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ISSN 1450-2267 Vol. 59 No 4 June, 2020, pp. 441-448 http://www.europeanjournalofsocialsciences.com/

Parenting Styles and Self-esteem of Secondary School Students in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, Nigeria

Denwigwe, Chiaka Patience Department of Guidance and Counselling

University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria E-mail: chipaden@yahoo.co.uk

Uche, Rachel D.

Department of Guidance and Counselling University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria

E-mail: riciuche@yahoo.com

Abstract

This study investigated the relationship of authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive parenting styles with self-esteem of students in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja, Nigeria. With a sample of 120 students randomly selected from three secondary schools in the FCT, parenting styles were related to self-esteem of students through a co-relational study. Three hypotheses were formulated to guide this research and one research question was posed. A researcher-made questionnaire termed Parental Authority and Self-esteem Questionnaire (PAASEQ) was the instrument for data collection while Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation statistic was the statistical tool for data analysis. Findings showed that there were significant positive relationships between authoritative and permissive parenting styles and students’ self-esteem, and a significant negative relationship between authoritarian parenting style and students’ self-esteem. Following these findings, it was recommended that parents should be counselled on the issue of effective parenting, students should be counselled on the need to develop good self-esteem while parents, teachers and significant others should be mindful of the need for psychosocial success among secondary school students.

Keywords: Parenting styles, Self-esteem, Relationship, Secondary school, Students.

Introduction

The importance of self-esteem in the life of an individual cannot be overemphasized. Being the worth a person attaches to himself or herself, a great deal of attention is given to it particularly when adolescent issues are under consideration. Self-esteem has been known to affect various aspects of one’s life positively or negatively. The relationship an adolescent has with his peers, adults, and significant others contributes significantly to his self-esteem development. One’s self-esteem or the way he values himself, affects his academic success, coping skills and his level of motivation and confidence. Self- esteem challenges in adolescents can result into other adolescent issues such as stress, loneliness, depression, and so on. Social adjustment problems of students like juvenile delinquency, violent crimes, drug and alcohol abuse, teenage pregnancy, child abuse, and school failures as suggested by Dalgas-Pelish (2006) are self-esteem-related.

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The self-esteem related social adjustment problems of the adolescents, predispose the parents to the stress of worrying over how best to raise children to become well-adjusted, self-reliant and responsible citizens. Most of the time therefore, the parents are preoccupied with the issue of inculcating discipline into the child, who in turn feels that he is grown up enough to cater for him or herself, and so, tries to resist this discipline. The child at this stage claims to be on top of the situation all the time and being adventurous, he often encounters challenges. Despite their preoccupation with the need for freedom from the parents, teachers and significant others, the adolescents come face to face with the need to align their zeal and aspirations to their parents’ expectations. This very often brings them to a crossroad, making them to be more restless. In as much as parenting is a necessity, the way and manner it is handled matters a lot as it may affect the self-esteem development of children. In other words, poor parenting can cause more harm than good to adolescents’ self-esteem. The problems that emanate when self-esteem is poorly developed are difficult to grapple with because they affect the psychosocial success of the adolescents.

The issue of helping the adolescents to develop the right self-esteem for better adjustment in life, has bugged the school counsellors, parents, teachers, government and significant others, prompting them to embark on programmes that will be of help. Some of these programmes include self-esteem enhancement programmes, leadership training programmes, assertiveness training and value-reorientation programmes. These have good impact on self- esteem development, but a lot still needs to be done. The question that had perturbed the researchers, therefore, was whether parenting styles could have any impact on the self-esteem development of the adolescents. She was agitated by the feeling that if appropriate parenting styles are not applied, secondary school students may develop poor self-esteem. The study thus, set out to investigate the various parenting styles and how they relate to the adolescents’ self-esteem so that parents, teachers, administrators, policy makers and significant others may, based on the results obtained, be counselled on how best to manage adolescents as they transit into adulthood.

Several authors have come up with different definitions of self-esteem. Cole and Cole (2009) defined it as one’s assessment of his self-worth. Adler and Stewart (2004) and Lyon (2015) opined that it is a measure of how much a person values, approves of, appreciates, prizes or likes him or herself. It is also a realistic and appreciative opinion of oneself. As an evaluative component of the self-concept, self-esteem according to Lyness (2018), gives one the courage to try new things and the power to believe in himself. One’s self-esteem depends largely on the attitude of others towards him. Cavaness (2018) viewed people with high self-esteem as being intrinsically-motivated or goal-oriented, believing in themselves, knowing what they want, having effective communication skills, a drive to succeed, are comfortable with change, have love for healthy relationships, and ability to care for themselves physically, emotionally mentally and spiritually. They can also take risks readily, have good control of their actions, and can cope with criticisms. The various views about self-esteem, point to a cogent need to foster self-esteem among the youths through appropriate parenting styles. The present study investigated the parenting styles to discover the one that best relates to the development of healthy self- esteem.

Parenting styles are the different approaches of bringing up children. Cole and Cole (2009) suggested that they are behaviours and strategies used by parents to control and socialize their children.

According to Hong, Long and Rahman (2015), parenting styles are important to adolescents’ mental development. The attitude exhibited toward the upbringing of children differs from parent to parent.

Chang (2007) citing Baumrind (1996) outlined four types of parenting styles namely authoritarian, authoritative, permissive and neglectful parenting styles. This study however, focused only on authoritarian, permissive and authoritative parenting which are the three most distinct parenting styles as suggested by Huver, Otten, Vries and Engels (2009).

Authoritarian parenting is a situation where parents use stringent measures on their children when they attempt to move away from their expected or set standard. Such parents have absolute control of their children who are not given independence or freedom to do what they like. They are the

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to his parents’ will. Authoritarian parents are strict, demanding, do not treat their children as equals, and are not responsive to them. Based on the levels of demandingness and responsiveness, Alsheikh, Parameswaran, and Elhoweris (2010) opined that in the Authoritarian parenting, the parent is autocratic and cold with the child. As far as such parents are concerned, rules should be adhered to without questioning.

Arnett (2000) observed that authoritarian parenting is high in demandingness but low in responsiveness. Hong, Long and Rahman (2015) explained that demandingness means the level of strictness and control which parents exert over their children, while responsiveness is the frequency of interaction and intimacy with the children whether positively or negatively. According to a study by Steinberg, Lamburn, Darling, Mounts and Dornbush (1994), the authoritarian parents bring up children with lower levels of wellbeing than other parents. Robin and Foster (1989) found negative impact of authoritarian parenting on children’s self-esteem. Kwan (2004) using 100 Kebangsaan university students in Malaysia discovered a negative relationship between authoritarian parenting and self- esteem. Hong, Long and Rahman (2015) investigated the relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem, using 120 students in a faculty at a public university in Malaysia, with data analysis done with Pearson correlation and descriptive statistics. They discovered a negative relationship between authoritarian parenting style and self-esteem.

The permissive parenting style is that in which the child has the freedom to decide as much as possible what he wants to do, with little parental guidance. The child in this case has more independence and freedom while the image of the parent as the authority figure diminishes. Alsheikh, Parameswaran, and Elhoweris (2010) believed that in permissive parenting, the parent has laissez-faire attitude. The parents are more communicative and nurturing and the rate of disciplining their children is not very regular. Also, less demand is placed on children and there is room for more responsiveness.

Indulgent or permissive parents had high levels of wellbeing, but lower levels of achievement as revealed by a study by Steinberg, Lamburn, Darling, Mounts and Dornbush (1994). Robin and Foster (1989) found negative impact of permissive parenting on children’s self-esteem. Hong, Long and Rahman (2015) investigated the relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem and revealed a positive relationship between permissive parenting style and self-esteem.

The authoritative parenting style allows the child’s activities to be directed in a manner that is rational. Alsheikh, Parameswaran, and Elhoweris (2010) believed that the parent in authoritative parenting, demonstrates democratic interaction patterns with the child. Children under this style of parenting have the freedom to make their own decisions based on set boundaries and compromises to be made with parents. Parents of this category would not dictate to their children but rather consider their point of view and give suggestions and directions accordingly. In other words, rules are to be complied with but the parents are more open in terms of reasoning and consider the children’s opinions more than their authoritarian counterparts. They discuss issues with their children in a supportive manner as against meting out punishment. Abrhiem (2014) observed that authoritative parents are high in demandingness and high in responsiveness, exhibiting more supportive than harsh behaviours. As children grow and develop, there is a tendency to be independent; this probably explains the reason why previous studies point out that the authoritative style of parenting promotes self-esteem the most.

Steinberg, Lamburn, Darling, Mounts and Dornbush (1994) studied the effects of parenting styles on children and discovered that authoritative parents rear more competent children in social, emotional, and academic abilities than other types of parents. Pomerantz, Grolnick and Price (2005) discovered better social skills, independent problem-solving ability, psychological well-being and adjustment among children of authoritative parents more than others. These are qualities that connote high self- esteem.

Several other studies on the relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem have indicated striking results. Martinez and Garcia (2007) on researching into the impact of parenting styles on adolescents’ self-esteem and internalization of values in Spain discovered that adolescents of

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authoritative parents show highest scores in self-esteem, whereas adolescents from authoritarian parents obtain the worst results.

Garcia and Gracia (2009) opined that children of indulgent or permissive and authoritative parenting have the highest levels of self-esteem. Parker and Benson (2004) and Mruk (2006) in their studies revealed that authoritative parenting style brings about high level of self-esteem among adolescents. Robin and Foster (1989) found positive impact of authoritative parenting and negative impact of authoritarian and permissive parenting on children’s self-esteem. Kwan (2004) using 100 Kebangsaan university students in Malaysia as subjects revealed that most of the parents adopted authoritative parenting style, and that there was a very significant relationship between authoritative parenting and self-esteem. Hong, Long and Rahman (2015) in their studies on relationship between parenting style and self-esteem also found a positive relationship between authoritative parenting style and self-esteem.

Research Question

Is there any relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem of students?

Hypotheses

The following three null hypotheses were formulated to guide this study and were tested at 0.05 level of significance:

H01: There is no significant relationship between authoritarian parenting style and the self- esteem of students

H02: There is no significant relationship between permissive parenting style and the self- esteem of students

H03: There is no significant relationship between authoritative parenting style and the self- esteem of students

Method

This study adopted the descriptive survey design with parenting style as the independent variable and self-esteem as the dependent variable. The multistage sampling was used for this study. Three Area Councils namely Abuja Municipal, Kuje and Bwari Area Councils were first selected from the FCT for the study, using simple random sampling. Out of these, three senior secondary schools were selected (one from each Area Council), and finally, 40 students were chosen from each of the three senior secondary schools selected, giving a total sample of 120 students, through simple random sampling.

The instrument used to obtain information from the study participants was a researcher-made questionnaire termed Parental Authority and Self-esteem Questionnaire (PAASEQ). Section A of the questionnaire elicited information on parenting styles while section B provided information on self- esteem. Section A comprised eighteen statements with six describing each of authoritarian, permissive and authoritative parenting styles. Section B of the questionnaire elicited information on self-esteem and consisted of twelve questions, which rated the self-esteem of the students based on the level of possession of positive and negative characteristics. The validity of the instrument was established by submitting it to two experts in Measurement and Evaluation and two experts in Guidance and Counselling for scrutiny. A pilot study using 30 students with similar characteristics with the study respondents yielded a Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of between 0.75 and 0.80 which were considered high enough.

The researcher with the help of some schoolteachers explained the purpose of the research to the subjects who willingly consented to fill the questionnaires. Responses were to be given by the study participants on a 4-point Likert-like rating scale (1 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree for

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esteem ratings. There was a 100% retrieval of the questionnaires from the respondents. The Pearson Correlation was used to find out the relationship between the different parenting styles and self-esteem among the senior secondary three students of the selected schools in FCT.

Results/Data Analysis

The data analysis revealed that out of the sample of 120 students, 20 students indicated that they were of authoritarian parenting, 40 were of permissive, while 60 were of authoritative parenting. The three hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship between authoritarian parenting style and the self- esteem of students. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistical technique used to test this hypothesis is as presented in table 1.

Table 1: Pearson Product moment correlation analysis of relationship between Authoritarian parenting and self-esteem of students. (N = 20)

Variable ∑X

∑Y

∑x2

∑Y2 ∑xy r-cal. p-val

Authoritarian parenting scores 334 5742

4936 -.566** .000

Students’ self-esteem scores 304 4998

*Result significant at P<.05, critical r = 0.444, df = 18.

Table 1 shows a significant negative correlation between authoritarian parenting style and self- esteem of the FCT secondary school students. The product moment correlation coefficient r (calculated) was -0.566, p < 0.05 while the critical value was 0.441. The null hypothesis 1 stating that there is no significant relationship between authoritarian parenting style and students’ self-esteem was therefore rejected. This showed that there was a significant negative relationship between authoritarian parenting and self-esteem. The more authoritarian parents are, the lower the self-esteem.

Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relationship between permissive parenting style and the self- esteem of students. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistical technique used to test this hypothesis is as presented in table 2.

Table 2: Pearson Product moment correlation analysis of relationship between Permissive parenting and self- esteem of students (N = 40)

Variable ∑X

∑Y

∑x2

∑Y2 ∑xy r-cal. p-val

Permissive parenting scores 653 11181

19082 .826** .000

Self-esteem scores of students. 1091 34303

*Result significant at P<.05, critical r = 0.325, df = 38.

Table 2 shows a significant positive correlation between permissive parenting style and self- esteem of the FCT secondary school students. The product moment correlation coefficient r (calculated) was +0.826, p < 0.05 while the critical value was 0.325. The null hypothesis 2 stating that there is no significant relationship between permissive parenting style and students’ self-esteem was therefore rejected. This showed that self-esteem of students increases with permissive parenting style.

Hypothesis 3: There is no significant relationship between authoritative parenting style and the self- esteem of students. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistical technique used to test this hypothesis is as presented in table 3.

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Table 3: Pearson Product moment correlation analysis of relationship between Authoritative parenting and self-esteem of students (N = 60)

Variable ∑X

∑Y

∑x2

∑Y2 ∑xy r-cal. p-val

Authoritative parenting scores 1079 19795

44825 .968** .000

self-esteem scores of students. 2425 102041

*Result significant at P<.05, critical r = 250, df = 58.

From table 3, a significant positive correlation was shown to exist between authoritative parenting style and self-esteem of the FCT secondary school students. The product moment correlation coefficient r (calculated) was +0.968, p < 0.05 while the critical value was 0.250. The null hypothesis 3 stating that there is no significant relationship between authoritative parenting style and students’ self- esteem was therefore rejected. This showed that the more authoritative parents are, the higher the self- esteem.

From the results of the hypotheses testing, the research question, ‘Is there any relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem of students?’ was answered. The answer to the research question is yes.

Discussion

This research work aimed at investigating the relationship of parenting styles with the self-esteem of senior secondary school students in the FCT of Nigeria. Findings showed that there is a significant correlation between parenting styles and self-esteem of secondary school students. The authoritarian parenting style showed a significant negative relationship with students’ self-esteem. This led to the rejection of hypothesis 1 which stated that there is no significant relationship between authoritarian parenting and self-esteem of students. This result is in line with the findings by Hong, Long and Rahman (2015) who carried out a study on the relationship between parenting style and self-esteem of 120 students, and Kwan (2004) who used 100 Kebangsaan university students in Malaysia as respondents and discovered a negative relationship between authoritarian parenting and self-esteem. It also agrees with Wolft (2000) that revealed lower self-esteem scores for children with authoritarian parenting style than those with authoritative parenting style and showing that self-esteem reduces with authoritarian parenting style. It is also in line with findings by Fletcher and Shaw (2000) which revealed that adolescents from most Caucasian authoritarian families have lower self-esteem, poor social skills and high levels of depression.

The finding on hypothesis two revealed that permissive parenting style has a significant positive correlation with students’ self- esteem, and this led to the rejection of hypothesis 2 which stated that there is no significant relationship between permissive parenting style and students’ self- esteem. This supports the findings by Hong, Long and Rahman (2015) that there is a positive relationship between permissive parenting and self-esteem. This is not however, in line with a study by Robin and Foster (1989) which revealed a negative impact of permissive parenting on children’s self- esteem and a negative relationship.

The finding on hypothesis 3 revealed a significant positive relationship of authoritative parenting with the students’ self-esteem leading to the rejection of hypothesis 3 which stated otherwise.

It follows that the self-esteem of children increases with authoritative parenting. This is in line with studies by New and Cochiran (2007), Mruk (2006), Maccoby and Martin (1983) as cited by Bornstein and Zlotnik (2008), and Hong, Long and Rahman (2015) all of which agreed that authoritative parenting style results in high self-esteem in adolescents, and that self- esteem of children increases with authoritative parenting style i.e. a positive relationship exists between authoritative parenting and self-esteem.

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According to Martinez and Garcia (2007), adolescents from authoritative parents show highest scores in self-esteem while those from authoritarian parents show the lowest self-esteem scores. This is because the authoritative parents are warm but firm while encouraging their children to be independent as they maintain limits and controls on their actions. Children are not just seen to be docile but are human beings that have a mind of their own. This study therefore agrees with the fact that authoritative parenting style where parents give the rules and give children the freedom to make their own input on issues is the best for developing high self-esteem in children.

Recommendation

Based on the findings of this study, it was recommended that:

i. parents should be counselled on the issue of effective parenting

ii. students should be counselled on the need to develop good self-esteem

iii. parents, teachers and significant others should be mindful of the need for psychosocial success among secondary school students.

Conclusion

The study has shown a significant positive relationship between self-esteem, permissive and authoritative parenting styles. Authoritative and permissive parenting styles contribute to the development of high self-esteem of students as against the authoritarian parenting style.

References

[1] Adler, N. & Stewart, J. (2004). Self-esteem research network on socio-economic status and health. Retrieved from http://www.macsesucsf.edu/research//psychosocial on October 29, 2019.

[2] Arnett, J.J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55: 469-480.

[3] Arbhiem,T. H. (2014). The role of parenting styles in in psychosocial development of adolescents. Business and Management Review 3(1)47-52.

[4] Alsheikh, N., Parameswaran, G, & Elhoweris, H. (2010). Parenting style, self-esteem and student performance in the United Arab Emirates. Current Issues in Education 13(1). Retrieved from http://cie.asu.edu/ on May 16, 2013.

[5] Baumrind, D. (1996). The discipline controversy revisited. Journal of Family Relations, 45,105-414.

[6] Bornsein, M.H., & Zlotnik, D. (2008). Parenting styles and their effects. Encylopaedia of Infant and Early Childhood Development, 496-509. Retrieved from science direct database on February 14, 2001.

[7] Cavaness, R. (2018). Nine common characteristics of people with self-esteem. Retrieved from https://richcavaness.com on October 2, 2019.

[8] Cole, L.M. & Cole, S.R. (2009). The development of children. New York: Worth Publishers.

[9] Chang, M. "Cultural differences in parenting styles and their effects on teens' self-esteem, perceived parental relationship satisfaction, and self-satisfaction" (2007). Dietrich College Honours Theses. Paper 85, http://repository.cmu.edu/hsshonors/85.

[10] Dalgas-Pelish, P. (2006). Effects of self-esteem intervention program on school age children.

Paediatric Nursing, 8,341-349.

[11] Fletcher, A.C. & Shaw, R. A. (2000). Sex differences in associations between parental behaviours and characteristics and adolescent social integration. Social Development, 9:133- 148.

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[12] García, F., & Gracia, E. (2009). Is always authoritative the optimum parenting style? Evidence from Spanish families. Adolescence, 44(173), 101-131.

[13] Hong, O. S., Long, C.S., & Rahman, R.H.A. (2015). An analysis on the relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem of students of a university in Malaysia.:A case study.

Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 6(4s3), 2039-9340.

[14] Huver, R. M. E., Otten, R., Vries, H. de., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2009). Personality and parenting style in parents of adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 395-402.

[15] Kwan, S.L. (2004). The relationship between parenting style and adolescent self-esteem.

Unpublished undergraduate thesis, University of Kebangsaan, Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.

[16] Lyness, D. (2018). Your child’s self-esteem. Retrieved from https://kidshealth.org. on October 29, 2019.

[17] Lyon, K. (2015). What is self-esteem. Retrieved from https://explorable.com/e/what-is-self- esteem on May 02, 2020.

[18] Martinez, I., & Garcia, J. (2007). Impact of parenting styles on adolescents’ self-esteem and internalization of values in Spain. The Spanish Journal of Psychology10(2),338-348.

[19] Maccoby, E.E., & Martin, J.A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: parent-child interaction. In P.H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology. Vol. 4. New York: Wiley.

[20] Mruk, C. J. (2006). Self-esteem research, theory, and practice: Toward a positive psychology of self-esteem. New York: Springer Publishing Company.

[21] New, R. S., & Cochran, M. (2007). Early childhood education. An international Encyclopaedia.

Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group.

[22] Parker, J.S. & Benson, M.J. (2004). Parent-adolescent relations and adolescent functioning:

self-esteem, substance abuse, and delinquency. Journal of Adolescence 35(155), 519-530 [23] Pomerantz, E.M., Grolnick, W.S., & Price, C.E. (2005). The role of parents in how children

approach achievement:A dynamic process perspective. In A.J. Elliot & C.S. Dweck (Eds.).

Handbook of Competence and Motivation, 229-278. New York: Guilford Publications.

[24] Sternberg, L., Lamborn, S.D.,Darling, N.,Mounts, N.S.,& Dornbusch, S.M. (1994). Over- time changes in Adjustment and Competence among Adolescents from Authoritative, Authoritarian, Indulgent, and Neglectful Families. Child Development, 65(3), 754-770.

[25] Robin, A.L., & Foster, S.L. (1989). Negotiating parent-adolescent conflict: A behavioural family system approach, New York: Guilford Press.

[26] Wolft, J. (200). Self-esteem: The influence of parenting styles. Retrieved from https://

ro.ecu.edu.au/thesis/1535 on 26 October, 2019.

References

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