suppress weeds, reduce the needfor herbiciding and other}

maintenance tools, and restore wildlife. In California, conventional managementof agricul¬ tural roadsides leads to domination _{by invasive annual weeds, including wild oat {Avena}

fatua), ripgutbrome {Bromus rigidus), and yellow starthistle (Ceiitaurea solstitialis).

Established stands of many native grasses can preemptcolonzation by these weeds. Availability of seed for various nativegrasses is increasing, as is public interest in their

restoration. _{Agricultural roadsides typically containseveral topographiczones orniches with}

varyingenvironmental conditionsand managementrequirements. Growthform,height, and en¬

vironmental _{optima and tolerancesof the various species dictate the niches in which they are}

suitable _{(Figure 3,adapted from Bugg etal., 1991). Complexes of nativegrasses canbe estab¬}

lished _{using eitherherbicide-intensive ornon-herbicidal techniques, whicharesummarized in}

Table 3 _{(adapted from Buggetal., 1992). Once thegrasses areestablished, herbicides aresel¬}

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Table 1. Birds observed at

Hedgerow Farms

(Yolo County

Roads

27

and

88,

be¬

tween Winters and

Esparto,

Yolo

County,

California) (R. Jones

and J.H.

Anderson,

personal

communications).

Order: Common Names

CICONIIFORMES: AMERICAN BITTERN, GREAT EGRET, SNOWY EGRET, GREEN

HERON, GREAT BLUEHERON

ANSERIFORMES:MALLARD, CINNAMON TEAL

FALCONIFORMES: TURKEY VULTURE, BLACK-SHOULDEREDKITE, NORTHERN

HARRIER, GOLDEN EAGLE, RED-TAILED HAWK, SWAINSON'S HAWK,

ROUGH-LEGGEDHAWK,AMERICANKESTREL, MERLIN, PRAIRIEFALCON

GALLIFORMES:RING-NECKEDPHEASANT, CALIFORNIA QUAIL

CHARADRIFORMES: KILLDEER, LONGBILLEDCURLEW

COLUMBIFORMES:MOURNINGDOVE, ROCK DOVE

STRIGIFORMES:GREAT HORNED OWL,COMMON BARN OWL, BURROWING OWL

APODIFORMES:ANNA'S HUMMINGBIRD, BLACK-CHINNEDHUMMINGBIRD,

PICCIFORMES: NORTHERN FLICKER, REDBREASTED SAPSUCKER, NUTTAL'S

WOODPECKER,DOWNY WOODPECKER, ACORN WOODPECKER

PASSERIFORMES:WESTERN KINGBIRD, ASH-THROATED FLYCATCHER, BLACK

PHOEBE, SAY'S PHOEBE, HORNED LARK, BARN SWALLOW, CLIFF SWALLOW,

NORTHERN ROUGH-WINGED SWALLOW, SCRUBJAY, YELLOW-BILLEDMAGPIE,

COMMON RAVEN, AMERICAN CROW, PLAIN TITMOUSE, BUSH-TIT,REDBREASTED

NUTHATCH, BEWICK'S WREN, HOUSE WREN, RUBY CROWNED KINGLET, HERMIT

THRUSH, SWAINSON'S THRUSH, AMERICAN ROBIN, WESTERN BLUEBIRD,

MOUNTAIN BLUEBIRD, NORTHERN MOCKINGBIRD, AMERICAN PIPIT, CEDAR

WAXWING, LOGGERHEADSHRIKE, EUROPEAN STARLING, WARBLING VIREO,

YELLOW-RUMPEDWARBLER, YELLOWWARBLER, WILSON'S WARBLER,

ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER, BLACK-THROATED GREY WARBLER, TOWNSENDS

WARBLER, HERMITWARBLER, WESTERN TANAGER, BLACK-HEADED GROSBEAK, CALIFORNIA BROWN TOWHEE, RUFOUS-SIDEDTOWHEE, SAVANNAH SPARROW,

SONG _{SPARROW, DARK-EYEDJUNCO, WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW,}

GOLDEN-CROWNED _SPARROW, FOX SPARROW, WESTERN MEADOWLARK, RED-WINGED

BLACKBIRD, BREWER'S BLACKBIRD, BROWN-HEADED COWBIRD, NORTHERN

ORIOLE, AMERICAN GOLDFINCH, LESSER GOLDFINCH, HOUSE FINCH, PURPLE

Table 2. Establishmentschedule for

hedgerows.

Operation

Time Period Cost/Acre

(1/2-mile

long strip).

1. Till soil and form 60"-beds

September-October

90.00 2. Pre

irrigate

_or

wait

for

early

rains

_to

germi¬

nate weeds

September

20-October 20

0.00-50.00

3. Eliminate

early-ger¬

minated weeds with

herbicides, flamer, or shallow

tillage

(Steps

2

and 3_{may not}

be

_neces¬

sary

if weed

seed bank

is

depleted,

or

weed

com¬

plex is

not

overly

com¬

petitive).

October 40.00

4.

Using the Truax

_na¬ tive _grass

seed

drill,

seed the native _grass mixture into the 3beds

October-November 300.00

5. Plant

woody

_vegeta¬

tion at

approximately

10' centers in centerbed.

Costs include include

those for the

plants, fer¬

tilizer _tabs,

protective

devices _(milkcarton,

stakes, weed nets).

By

this

planting

_arrange¬ ment, a 1/2

mile-long

hedgerow

would

com¬

prise

about

264

plants

at $1.00 _per.

If plants

_are

arranged in islands

or groups,

reduce

plant

number to 132.

November-March 528.00

6. Broadleaf weed con¬

trol; herbicides with shields to_protect

woody

vegetation.

7.

Vegetation

control

around individual

woody

plants.

February-May

40.00

8. Furrow

irrigation

every

2-4

weeks for

the

first year.

June-January

150.00

9. Summer _spot

weed

control,

using

herbicide

or hoe.

June

-September

40.00

10. Drill orbroadcast mixes offorb seeds into outerbeds:

toothpick

ammi, fennel yarrow,

blazing

star,

bee

phacelia,

etc.

September-October

100.00

1 7

Table 2. Weed

California native

et al., in press.

-control

procedures

for enhancing

establishment

of

perennial

grasses

in

rights-of-way.

Adapted

from Bugg

Objective

Year Months Herbicide Procedure^ Alternative Procedure Reduce weed _plant population and seed reservoir prior to seedbed prepara¬ tion 1-2 _years before seeding. February - March, April-May. Application of glyphosate (Roundup®)orthe"'softresidual"

herbicide _{oryzalin (Surflan®) to} suppressexistinggrowthand seed production.

Establishsummerfallow _bydisk¬

ing weeds before seed has ma¬

tured. This reduces the weedseed bank; the practicecanbeused for one ormore_{yearspriortoseeding} a site with native _perennial grasses. In thefinalyear, it can

simultaneouslyprepare a seed bed for fall _{seeding of native}

perennial grasses. Disking also

perpetuates the disturbedcondi¬

tions underwhich_{weeds prosper.} Onsome_{sites, scraping isbetter,}

because it will remove muchof

theweed seed reservoir. _Mowing

before seed hasmatured canalso

beeffective _{againstsome species} of_weeds, but others, suchas an¬

nual ryegrass and introducedan¬

nual wild _{barleys canproduce} seed heads low tothe _ground fol-lowingmowing Reduce weed popu-1ation af¬ terseedbed prepara¬ tion Septem- ber- Novem-ber

Afterwinter-annual weeds have

germinated and sprouted inre¬

sponse to rain or preirrigation,

apply glyphosate or paraquat (GramoxoneExtra®). This is af¬

terseed-bed _{preparationbutprior}

to_{seeding nativegrasses.}

F1a me-k i 11 emerged weed

seedlings after rains orpreirriga¬

tion, butprior toseeding native perennialgrasses. Very shallow

tillage (e.g., disking or spike-tooth _{harrowing) can also beef¬} fective. Shallowness isessential

to avoid_{bringingmore weedseed}

1 8 Reduce weed popu-1 ation af¬ ter _seeding but before emergence 0 f native grass seedlings Septem- ber-Novem ber Chlorsulfuron

(Telar®)^applica¬

tion tosoil _{following seeding of}

native_{grasses,toreduce} germina-tion of introduced annual broadleaf and grassweeds. This gives exellent control ofannual

ryegrass. Chlorsulfuron is the only broadleaf selective herbi¬

cide that _{givesgood suppression} ofasteraceous _{(composite) weeds,}

such as _{yellow starthistle or}

pricklylettuce. It does notdeter germination of blue wildrye,

California _brome, or _purple

needlegrass,but does affect seed

of meadow_{barley and possibly} others _{yet to be tested.} Chlorsulfuron cannotbeused ad¬

jacent to agricultural land with¬

out an _{intervening buffer zone.}

LowratesofSimazinecanbe used to_{suppresswildoat.}

After _{seeding but before emer¬} gence ofnative grasses,flaming will kill cool-season annuals.

Timing is critical, because any

emerged native grasses will be

killed, as well. Reduce weed com¬ petition and densi¬ ties _during establish¬ mentof na-tive grasses 1 February-April 2,4-D, dicamba

(Banvel®)^,

or

triclopyr (Garlon 4®) tocontrol

broadleaf weeds _following

early-establishment _{phase of native}

grasses(i.e., after native grasses

have reached the 3-leaf _stage).

Triclopyris not very effective againstasteraceous weeds.

Mowing, haying, orgrazing by livestock canremove the

taller-growing and (often) more-palat¬ able winter annuals _duringlate

winter and _{early spring. This im¬}

proves the competitiveposture of the native_{perennialgrasses.}

Reduce weed com¬ petition, densities, and seed production duringfirst season of native grass growth March-mid _April

Wick_{application of glyphosate}

to _{selectively kill annual rye¬}

grass, ripgutbrome, wild oats, and other_{weedy annual grasses}

that are _{overtopping lower-grow¬}

ing native grasses. After April,

natives are _{usually high enough}

tobe_{susceptible;also, weeds will}

have _gonetoseed.

High mowing (6" minimum) can be used to removeseed heads of

winter-annual _{grasses, and thus}

reduce seed bank of theseweeds in

subsequentyears. Most native

grasses produce seed later, and

can recoverfrom_{high mowing at} this time.

1 9 Reduce weed _plant densities and seed production duringfirst season of native grass growth April-June

Dicamba can be _{applied for} om-trol ofbroadleaf weeds. Dicamba

works better_{against older yellow}

star thistle _{plants thandoes}

2,4-D.

Ifstands ofnatives are_vigorous and _{producingseed, mowing or}

grazing of native

perennial

grassesshouldbeavoided during this _{period, to allow seedmatu¬}

ration. On the otherhand, ifin¬

troduced_{grasses aredominantand} haveset_{seed,haycanbemade by}

mowing,raking,andbaling. The haycanbefedtolivestock. Thus,

the weed seed and excessive

residue will beremoved, andna¬

tive stands canbe_augmentedby further_{seedingsduringthesubse¬} quent autumn. Reduce warm-sea¬ son_grasses. May-Septem¬ ber

Spot-spraying glyphosate for

warm-season annual and peren¬ nial grasses (Bermuda, Johnson, barnyard grasses); dust onthe

plants reduces efficacyof herbi¬

cide: under_{dusty conditions, in¬} crease useof_adjuvants.

Mechanical control of weeds

through (hoeing, weed whipping, mowing, digging) to remove, or

prevent reseedingby, patches of

warm-season annual and _peren¬

nial weeds. Inhibit germina¬ tionofwin¬ ter-annual weedseeds 2 Septem- ber- Novem-ber

Apply chlorsulfuron,granular

tri-fluralin _{(treflan®), oryzalin}

(surflan®), and/orlow rates of simazine _{(Princep®) toprevent} germination of annual weeds.

Theseherbicides willnot_damage

established standsof blue

wildrye, California brome. Purpleneedlegrass,meadow bar¬ ley, the wheatgrasses, and the

fescuesarenotaffected _by

chlor-sulfuron once established.

Chlorsulfuronwill inhibit _germi¬

nationofbroadleafweeds and an¬

nual_{ryegrass. Low-rate applica¬} tionof simazineinhibits wild oat

germinationduringsecond year.

Selective control of remaining weedinfes¬ tations 2 February-Septem¬ ber

Glyphosateused inspot-spraying

as for first year. _{Dicamba can}be

used for serious infestations of

yellow starthistle, prickly let¬

tuce, and otherbroadleaf weeds.

Mowingasmentionedfor the first

yearof establishment. Spotuseof

hoe or weed _{whip to remove}

patches annual and perennial

weeds. Maintenan ce of ma¬ ture stands 0 f native grasses 3 February-Septem¬ ber

Glyphosate used inselectivespot spraying.

Mowingasmentioned for the first

yearof establishment. Spotuseof

hoe or weed _{whip to remove}

patches annual and perennial

weeds.

^Standard safety precautions should be observed inall use

of

herbicides.

Restricted

herbicides

mustbeused inaccordance with_county,state,and federal regulations. For information regard¬ ingpermitsand usage, contact countyagriculturalcommissioners'

offices.

^Chlorsulfuroncanhavesevereeffectsonsensitive_{non-targetspecies,and it should beavoided}

where runoffordriftonto sensitive sites is_likely

. Specifically,itcannotbe used in oron the

banks of_{irrigation ditches and canals,}

^2,4-D

and dicannba arerestricted-useherbicides, and shouldbe used_{only with}care. Donotuse dicamba where downward orlateral movementofwaterwill_{bring it intocontact with desir¬}

able_{plants. Also avoid applicationortakesteps tominimize driftontosensitive plants when} temperature exceeds85®F(30®C),

Figure

1.

Flowering

Periods

of

Native

Insectary

Trees

and

Shrubs

Salix tasiolepis (Arroyo WiUow)

Salix lasiamdra (Ytllow Willow)

Ceanothus euneatus (A California

Lilac)

Bacckaris viminea (Mule Fat)

Salix _goodingii ssp, variabilis

(Gooding's

Willow)

Salix laevigata (Red Willow)

Prunus ilicifolla (Holly-Leaf Cherry)

Rhamnus californlca (California

Coffeeberry)

Sambucus caerulea (Blue Elderberry)

Heteromeles arbutifolia (Toyon)

Eriogonum fasciculatum

(California

Buckwheat)

Figure

2.

Flowering

Periods

of

Wild Insectary Forbs

Jan Feb

1

_Mar

Apr

1

May

June _{July Aug Sep} Oct Nov Dec

Stellaria media (Chickweed)

<

^ _^

1 f __

4..^

J

L

Euphorbia maculata (Prostrate Spurge) ...1... _{I- 1} ;

Polygonum aviculare (Common Knotweed) ₁

=3:

Ammi _visnaga (Toothpick Ammi) : { ₁

Daucus carota _{(Wild Carrot)} •

.Jfc

L:;y

_,

Foeniculum _vulgare var, dulce (Sweet Fennel)

.J

>=

A < Asclepias fascicularis (Milkweed)

Xanthium _{spinosum (Spiny Clotbur)}

'

<

i i

—

23

Figure 3

Suggested

Roadside

Native

Prairie

Complexes

Native Prairie

Complex

#1

Pavement

edge: Pine

bluegrass (Poa

scahrella

Roadside berm: Red fescue

{Festuca

rubra)

and

California

brome

{Bromus

carinatus).

Inner ditchbank: Meadow

barley

(Hordeum

hrachy

anther um).

Ditch bed: Meadow

barley.

Outer ditchbank: Blue

wildrye.

Fieldside berm and field

edge:

Creeping

wildrye.

Native Prairie

Complex

#2

Pavement

edge:

Pine

bluegrass

and

Idaho

fescue {Festuca

idahoen-sis).

Roadside berm: Pine

bluegrass,

Idaho

fescue,

purple

needlegrass

{Stipa

pulchra),

and

squirreltail

{Sitanion

jubatum).

Inner ditchbank: Meadow

barley,

Idaho fescue,

purple

needlegrass,

nodding

stipa

{Stipa

cernua),

California

oniongrass

{Melica

califor-nica).

Ditch bed: Meadow

barley,

purple

needlegrass,

and

spikerush

{Eleocharis

spp.).

24

Fieldside berm: Blue

wildrye, California brome, and

creeping

wildrye.

25

Appendix 1:

Beneficial Insects

and

their

Associations

with

Trees,

Shrubs,

Cover

Crops,

and

Weeds

(Adapted

from

Bugg,

1990)

Beneficial insects include _{parasites and predators. Parasites are usually more re¬} stricted as to which insects _{theywill attack. Some predators} may be fairly

specialized,

as well, but many are generalists - - feeding opportunistically on various

insects

and

mites. Generalist _predators may be especially importantin field and

vegetable

crops, because_{they can persist in the absence of pests, may arrive in the crop}

first,

and

_may act to _{preempt or slow down pest outbreaks. Some important}

beneficial insects

have

special plant associations.

BIgeyed Bugs {Geocorisspp., Lygaeldae) are

opportunistic

predators

on a

wide

range of insects and mites, and are. They will also feed on nectar.

They

are

especially

important from May to mid July when they are are

commonly

found

on

melon,

okra,

pepper, and squash plants. These predators can be

abundant

in

stands

of

common

knotweed _{{Polygonum avicuiare) along field margins. They can also}

build

_up

in

cool-season cover crops, like berseem clover {Trifolium alexandrium) , and subterranean

clovers, {Trifolium subterraneum), and disperse to adjoining

vegetable

crops

when

the

clovers die early summer.

Hoverflies _{(Syrphldae) often resemble stinging wasps or bees. Many}are

important

predators of aphids. Adult hoverflies are principally flower

visitors, feeding

on

nectar

and _pollen. The larvae are maggots, and these attack aphids.

Wind

shelter

is

very

im¬

portant to syrphids. Nectar is probably important as an

"energy

food"

to

sustain the

hoverflies. _Dietary pollen is important for reproduction. Flowering

buckwheat

(Fagopyrum esculentum), commonly used as acover crop, is

attractive

to

syrphid

flies.

Among weeds common in California, adult syrphids have been

shown

to

be

attracted to

corn _{spurry {Spergula arvensis)} . Allograptaspp.,

Sphaerophoria

spp.,

and

Paragus

tibialisv^ere observed at flowers of common knotweed. Toothpick ammi {Ammi visnaga) attracted Scaeva pyrastri, Eupeodes voiucris, Metasyrphus, Melanostoma. In summer,

we observed Allograpta obliqua, Sphaerophoriaspp., and Paragus

tibialis. Among

plants

suitable forwindbreaks or hedgerows, syrphids are heavily drawn to such native plants

as California lilacs, {Ceanothus spp.); coyote brush { Baccharis

pilularis),

holly-leaved

cherry {Prunusilicifolia) , and wild buckwheats {Eriogonumspp.).

The

soapbark tree

{Quillaja saponaria) was shown to attract Scaeva

pyrastri,

Metasyrphus,

and

Melanostoma.

Lady Beetles (Coccinellldae) are important predators of

aphids

and

other

soft-bodied insects. _{Convergent lady beetle {Hippodamiaconvergens) is important in}

field,

vegetable, and orchard crops; ash-gray lady beetle {Olla

v-nigrum) is

mainly impor¬

tant in tree crops. In the late spring, aphids usually disappear from

Californian

grasslands and most crops, so, out ofdesperation, convergenet

lady

beetle feeds

on

pollen

and nectar. This species is extremely abundant on flowering

soapbark

tree

from

mid

June _{through late June. Nectar and pollen are important in building up}

fat

_reserves

in

the beetles. _{Convergent lady beetle will seek bunchgrasses and form great masses of} beetles that may remain dormant through the summer and early winter.

If bunchgrasses

are not available on _{agricultural field margins, convergent} lady beetle _may

fly

to

pro-26

viding cover crops that harbor aphlds or other alternate prey. A Mixture of hairy vetch ( Vicia vHlosa), and rye {Secale cereale) works well in the cool season, and hemp

ses-bania, {Sesbania exaltata) may prove useful during the summer. Shrubs and trees can also harbor _{aphids that sustain lady beetles. Black locust {Robinia pseudoacacea)} ,

saltbush _{{Atriplex spp.), and California coffee berry ,{Rhamnus californica) appear} promising in this regard.

Minute Pirate _{Bug (Or/us fr/sf/co/or, Anthocoridae) These tiny bugs are}

important predators of corn earworm. They mainly attack the eggs of these and other

moths. _{Theyare common in the silks of corn, and can also build up on flowering cover} crops, shrubs, and weeds. Particularly potent sources are hairy vetch and 'Lana' vetch, toothpick ammi, buckwheat, and wild buckwheats.

Green _{Lacewings (Chrysopidae) are predatory in the larval stages, and for some}

species in the adult stage. In other species, adults feed only on nectar, pollen, and hon-eydew. Comanche lacewing {Chrysoperia comanche) is extremely abundant on flowering soapbark tree from mid June through mid July, and on and bottle tree {Brachychiton populneum) from mid June into October.

Brown _{Lacewings (Hemeroblidae) are predatory in the adult and larval stages, and}

have been shown to be _{important predators of artichoke plume moth in California.}

Adults also feed on nectar, pollen, and honeydew, and are extremely abundant on flow¬ ering soapbark tree late at night, during June, and at bottle tree flowers from June into

October.

Parasitic _{Wasps (Braconidae, Chaicidoidea, and ichneumonidae) are im¬}

portant in biological control of insect pests, and may rely on honeydew or pollen and

nectar in the adult _{stages. In Massachusetts, flowering sweet fennel {Foeniculum}

vul-gare war. dulce) planted amid an organic market garden attracted 48 species of

Ichneumonidae. Fennel is _{probably also important for parasitic wasps in California, as}

has been shown for common knotweed and _{toothpick ammi. Twenty species of}

Ichneumonidae were observed _{taking extraflorat nectarfrom faba bean {Vicia faba) from} late _{September through late October. For unknown reasons, few ichneumonids visit} buckwheat or wild buckwheats.

Predatory Wasps include both social (Vespidae) and solitary species {Eumenidae and Sphecidae). The Vespidae include paper wasps and yellowjackets, which attack many

species of caterpillars. Eumenidae are also prey mainly on caterpillars. Solitary wasps

of the _{Sphecidae, as a group, attack wide ranges of insects, including caterpillars,}

crickets, and weevils. All thesewasps require nesting sites. Many solitary species are

diggerwasps that nest in sandy areas. Some social wasps also nest in the ground, others

undereaves of _{buildings or in trees. Social and solitary wasps rely heavily on nectar,} and _{commonly visit flowers and extrafloral nectaries. In Massachusetts, sweet fennel} planted amid an organic market garden flowered throughout the 12 weeks of sampling. Hymenoptera collected from sweetfennel at two sites included four species of Sphecidae (solitary wasps) and four of Vespidae (social wasps). Flowering spearmint {Mentha spicata) attracted six species ofSphecidae, two of Eumenidae, and two of Vespidae. Cover

crops thatattract many predatory wasps include buckwheat, cowpea {Vigna unguicuiata

ssp. unguicuiata), and white and yellow sweetclovers {Melilotus alba and M. officinalis) .

In Massachusetts, eighteen types of wasps were obtained from buckwheat, and eleven

from annual white sweetclover. In _{Georgia, buckwheat attracted 9 types of Sphecidae, 2} types of Eumenidae, and onetype of Vespidae, whereas extrafloral nectar of cowpea at¬ tracted 10_{types of Sphecidae, 6 of Vespidae, and 4 of Pompilidae.}

Tachinid Flies _{(Tachinidae) include} numerous species that parasitize

stink

bugs,

squash bugs, and the caterpillar stages of various

moths and

butterflies.

Many

of these

flies are relianton nectar and pollen during the adult stage. Seven types oftachinidwere collected from _{toothpick ammi. Buckwheat, wild buckwheat, California coffeeberry ,} coyotebrush, other Baccharisspp., toyon

{Heteromeles

arbutifolia), and white

sweet-clover are also heavily visited.

Softwinged Flower Beetle {Collops vittatus) is a brightly-colored

insect,

with

wing covers striped with bright red and metallic blue-green. Adults

feed

on many

pests,

and are _{commonly found running rapidly over the}foliage ofvegetable _crops,

searching

for eggs of moths. Larvae are pink and crawl about on the soil surface,

feeding

on

other

insects. Adults are often encountered feeding atthe extrafloral nectaries of cowpeas or