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PLANNING: THE CASE OF EGYPT
EMAN MOHAMED
HELMY
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Bournemouth
University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
May 1999
E. Helms Abstract
ABSTRACT
Sustainability has become critically important for the success of any balanced tourism development. This cannot be achieved without full consideration and integration of sustainable development principles into the planning mechanisms of the tourist destination/s.
This study was initiated to justify the role of planning as a tool for implementing sustainability in tourism. It has hypothesized that a complete evaluation of performance of the tourism planning
mechanism should be considered as a starting point, highlighting the needs, strengths, weaknesses and deficiencies. of tourism planning mechanisms adopted by tourist destinations. The research method proposed an assessment system for the different levels of the planning mechanism (policies, strategies, plans and techniques) from a sustainable point of view and thus contributed to the field of tourism planning assessment and evaluation.
The research divided sustainability in tourism into four main dimensions: economic, environmental (natural and manmade), socio - cultural and continuity of the development process. It developed a set of key criteria to assess each dimension at every level of the planning mechanism.
As Egypt was selected as a case study, the research offered an analysis of its tourism planning mechanism with a focus on points of strengths and weaknesses at each level. Primary data (face to face interviews) and secondary data (tourist policy and documented tourist plans) were employed to examine each element of sustainability. This was followed by recommendations and suggestions for enhancing the performance of Egyptian tourism planning to attain more sustainable development goals and to implement more efficient tools for the application of sustainable tourism.
The research also highlighted the role of assessment and evaluation in tourism studies and the importance of conducting an ongoing assessment of tourist planning and development processes. This in turn leads to improving the functions of each planning stage, monitoring the whole planning process and controlling deviations in the planning performance.
This study has directed attention towards the field of evaluation and assessment in tourism and has introduced a new path for sustainable tourism development planning.
LIST OF CONTENTS
Abstract
List of contents
List of illustrations
List of tables
List of abbreviations
Acknowledgement
Introduction
2
3
12
23
26
27
28
Chapter 1: Sustainable tourism development
1.1 Introduction 31
1.2 Sustainable development roots -a historical global perspective 32
1.3 Sustainable development as a concept 40
1.4 Sustainability and the impacts of tourism 46
1.5 Sustainable development and tourism 54
1.5.1 The adoption of sustainable development in tourism 54
1.5.2 Sustainability as a concept in tourism 57
1.6 Issues to be discussed regarding sustainability in tourism 62 1.6.1 Sustainable tourism or sustainable tourism development 63
1.6.2 Sustainable tourism -all partial? 68
1.6.3 Sustainable tourism development and the different stakeholders 70 1.6.4 Small - scale alternative tourism forms versus large - scale mass tourism forms -
theoretically or practically? 75
1.6.5 Approaches to sustainable tourism development 78
1.7 Conclusion 81
Chapter 2: Sustainable tourism development planning and
developing countries
2.1 Introduction 83
2.2 Planning -a general perspective 85
2.3 Planning and tourism 87
2.4 Tourism planning types and paradigms 89
2.5 Sustainable tourism development and planning 93
2.6 Strategies for sustainable tourism development planning 96
2.7 Levels of tourism planning and sustainability 99
2.8 Techniques for sustainable tourism development evaluation 104
2.9 Tourism in developing countries 116
2.9.1 Definition and concepts 116
2.9.2 Developing countries and international tourism 117
2.9.3 Developing countries in tourism studies 119
2.10 Obstacles to the task of sustainable tourism planning in developing countries 122
2.10.1 Challenges to the Third World tourism 122
2.10.2 Implication of sustainable tourism planning for developing countries 127
2.11 Conclusion 131
Chapter 3: Tourism development in Egypt
3.1 Introduction 133
3.2 Tourism activity in the Middle East region 134
3.3 Tourism activity in Egypt -a historical perspective 137
3.3.1 Egypt as a distinctive old tourist destination 137
3.3.2 Tourism activity in Egypt since the 1950's 139
3.4 The components of the Egyptian tourism industry 142
3.4.1 Tourism demand 142
3.4.1.1 International tourist traffic to Egypt during the 80s and 90s 143 3.4.1.2 Domestic tourist demand for the Egyptian tourist product 146
3.4.2 Elements of the Egyptian tourist supply 147
3.4.2.1 Tourist attraction 148
3.4.2.2 Infrastructure tourist facilities 153
3.4.2.3 Superstructure tourist facilities 156
3.4.2.3.1 Tourist accommodation 156
3.4.2.3.2 Transportation 161
3.4.2.3.3 Travel intermediaries 164
3.4.2.3.4 Supporting tourist services 167
3.4.2.4 Skilled human resources 168
3.4.2.5 Tourism organisations and administrations 170
3.4.2.5.1 National governmental tourist authorities 170
3.4.2.5.2 The business sector 175
3.5 Egyptian tourism development planning 175
3.6 The Egyptian concern for environmental conservation and sustainable development 179 3.6.1 An overview of the efforts of the Egyptian policies in adopting the concept
of sustainable development 179
3.6.2 The influence of environmental policies on Egyptian tourism development 181
3.7 Conclusion 185
Chapter 4: Methodology
4.1 Introduction 187
4.2 Topic selection and research problem 189
4.3 Research hypotheses, aims and objectives 190
4.3.1 Hypotheses 190
4.3.2 Research aims 191
4.3.3 Research questions 191
4.4 Evaluating the relevant literature 192
4.5 Exploratory pilot survey 193
4.5.1 Aims of conducting an exploratory survey 194
4.5.2 Exploratory survey methods 194
4.5.3 Assessment of the exploratory survey task 195
4.6 Research methods 196
4.6.1 Assessment methods 196
4.6.1.1 Elements of tourist planning mechanism 197 4.6.1.2 Elements of sustainable tourism development 199 4.6.1.3 How can the assessment be executed? 203
6.4.1.3.1 Criteria to assess the economic dimension 205 6.4.1.3.2 Criteria to assess the environmental dimension 206 6.4.1.3.3 Criteria to assess the socio-cultural dimension 207 6.4.1.3.4 Criteria to assess the continuity of development process 209
4.6.2 What data? 210
4.6.2.1 The task of secondary data collection and analysis 211 4.6.2.1.1 Why is the assessment of secondary data significant for
the current research? 211
4.6.2.1.2 Which tourist policies and plans should be analysed and assessed? 212 4.6.2.1.3 How was the secondary data assessment undertaken? 216
4.6.2.2 Primary data collection 216
4.6.2.2.1 The first survey to collect primary data 216 4.6.2.2.1.1 An overview of the task of conducting
in - depth interviews 216
4.6.2.2.1.2 An overview of the task of distributing
questionnaires addressed to tourist guides 222 4.6.2.2.1.3 An overview of the task of case study / studies
selection and application 223
4.6.2.2.2 The second survey for primary data collection 224
4.6.3 Methods of primary data analysis and presentation 226
4.6.3.1 Methods to analyse primary data 226
4.6.3.2 Methods to present findings 227
4.7 Evaluating the research methods 227
4.8 Conclusion 228
Chapter 5: Assessing the elements of sustainability: An analysis of
secondary sources relating to the Egyptian tourism
planning mechanism
5.1 Introduction 229
5.2 Tourist policies (1995 - 2012) 238
5.2.1 Evaluating the economic dimension 238
5.2.2 Evaluating the natural environment 239
5.2.3 Evaluating the manmade environment 241
5.2.4 Evaluating the socio-cultural dimension 242
5.2.5 Evaluating the continuity of the development process 243
5.3 Tourist plans 245
5.3.1 National tourist plans 245
5.3.1.1 The third five - year tourist plan (1992 - 1997) 245
5.3.1.1.1 Evaluating the economic dimension 245
5.3.1.1.2 Evaluating the natural environment 249
5.3.1.1.3 Evaluating the manmade environment 251
5.3.1.1.4 Evaluating the socio-cultural dimension 253
5.3.1.1.5 Evaluating the continuity of the development process 256 5.3.1.2 The fourth five - year tourist plan (1997 - 2002) 260
5.3.1.2.1 Evaluating the economic dimension 260
5.3.1.2.2 Evaluating the natural environment 262
5.3.1.2.3 Evaluating the manmade environment 264
5.3.1.2.4 Evaluating the socio-cultural dimension 266
5.3.1.2.5 Evaluating the continuity of the development process 268
5.3.2 Regional plans 272
5.3.2.1 The Red Sea regional tourist development plan 273
5.3.2.1.1 Evaluating the economic dimension 273
5.3.2.1.2 Evaluating the natural environment 276
5.3.2.1.3 Evaluating the manmade environment 278
5.3.2.1.4 Evaluating the socio-cultural dimension 281
5.3.2.1.5 Evaluating the continuity of the development process 283
5.3.3 Local plans 287
5.3.3.1 Mers Alain local tourist development plan 287
5.3.3.1.1 Evaluating the economic dimension 287
5.3.3.1.2 Evaluating the natural environment 290
5.3.3.1.3 Evaluating the manmade environment 293
5.3.3.1.4 Evaluating the socio-cultural dimension 294
5.3.3.1.5 Evaluating the continuity of the development process 296
Chapter 6: Assessing the elements of sustainability of the economic dimension
in the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism
6.1 Introduction 300
6.2 Criteria to assess policies and strategies 301
6.2.1 Criterion 1: The rank of tourism among the other economic activities 301 6.2.1.1 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 1 301 6.2.2 Criterion 2: The significance of maximising the economic benefits of tourism
in the past, present and future 306
6.2.2.1 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 2 306
6.3 Criteria to assess plans 310
6.3.1 Criterion 3: The ability of the current tourist plans to maximise the economic
values of tourism 310
6.4 Criteria to assess techniques and programs 315
6.4.1 Criterion 4a: Techniques for achieving national economic benefits 315 6.4.1.1 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 4a. 1: techniques adopted
for creating flows of income to the destination 315
6.4.1.2 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 4a. 2: investment policies 323
6.4.2 Criterion 4b: Socio-economic benefits 329
6.4.2.1 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 4b 329 6.4.3 Criterion 4c: Economic research employment technique 335 6.4.3.1 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 4c 335 6.5 Criterion 5: Egyptian tourist planning mechanism outputs in the domain of
sustaining the economic benefits of tourism 337
6.5.1 Achievements and benefits 339
6.5.1.1 Achievements of the tourist policies & strategies 339
6.5.1.2 Achievements of the tourist plans 341
6.5.2 Pitfalls 342
6.5.2.1 Pitfalls of the tourist policies and strategies 342
6.5.2.2 Pitfalls of the tourist plans 343
6.5.2.3 Pitfalls of the current techniques 344
6.5.3 Suggestions and recommendations that should be considered in order to
avoid deviations in sustaining the economic benefits of tourism 345
6.6 Criterion 6: Implication 348
6.7 Conclusion 349
Chapter 7: Assessing the elements of sustainability for the natural
environment in the Egyptian tourism planning mechanism 7.1 Introduction
7.2 Criteria to assess policies and strategies
350 351
7.2.1 Criterion 1: Agency - co-operation with authorities responsible for crafting natural
environment conservation policies 351
7.2.1.1 Analysis of the respondents' views to criterion 1 351 7.2.2 Criterion 2: Natural environmental conservation objectives, legislation
and plans in the past, present and future tourist policies 353 7.2.2.1 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 2 354 7.3 Criteria to assess techniques and programs of tourist plans 357 7.3.1 Criterion 3: Scientific research to measure the impacts of tourism development 357
7.3.1.1 Analysis of responses to criterion 3 358
7.3.2 Criterion 4: Environmental conservation management 363
7.3.2.1 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 4a: environmental
conservation programs 363
7.3.2.2 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 4b: natural environmental
carrying capacity 367
7.3.3 Criterion 5: Environmental education programs 371
7.3.3.1 analysis of responses and views to criterion 5 371
7.3.4 Criterion 6: Zoning 375
7.3.4.1 Analysis of responses to criterion 6a: protected areas and national parks 375
7.3.4.1.1 Qualitative analysis of criterion 6a 376
7.3.4.2 Analysis of responses to criterion 6b: natural sites and areas under tourist
pressure 380
7.4 Criterion 7: Egyptian tourist planning mechanism outputs in the area of
natural environmental conservation 389
7.4.1 Achievements and benefits 390
7.4.1.1 Achievements of the tourist policies & strategies 390
7.4.1.2 Achievements of the tourist plans 394
7.4.1.3 Achievements of the tourist techniques and programs 395 7.4.2 Pitfalls of the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism that can be considered as
challenges to natural environmental conservation 396
7.4.2.1 Pitfalls of the tourist policies and strategies 396
7.4.2.2 Pitfalls of the tourist plans 3 97
7.4.2.3 Pitfalls of the current techniques and programs used by the plans 398
7.5 Criterion 8: Implication 401
7.6 Conclusion 402
Chapter 8: Assessing the elements of sustainability for the manmade
&heritage environment in the Egyptian tourist planning
mechanism
8.1 Introduction 403
8.2 Criteria to assess policies and strategies 404
8.2.1 Criterion 1: Agency - co-operation with authorities responsible for crafting
cultural heritage environment policies 404
8.2.1.1 Analysis of views to criterion 1 404
8.2.2 Criterion 2: Cultural and heritage environmental conservation objectives and
plans in the past, present and future tourist policies 406 8.2.2.1 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 2 406 8.3 Criteria to assess techniques and programs of tourist plans 409
8.3.1 Criterion 3: Conservation techniques for heritage and cultural
environments used by tourist plans 409
8.3.1.1 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 3a: management programs 409 8.2.1.2 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 3b: carrying capacity 416 8.3.2 Criterion 4: Education programs for cultural & heritage environment conservation 421 8.3.2.1 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 4 421 8.3.3 Criterion 5: Zoning - sites and areas under pressure due to tourist activities
and over - capacity 426
8.3.3.1 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 5 428 8.4 Criterion 6: Egyptian tourist planning mechanism outputs in the field of archaeological
site sustainability (manmade & heritage environment) 433
8.4.1 Achievements and benefits 433
8.4.1.1 Achievements of the tourist policies & strategies 433
8.4.1.2 Achievements of the tourist plans 440
8.4.1.3 Achievements of the current tourist techniques and programs 440 8.4.2 Pitfalls of the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism and challenges to
cultural heritage environmental conservation 441
8.4.2.1 Pitfalls of the tourist policies and strategies 441
8.4.2.2 Pitfalls of the tourist plans 443
8.4.2.3 Pitfalls of the current tourist techniques and programs 445
8.5 Criterion 7: Implication 448
8.6 Conclusion 449
Chapter 9: Assessing the elements of sustainability for the socio-cultural
values in the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism
9.1 Introduction 450
9.2 Criteria to assess policies and strategies 452
9.2.1 Criterion 1: Agency - authorities responsible for crafting socio-cultural
preservation policies 452
9.2.1.1 Analysis of the respondents' views to criterion 1 452 9.2.2 Criterion 2: Socio-cultural value preservation objectives and plans in
the past, present and future tourist policies 454
9.2.2.1 Analysis of responses and views to criterion 2 454
9.3 Criteria to assess techniques implemented by the tourist plans 457 9.3.1 Criterion 3: Social impact assessment techniques (SIA) 457
9.3.1.1 Analysis of responses to criterion 3 457
9.3.1.1.1 Criterion 3a: assessing tourism impacts on communities 457 9.3.1.1.2 Criterion3b: assessing the indigenous people perception
about tourism 458
9.3.1.1.3 Criterion 3c: public involvement in decision -making on
tourism development 459
9.3.2 Criterion 4: Mitigating the negative social impacts on the community 461 9.3.2.1 Analysis of responses to criterion 4a: management activities 462 9.3.2.2 Analysis of responses to criterion 4b: carrying capacity consideration
and limits of acceptable change 463
9.3.3 Criterion 5: Educational programs about socio - cultural environment conservation 465 9.3.3.1 Analysis of responses to criterion 5 465
9.3.4 Criterion 6: Zoning 470
9.3.4.1 Analysis of responses to criterion 6a: regions under pressure due to
negative social impacts of tourism 470
9.3.4.1.1 Quantitative analysis & graphic presentations of criterion 6a 470
9.3.4.1.2 Qualitative analysis of criterion 6a 472
9.3.4.2 Analysis of responses to criterion 6b: regions recently approached by tourist development and needing to adopt cautious socio-cultural
conservation techniques 473
9.4 Criterion 7: Egyptian tourist planning mechanism outputs in the domain of
socio-cultural preservation and sustainability 475
9.4.1 Achievements and benefits 476
9.4.1.1 Achievements of the tourist policies & strategies 476
9.4.1.2 Achievements of the tourist plans 480
9.4.1.3 Achievements of the tourist techniques and programs 480
9.4.2 Pitfalls of the Egyptian planning mechanism 481
9.4.2.1 Pitfalls of the tourist policies and strategies 481
9.4.2.2 Pitfalls of the tourist plans 485
9.4.2.3 Pitfalls of the current techniques and programs 486
9.5 Criterion 8: Implication 487
9.6 Conclusion 489
Chapter 10: Conclusion
10.1 Introduction 490
10.2 Research methods to achieve aims and objectives 490
10.3 Implication of the study for Egypt 492
10.4 A framework of a sustainable development planning process for the Egyptian tourism 496
10.5 Implication of the study for the subject area 499
10.6 Contribution of the research to the body of knowledge 502
10.7 Future research agenda 503
References
505
Appendixes
Chapter 1: Sustainable tourism development
Appendix 1.1- Goals and legal principles of sustainable development Appendix 1.2 - The potential effects of tourism on protected areas
Appendix 1.3 - Main environmental issues judged likely to affect the future of travel and tourism
Appendix 1.4 - The ten Rs criteria for environmental good practice in tourism business operations
Appendix 1.5 - The potential positive effects of interpretation
2
3
4
5
6
Chapter 2: Sustainable tourism development planning and developing
countries
Appendix 2.1 - Techniques for assessing the aspects of sustainability 8
Appendix 2.2 - Comparison between LAC, VIM and VERP 9
Appendix 2.3 - Sample evaluation matrix for environmental impact 10
Chapter 3: Tourism development in Egypt
Appendix 3.1: International tourist demand from 1986-1996 12
Appendix 3.1 - Costs of improving and creating airports 13
Appendix 3.2 - The expansion in accommodation capacity
from 1990 to 1995 14
Appendix 3.3 - Accommodation capacity according to category in 1996 15 Appendix 3.4 - Accommodation capacity under construction in 1996 16
Appendix 3.5 -Travel agencies by category 1985- 1996 17
Chapter 4: Methodology
Appendix 4.1 - Exploratory pilot survey 19
Appendix 4.2 - Interviews 24
Appendix 4.3 - Questionnaire addressed at tourist guides 35
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Chapter 1: Sustainable tourism development
Figure 1.1: Chapter 1 structure 32
Figure 1.2: The dimensions of the definition of sustainable development 35
Figure 1.3: The complexity of sustainable development 44
Figure 1.4: The concept of sustainable development 46
Figure 1.5: The basic impacts of tourism 47
Figure 1.6: Partners of sustainable tourism development 59
Figure 1.7: Tourism development's pentagon - Pyramid 60
Figure 1.8: The driving forces of the new tourism 65
Figure 1.9: Interpretation of sustainable tourism 68
Figure 1.10: Two alternative conceptual models of the sustainable tourism development /
sustainable development relationship 69
Figure 1.11: Local community role under the umbrella of sustainable tourism development 74
Chapter 2: Sustainable tourism development planning and
developing countries
Figure 2.1: Chapter 2 structure 84
Figure 2.2: Tourism planning process 89
Figure 2.3: Integrative systems model of tourism theory and planning 91 Figure 2.4: The four types of co-operation necessary for the development of
successful integrative tourism 92
Figure 2.5: Inter - relationships in planning 94
Figure 2.6: The EBT planning framework 102
Figure 2.7: Tools to assist sustainability analysis for sustainable tourism systems 105
Figure 2.8: The limits of acceptable change (LAC) process 109
Figure 2.9: EA and instrumental linkage 114
Chapter 3: Tourism development in Egypt
Figure 3.1: Chapter three structure 133
Figure 3.2: Attractions and the development of destinations 149
Figure 3.3: The position of travel intermediaries 164
Figure 3.4: The role of travel agents 165
Figure 3.5: The Egyptian national governmental tourist authorities 170
Figure 3.6: The structure of the Ministry of Tourism 174
Figure 3.7: Designated tourism areas 177
Chapter 4: Methodology
Figure 4.1: The research method procedures followed in the current research 188 Figure 4.2: The relationship between the three main issues implied and
investigated by the literature 194
Figure 4.3: Steps followed by the research for approaching the assessment methods 197 Figure 4.4: A tiered system of sustainable tourism development planning mechanism 198
Figure 4.5: Dimensions of sustainable tourism development 199
Figure 4.6: The concept of tourist development continuity 203
Figure 4.7: Criteria to assess the continuity of the development process 209
Figure 4.8: The raw data needed for assessment 210
Chapter 5: Assessing the elements of sustainability: An analysis of secondary sources relating to the Egyptian tourism
planning mechanism
Figure 5.1: Methods used to analyse the sustainability dimensions in the tourist
Planning mechanism through secondary data 230
Figure 5.2: The regional tourist development plan of the Red Sea coast 272
Chapter 6: Assessing the elements of sustainability of the economic
dimension in the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism
Figure 6.1: The current rank of tourism among other economic activities according to
responses of all groups 302
Figure 6.2: The current rank of tourism among other economic activities according to
the official tourist authority group 302
Figure 6.3: The current rank of tourism among other economic activities according to
the private sector group 302
Figure 6.4: The current rank of tourism among other economic activities according to
the environmental affairs agency group 302
Figure 6.5: The current rank of tourism among other economic activities according to
the archaeological authority group 302
Figure 6.6: The current rank of tourism among other economic activities according to
the tourist consultants and planners group 302
Figure 6.7: The current rank of tourism among other economic activities according to
the tourist academic staff group 302
Figure 6.8: The current rank of tourism among other economic activities according to
the archaeological academic staff group 302
Figure 6.9: The significance of maximising the economic benefits of tourism in the past 306 Figure 6.10: The significance of maximising the economic benefits of tourism in the present 306 Figure 6.11: The significance of maximising the economic benefits of tourism in the future 306 Figure 6.12: The success of the current tourist plans in maximising the economic benefits
of tourism according to responses of all groups
Figure 6.13: The success of the current tourist plans in maximising the economic benefits of tourism according to the official tourist authority group
Figure 6.14: The success of the current tourist plans in maximising the economic benefits of tourism according to the private sector group
Figure 6.15: The success of the current tourist plans in maximising the economic benefits of tourism according to the environmental affairs agency group
Figure 6.16: The success of the current tourist plans in maximising the economic benefits of tourism according to the archaeological authority group
Figure 6.17: The success of the current tourist plans in maximising the economic benefits of tourism according to the tourist consultants and planners group
Figure 6.18: The success of the current tourist plans in maximising the economic benefits of tourism according to the tourist academic staff group
Figure 6.19: The success of the current tourist plans in maximising the economic benefits of tourism according to the archaeological academic staff group
Figure 6.20: Techniques adopted for creating flows of income to the destination according to responses of all groups
Figure 6.21: Techniques adopted for creating flows of income to the destination according to the official tourist authority group
Figure 6.22: Techniques adopted for creating flows of income to the destination according to the private sector group
Figure 6.23: Techniques adopted for creating flows of income to the destination according to the environmental affairs agency group
Figure 6.24: Techniques adopted for creating flows of income to the destination according to the archaeological authority group
Figure 6.25: Techniques adopted for creating flows of income to the destination according to the tourist consultants & planners group
Figure 6.26: Techniques adopted for creating flows of income to the destination according to the tourist academic staff group
Figure 6.27: Techniques adopted for creating flows of income to the destination according to the archaeological academic staff group
Figure 6.28: Techniques used by the national tourist plans to create flows of income to the destination
Figure 6.29: Two techniques to be added to the other schemes used by the tourist plans to create flows of income to the destination
Figure 6.30: Techniques of encouraging tourist projects and offering incentives to investors according to responses of all groups
Figure 6.31: Techniques of encouraging tourist projects and offering incentives to investors according to the official tourist authority group
Figure 6.32: Techniques of encouraging tourist projects and offering incentives
311 311 311 311 311 311 311 311 316 316 316 316 316 316 316 316 323 324 325 325 14
to investors according to the private sector group
Figure 6.33: Techniques of encouraging tourist projects and offering incentives to investors according to the environmental affairs agency group
Figure 6.34: Techniques of encouraging tourist projects and offering incentives to investors according to the archaeological authority group
Figure 6.35: Techniques of encouraging tourist projects and offering incentives to investors according to the tourist consultants & planners group Figure 6.36: Techniques of encouraging tourist projects and offering incentives
to investors according to the tourist academic staff group
Figure 6.37: Techniques of encouraging tourist projects and offering incentives to investors according to the archaeological academic staff group
Figure 6.38: Techniques implemented for achieving socio-economic benefits according to responses of all groups
Figure 6.39: Techniques implemented for achieving socio-economic benefits according to the official tourist authority groups
Figure 6.40: Techniques implemented for achieving socio-economic benefits according to the private sector group
Figure 6.41: Techniques implemented for achieving socio-economic benefits according to the environmental affairs agency group
Figure 6.42: Techniques implemented for achieving socio-economic benefits according to the archaeological authority group
Figure 6.43: Techniques implemented for achieving socio-economic benefits according to the tourist consultants & planners group
Figure 6.44: Techniques implemented for achieving socio-economic benefits according to the tourist academic staff group
Figure 6.45: Techniques implemented for achieving socio-economic benefits according to the archaeological academic group
Figure 6.46: Techniques of conducting economic research according to responses of all groups
Figure 6.47: Techniques of conducting economic research according to the official tourist authority group
Figure 6.48: Techniques of conducting economic research according to the private sector group
Figure 6.49: Techniques of conducting economic research according to the environmental affairs agency group
Figure 6.50: Techniques of conducting economic research according to the archaeological authority group
Figure 6.51: Techniques of conducting economic research according to the tourist consultants and planners group
Figure 6.52: Techniques of conducting economic research according to the tourist
325 325 325 325 325 325 330 330 330 330 330 330 330 330 336 336 336 336 336 336 15
academic staff group 336 Figure 6.53: Techniques of conducting economic research according to the archaeological
academic staff group 336
Figure 6.54: Methodology used to synthesise achievements and pitfalls of the tourist
Planning mechanism regarding the sustainability of the economic values 338 Figure 6.55: How the current tourist policy sustains the economic benefits of tourism 340 Figure 6.56: Tasks that should be considered to guarantee more sustainable economic benefits 341
Chapter 7: Assessing the elements of sustainability for the natural
environment in the Egyptian tourism planning mechanism
Figure 7.1: The systematic change that has occurred in the structure of environmental
agency in Egypt. 352
Figure 7.2: The efficiencies of the past tourist policies to implement strategies, legislation
and plans for natural environmental conservation 354
Figure 7.3: The efficiencies of the present tourist policies to implement strategies, legislation
and plans for natural environmental conservation 354
Figure 7.4: The efficiencies of the future tourist policies to implement strategies, legislation
and plans for natural environmental conservation 354
Figure 7.5: Techniques of adopting scientific research to measure the environmental
impacts of tourism development according to responses of all groups 358 Figure 7.6: Techniques of adopting scientific research to measure the environmental
impacts of tourism development according to the official tourist authority group 358 Figure 7.7: Techniques of adopting scientific research to measure the environmental
impacts of tourism development according to the private sector group 358 Figure 7.8: Techniques of adopting scientific research to measure the environmental impacts
of tourism development according to the environmental affairs agency group 358 Figure 7.9: Techniques of adopting scientific research to measure the impacts of tourism
development according to the tourist consultants and planners group 359 Figure 7.10: Techniques of adopting scientific research to measure the environmental impacts
of tourism development according to the tourist academic staff group 359 Figure 7.11: Environmental conservation programs according to responses of all groups 363 Figure 7.12: Environmental conservation programs according to the official tourist
authority group 363
Figure 7.13: Environmental conservation programs according to the private
sector group 364
Figure 7.14: Environmental conservation programs according to the environmental affairs
agency group 364
Figure 7.15: Environmental conservation programs according to the tourist consultants &
planners group 364
Figure 7.16: Environmental conservation programs according to the tourist academic
staff group 364 Figure 7.17: Techniques of carrying capacity consideration according to responses
of all groups 368
Figure 7.18: Techniques of carrying capacity consideration according to the official
tourist authority groups 368
Figure 7.19: Techniques of carrying capacity consideration according to the private
sector group 368
Figure 7.20: Techniques of carrying capacity consideration according to the environmental
affairs agency group 368
Figure 7.21: Techniques of carrying capacity consideration according to the tourist
consultants and planners group 368
Figure 7.22: Techniques of carrying capacity consideration according to the tourist
academic staff groups 368
Figure 7.23: Techniques of environmental education according to responses of all groups 371 Figure 7.24: Techniques of environmental education according to the official tourist
authority group 371
Figure 7.25: Techniques of environmental education according to the private sector group 371 Figure 7.26: Techniques of environmental education according to the environmental affairs
agency group 371
Figure 7.27: Techniques of environmental education according to the tourist consultants &
planners group 372
Figure 7.28: Techniques of environmental education according to the tourist academic
staff group 372
Figure 7.29: The success of Hurghada tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the official tourist authority group 384 Figure 7.30: The success of Sharm El-Sheikh tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the official tourist authority group 384 Figure 7.31: The success of Nile cruise tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the official tourist authority group 384 Figure 7.32: The success of Sahl Hasheesh tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the official tourist authority group 384 Figure 7.33: The success of Ras Abou Soma tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the official tourist authority group 384 Figure 7.34: The success of Hurghada tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the private sector group 385 Figure 7.35: The success of Sharm EI-Sheikh tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the private sector group 385 Figure 7.36: The success of Nile cruise tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the private sector group 385 Figure 7.37: The success of Sahel Hasheesh tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the private sector group 385 Figure 7.38: The success of Ras Abou Soma tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the private sector group 385 Figure 7.39: The success of Hurghada tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the environmental affairs agency group 386 Figure 7.40: The success of Sharm El-Sheikh tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the environmental affairs agency group 386 Figure 7.41: The success of Nile cruise tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the environmental affairs agency group 386 Figure 7.42: The success of Sahl Hasheesh tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the environmental affairs agency group 386 Figure 7.43: The success of Ras Abou Soma tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the environmental affairs agency group 386 Figure 7.44: The success of Hurghada tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the tourist consultants & planners group 387 Figure 7.45: The success of Sharm El-Sheikh tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the tourist consultants & planners group 387 Figure 7.46: The success of Nile cruise tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the tourist consultants & planners group 3 87 Figure 7.47: The success of Sahl Hasheesh tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the tourist consultants & planners group 387 Figure 7.48: The success of Ras Abou Soma tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the tourist consultants & planners group 387 Figure 7.49: The success of Hurghada tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the tourist academic staff group 388 Figure 7.50: The success of Sharm El-Sheikh tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the tourist academic staff group 388 Figure 7.51: The success of Nile cruise tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the tourist academic staff group 388 Figure 7.52: The success of Sahl Hasheesh tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the tourist academic staff group 388 Figure 7.53: The success of Ras Abou Soma tourist plan in implementing environmental
conservation techniques according to the tourist academic staff group 388 Figure 7.54: Methodology used to synthesise achievements and pitfalls of the tourist
planning mechanism regarding the sustainability of the natural environment 3 90 Figure 7.55: The significance of natural environmental conservation in the Egyptian
national policy 392
Figure 7.56: How the Egyptian tourist policy handles natural environmental conservation 393 Figure 7.57: Suggested tourist sub - policy for natural environmental conservation 394
Chapter 8: Assessing the elements of sustainability for the manmade &heritage environment in the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism
Figure 8.1: The current situation in the historical & archaeological sites
Figure 8.2: A suggested structure of co-operative work crafting conservation policy for cultural and historical archaeological sites
Figure 8.3: The ability of the past tourist policies to include strategies and plans for cultural-heritage environment conservation
Figure 8.4: The ability of the present tourist policy to include strategies and plans for cultural-heritage environment conservation
Figure 8.5: The ability of the future tourist policies to include strategies and plans for cultural-heritage environment conservation
Figure 8.6: A suggested model for a network planning system to save the cultural historical environment from degradation
Figure 8.7: Management program techniques for the conservation of the manmade environment according to responses of all groups
Figure 8.8: Management program techniques for the conservation of the manmade environment according to the official tourist authority group
Figure 8.9: Management program techniques for the conservation of the manmade environment according to the private sector group
Figure 8.10: Management program techniques for the conservation of the manmade environment according to the environmental affairs agency group
Figure 8.11: Management program techniques for the conservation of the manmade environment according to the archaeological authority group
Figure 8.12: Management program techniques for the conservation of the manmade environment according to the tourist consultants & planners group
Figure 8.13: Management program techniques for the conservation of the manmade environment according to the tourist academic staff group
Figure 8.14: Management program techniques for the conservation of the manmade environment according to the archaeological academic staff group
Figure 8.15: Management program techniques for the conservation of the manmade environment according to the tourist guides group
Figure 8,16: Techniques of maximum carrying capacity consideration according to responses of all groups
Figure 8.17: Techniques of maximum carrying capacity consideration according to the official tourist authority group
Figure 8.18: Techniques of maximum carrying capacity consideration according to the private sector group
Figure 8.19: Techniques of maximum carrying capacity consideration according to the environmental affairs agency group
405 406 407 407 407 408 409 409 410 410 410 410 410 410 410 416 416 416 416 19
Figure 8.20: Techniques of maximum carrying capacity consideration according to
the archaeological authority group 416
Figure 8.21: Techniques of maximum carrying capacity consideration according to
the tourist consultants and planners group 416
Figure 8.22: Techniques of maximum carrying capacity consideration according to
the tourist academic staff group 417
Figure 8.23: Techniques of maximum carrying capacity consideration according to
the archaeological academic staff group 417
Figure 8.24: Techniques of maximum carrying capacity consideration according to
the tourist guides group 417
Figure 8.25: Techniques of educational programs for cultural environment conservation
according to responses of all groups 421
Figure 8.26: Techniques of educational programs for cultural environment conservation
according to the official tourist authority group 421
Figure 8.27: Techniques of educational programs for cultural environment conservation
according to the private sector group 421
Figure 8.28: Techniques of educational programs for cultural environment conservation
according to the environmental affairs agency group 421
Figure 8.29: Techniques of educational programs for cultural environment conservation
according to the archaeological authority group 422
Figure 8.30: Techniques of educational programs for cultural environment conservation
according to the tourist consultants & planners group 422 Figure 8.31: Techniques of educational programs for cultural environment conservation
according to the tourist academic staff group 422
Figure 8.32: Techniques of educational programs for cultural environment conservation
according to the archaeological academic staff group 422 Figure 8.33: Techniques of educational programs for cultural environment conservation
according to the tourist guides group 422
Figure 8.34: Historical sites under tourist pressure according to responses of all groups 429 Figure 8.35: Historical sites under tourist pressure according to the official
tourist authority group 429
Figure 8.36: Historical sites under tourist pressure according to the private sector group 429 Figure 8.37: Historical sites under tourist pressure according to the environmental
affairs agency group 429
Figure 8.38: Historical sites under tourist pressure according to the archaeological
authority group 429
Figure 8.39: Historical sites under tourist pressure according to the tourist consultants &
planners group 429
Figure 8.40: Historical sites under tourist pressure according to the tourist academic staff 430 Figure 8.41: Historical sites under tourist pressure according to the archaeological
academic staff group 430 Figure 8.42: Historical sites under tourist pressure according to the tourist guides group 430 Figure 8.43: Methodology used to synthesise achievements and pitfalls of the tourist
planning mechanism regarding the sustainability of the manmade environment 434 Figure 8.44: The significance of cultural heritage conservation in the Egyptian
archaeological conservation policy 435
Figure 8.45: What should be included in the action policy for the sustainability of
archaeological cultural sites 437
Figure 8.46: How the Egyptian tourist policy handles the issue of historical site protection 438 Figure 8.47: A suggested tourist policy for cultural historical environmental conservation 439 Figure 8.48: A suggested network system for the tourist authorities and the archaeological
authorities 444
Chapter 9: Assessing the elements of sustainability for the socio-cultural
values in the Egvntian tourist planning mechanism
Figure 9.1: A suggested structure of the co-operation needed to approach tourism planning with a community - based concept.
Figure 9.2: Socio-cultural value preservation objectives and plans in the past tourist policies Figure 9.3: Socio-cultural value preservation objectives and plans in the present tourist policy Figure 9.4: Socio-cultural value preservation objectives and plans in the future tourist policies Figure 9.5: Methods to bridge the gap between developers and local communities
Figure 9.6: Social carrying capacity consideration according to responses of all groups Figure 9.7: Social carrying capacity consideration according to the official
tourist authority group
Figure 9.8: Social carrying capacity consideration according to the private sector group Figure 9.9: Social carrying capacity consideration according to the environmental
affairs agency group
Figure 9.10: Social carrying capacity consideration according to the archaeological authority group
Figure 9.11: Social carrying capacity consideration according to the tourist consultants & planners group
Figure 9.12: Social carrying capacity consideration according to the tourist academic staff group
Figure 9.13: Social carrying capacity consideration according to the archaeological academic staff group
Figure 9.14: Techniques of educational programs for socio-cultural environment conservation according to responses of all groups
Figure 9.15: Techniques of educational programs for socio-cultural environment conservation according to the official tourist authority group
Figure 9.16: Techniques of educational programs for socio-cultural environment
454 455 455 455 461 464 464 464 464 464 464 464 464 466 466 21
conservation according to the private sector group
Figure 9.17: Techniques of educational programs for socio-cultural environment conservation according to the environmental affairs agency group
Figure 9.18: Techniques of educational programs for socio-cultural environment conservation according to the archaeological authority group
Figure 9.19: Techniques of educational programs for socio-cultural environment conservation according to the tourist consultants & planners group Figure 9.20: Techniques of educational programs for socio-cultural environment
conservation according to the tourist academic staff group
Figure 9.21: Techniques of educational programs for socio-cultural environment conservation according to the archaeological academic staff group
Figure 9.22: Areas suffering negative social impacts of tourism according to responses of all groups
Figure 9.23: Areas suffering negative social impacts of tourism according to the tourist authority group
Figure 9.24: Areas suffering negative social impacts of tourism according to the private sector group
Figure 9.25: Areas suffering negative social impacts of tourism according to the environmental affairs agency group
Figure 9.26: Areas suffering negative social impacts of tourism according to the archaeological authority group
Figure 9.27: Areas suffering negative social impacts of tourism according to the tourist consultants & planners group
Figure 9.28: Areas suffering negative social impacts of tourism according to the tourist academic staff group
Figure 9.29: Areas suffering negative social impacts of tourism according to the archaeological academic staff group
Figure 9.30: Direction of tourist development on the Red Sea
Figure 9.31: Methodology used to synthesise achievements and pitfalls of the tourist planning mechanism in the sustainability of the socio-cultural values
Figure 9.32: How the Egyptian tourist policy handles the social impacts of tourism Figure 9.33: A suggested tourist sub-policy for socio-cultural preservation
Figure 9.34: A suggested strategy to investigate socio-cultural issues in the big cities Figure 9.35: A suggested strategy to investigate the socio-cultural impacts of tourism
in new regions recently developed as tourist destinations
Figure 9.36: A suggested strategy to investigate socio-cultural issues in the new regions that will be approached as tourist destinations
Chapter 10: Conclusion
Figure 10.1: Challenges to the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism
466 466 466 466 466 466 471 471 471 471 472 472 472 472 474 476 478 479 482 483 484 493 22
LIST OF TABLES
Chapter 1: Sustainable tourism development
Table 1.1: The four groups of topics considered in Agenda 21
Table 1.2: The differences between the first and the second environmental revolution Table 1.3: The economic benefits and costs of tourism
Table 1.4: Green's checklist of the environmental impacts caused by tourism Table 1.5: Potential social impacts of tourism
Table 1.6: The charter for sustainable tourism
Table 1.7: Sustainable tourism definition and benefits
Table 1.8: what makes achieving sustainable tourism development so difficult Table 1.9: Main sub-issues implied by the literature to be discussed under the
title sustainability and tourism
Table 1.10: The wide margin of sustainability in tourism interpretation and perspective Table 1.11: Agenda 21 - public sector role
Table 1.12: Agenda 21 - Private sector role
Table 1.13: Examples of names used refer to nature - based tourism Table 1.14: Attributes of mass and alternative tourism
Table 1.15: A framework of approaches to sustainable tourism Table 1.16: A guideline for sustainable tourism
Chapter 2: Sustainable tourism development planning and
developing countries
Table 2.1: Interactive planning vs. conventional planning Table 2.2: Diversity of tourism planning
Table 2.3: Dowling's examination of the literature on environmental planning, tourism planning and environmental - tourism planning
Table 2.4: Principles
for sustainable
tourism to be used by local planners
Table 2.5: Successive steps for private and public development strategies for sustainable tourism development
Table 2.6: The progress of the scientific research on tourism in developing countries Table 2.7: characteristics of the two tourism sectors
Table 2.8: The three major sets of problems, which militate against achieving sustainable tourism in the Third World
Table 2.9: Four major policy considerations that should be regarded by LDC's for achieving sustainability in tourism
Chapter 3: Tourism development in Egypt
Table 3.1: Positive factors of tourism development in the Middle East region
37 39 49 50 52 56 58 62 63 67 72 72 76 78 79 80 86 89 92 95 98 121 123 128 129 136 23
Table 3.2: Elements of tourism supply
Table 3.3: An inventory of the Egyptian tourist attractions
Table 3.4: The type of flight operation the Egyptian airports receive Table 3.5: An inventory of the Egyptian national tourist plan
Table 3.6: An inventory of the plans prepared by the TDA in the areas designated as prior tourist development zones
Chapter 4: Methodolo2y
Table 4.1: The research techniques of linking the tourist planning mechanism with the sustainability dimensions through a series of criteria
Table 4.2: A list of criteria developed to assess the performance of the tourist planning mechanism regarding the economic aspect of sustainability
Table 4.3: A list of criteria developed to assess the performance of the tourist planning mechanism regarding sustainability of the natural environmental assets
Table 4.4: A list of criteria developed to assess the performance of the tourist planning mechanism regarding sustainability of manmade environment
Table 4.5: A list of criteria developed to assess the performance of the tourist planning mechanism regarding sustainability of the socio-cultural values
Table 4.6: A breakdown of the sample size employed by the research methods
Chapter 5: Assessing the elements of sustainability: An analysis of
secondary sources relating to the Egyptian tourism
planning mechanism
Table 5.1: A comparison between the tourist policy, strategies, national plans, the Red Sea regional plan, Mersa Alam local plan regarding the
sustainability of economic values
Table 5.2: A comparison between the tourist policy, strategies, national plans, the Red Sea regional plan, Mersa Alam local plan regarding
sustainability of the natural environmental assets
Table 5.3: A comparison between the tourist policy, strategies, national plans, the Red Sea regional plan, Mersa Alam local plan regarding
sustainability of the manmade environment
Table 5.4: A comparison between the tourist policy, strategies, national plans, the Red Sea regional plan, Mersa Alam local plan regarding
sustainability of the socio-cultural values
Table 5.5: A comparison between the tourist policy, strategies, national plans,
the Red Sea regional plan, Mersa Alain local plan regarding continuity of the development process
148 151 163 176 178 204 205 206 207 207 219 231 232 233 234 235 24
Chapter 6: Assessing the elements of sustainability of the economic dimension
in the Egyptian tourist Planning mechanism
Table 6.1: Criteria to assess the performance of the tourist planning mechanism regarding
the economic dimension of sustainability 300
Table 6.2: Characteristics of past, present and future Egyptian tourism development 310 Table 6.3: Success of the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism in sustaining
the economic benefits of tourism in terms of figures (quantitative measures) 348 Table 6.4: Success of the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism in sustaining
the economic benefits of tourism in terms of qualitative measures 348
Chapter 7: Assessing the elements of sustainability for the natural
environment in the Egyptian tourism planning mechanism
Table 7.1: Criteria to assess the performance of the tourist planning mechanism regarding sustainability of the natural ecological environment
Table 7.2: Protected areas & national parks in the Egyptian tourist plans
Table 7.3: Regions under tourist pressure and needing management efforts according to views of each group of respondents
Table 7.4: Virgin areas that need sustainable tourism planning selected by each group of respondents
Table 7.5: Success of the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism in sustaining the natural environmental assets
Chapter 8: Assessing the elements of sustainability for the manmade
&heritage environment in the Egyptian tourist plannin
mechanism
Table 8.1: Criteria to assess the performance of the tourist planning mechanism regarding sustainability of the manmade environment
Table 8.2: Success of the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism in sustaining . the manmade environment
Chapter 9: Assessing the elements of sustainability for the socio-cultural
values in the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism
Table 9.1: Criteria to assess the performance of the tourist planning mechanism regarding sustainability of socio-cultural values
Table 9.2: Success of the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism in sustaining the socio-cultural values
350 379 381 382 401 403 448 450 488 25
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
cc CEA EA EEAA EIA EIS EMS ES GATS IUCN Km LAC LDCs MDCs MOT NGOs NTOs PI PPPs ROS/ROG SD SEA SIA SS STD TDA UNEP USA VERP VIM LACEDwcs
ws
wTo
wTTc
Carrying CapacityCumulative Effects Assessment Environmental Assessment
Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Impact Statement
Environmental Management System Environmental Statement
The General Agreement on Trade in Services The World Conservation Union
Kilometre
Limits of Acceptable Change Less Developed Countries
More Developed Countries
Egyptian Ministry of Tourism
Non - Governmental organizations National Tourism Organizations
Public Involvement
Policies, Plans and Programs
Recreation Opportunity Spectrum / Recreation Opportunity Guide Sustainable Development
Strategic Environmental Assessment Social Impact Assessment
Strong Sustainability
Sustainable Tourism Development
Egyptian Tourist Development Authority
The United Nations Environmental Programme United States of America
Visitor Experience & Resource Protection Visitor Impact Management
The World Commission on Environment and Development The World Conservation Strategy
Weak Sustainability
World Tourism Organization
The World Travel and Tourism Council
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I would like to thank my sponsor, the Egyptian Ministry of Higher Education for granting me the scholarship.
Many thanks are owed to Professor Chris Cooper, my first supervisor, for guidance, help and technical advice. I am enormously indebted to all the support and encouragement I received from him for three and half years throughout this work. Professor Cooper's generous personality and unconditional support helped me to overcome the difficulties and stress of the PhD.
I would also like to thank Professor John Fletcher, the Head of the International Centre of Tourism and Hospitality Research at Bournemouth University and my second supervisor for all the facilities he offered me as a PhD. researcher in the centre.
A special thank you to Lorraine Brown for assistance and support and to Karen Ward and Diane Hibbert for their encouragement.
This thesis could not have been written without the assistance of different individuals and organisations during field survey and data collection tasks. I gratefully acknowledge the help of all respondents whose replies were critically important for this study and their help is very much appreciated. As the researcher worked with "anonymous" data for confidentiality, no names will be mentioned in acknowledgement.
I would also like to acknowledge Professor Hazim Attiatalla, the Vice Head of Helwan University in Cairo, and Professor All Omar Abdalla, the Dean of the Faculty of Tourism at Helwan University, for facilitating the routine procedures relevant to my scholarship.
I also wish to thank Professor Salah Wahab and Mrs Wahab for encouragement and Mr Sayed Moussa for support.
Finally, many thanks to Mum, Dad and sister Nahla for the continuous psychological encouragement I received through warm phone calls and letters.
E. Helme Introduction
Introduction
Sustainable tourism development is one of the most significant topics discussed by tourist planners and researchers during the last decade of the 20`h century. All studies and researches on sustainable tourism
imply that by the beginning of the new millennium, any destination that depends (or intends to depend) on tourism as a major source of income and is looking forward to achieving long term economic benefits of tourism should be able to:
1- Formulate appropriate policies in order to guarantee sustainable economic benefits.
2- Adopt efficient strategies in order to guarantee the sustainability of the development process.
3- Implement compatible plans for the environment and natural and man made attractions in order to sustain the contribution of these resources to tourism activities for the following generations.
4- Co-ordinate and harmonise tourist policies and plans with the other national policies and plans which support tourist development.
5- Integrate regional and local tourist plans into the other activities in each tourist destination in a way that guarantees public community welfare and the sustainability of socio-economic benefits.
6- Balance the benefits and costs of tourism for public communities. This should result in a complete consideration of the social carrying capacities of the local community in order to guarantee the sustainability of local identity, traditions, culture and social satisfaction.
The elements mentioned above have become prerequisites that should be adopted by any tourist destination that wants to compete in the international tourist market in the 21" century. However, the level of preparedness to implement and achieve sustainability is not the same among tourist destinations. For example, it is expected that developed countries will have better opportunities for adopting the sustainability principles than developing countries. However, strong international competition amongst tourist destinations does not consider the internal obstacles of tourist development in one destination or another. Related to this is the fact that tourist demand is very sensitive and flexible. As clients have the right to select the destination that satisfies their needs, desires and expectations, sustainable tourist development is expected to become an important element of these needs.
Accordingly, all states, regardless of whether they are developed or developing should plan for sustainability and formulate adequate policies, strategies, plans and programs in order to approach the principles of sustainable development. This should be followed by the implementation of efficient techniques. However, pillars of sustainable tourist development may place pressures on tourist development in those developing countries that promote tourism solely for short- term economic gains.
The purpose of this thesis is to examine the adequacy of the Egyptian planning mechanism from a sustainable development point of view. This task has entailed the evaluation of Egyptian tourist policies, strategies, plans and techniques, as these are considered to be the key elements forming the planning mechanism. The study has attempted to explore how far the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism is able to encompass the different dimensions of sustainable development and to investigate its points of strengths
E. Helme Introduction
and weaknesses. Moreover, identifying gaps in the levels of the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism and offering appropriate recommendations are two of the main tasks that the current research has achieved.
Research objectives
The research has three main objectives:
I- To highlight the role of planning in implementing sustainability. The research approaches the analysis of tourist policies, strategies, plans and techniques as a coherent mechanism in which planning objectives, functions and instruments should be considered.
2- To shed light on the field of assessment and evaluation in tourism studies and to justify its role in offering a comprehensive analysis of tourism development.
3- The third objective is related to the case study of Egypt. This objective investigates the Egyptian tourist planning mechanism from a sustainable point of view, which in turn leads to suggesting appropriate actions and instruments that need to be considered by the different stages and functions of the tourist planning system.
Research outline
The current research consists of ten chapters: three reviewing the relevant literature, one presenting the methodology developed by the study, another chapter analysing secondary data, four chapters for primary data analyses and finally a conclusion chapter.
The first chapter is concerned with sustainability in tourism. It offers an overview of the concept of sustainable tourism development with a focus on its goals, principles and challenges. This chapter also highlights the needs of the tourism industry to adopt sustainability principles in its development and planning contexts and investigates the main issues to be considered in the "sustainable tourism
development" subject.
Chapter two has been broken down into two main sections: sustainable tourism planning; and developing countries. The first section offers an overview of the different tourism planning paradigms and offers approaches to sustainable tourism development planning. The second section reviews the concept of developing countries with a focus on the different challenges and pressures on their tourism development and planning contexts. The discussion ends with the implications of sustainable tourism planning for developing countries.
Chapter three begins with an overview of tourism development activity in the Middle East region and then moves onto investigate tourism development in Egypt, offering a comprehensive analysis of both supply and demand. It also reviews the reaction of Egypt to the global concern for sustainable tourism development.
E. Helme Introduction
The methodology chapter provides a full presentation of the research problem, hypotheses, aims and objectives. It also offers a debate on the research methods developed for evaluating the tourism planning mechanism and shows the role of secondary and primary data in reaching findings. An explanation of the procedures and steps of the field survey and data analysis is also presented in the methodology chapter.
As the research method has implied the use of secondary data as an auxiliary tool for evaluating tourist Planning, an analysis of a selected sample of Egyptian tourist policies, strategies, plans and techniques is presented in chapter five with the aim of analysing continuity in the development process.
The present research has divided sustainability in tourism into main areas and the four primary data analyses chapters reflect this by covering the assessment of the Egyptian tourism planning mechanism with regard to each sustainability dimension. Accordingly, the evaluation of the economic dimension is presented in chapter six while chapter seven investigates the natural environmental aspect and chapter eight looks at the manmade environmental dimension. The socio-cultural dimension of sustainability is evaluated in chapter nine.
Chapter ten draws a conclusion by synthesising findings of the research with a focus on the different implications
of the study and linking the findings to the literature review. It also offers an overview of the contribution of the research to the body of knowledge and introduces an agenda of issues relevant to the fields of sustainability planning and evaluation to be investigated by the future research.
