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CHALLENGES IN MANAGING CENTRALIZED TAXI DISPATCHING AT HIGH- VOLUME AIRPORTS: A CASE STUDY OF JOHN. F. KENNEDY INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

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CHALLENGES IN MANAGING CENTRALIZED TAXI DISPATCHING AT HIGH-VOLUME AIRPORTS: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

A CASE STUDY OF JOHN. F. KENNEDY INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Alison Conway, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, The City College of New York Steinman Hall T-119, 160 Convent Avenue, New York, NY 10031

Phone: (212)650-5372, Email: aconway@ccny.cuny.edu Camille Kamga, Ph.D.

Acting Director, Region 2 University Transportation Research Center

Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, The City College of New York Marshak Hall, Suite J-910, 138th Street & Convent Avenue, New York, NY 10031

Phone: (212)650-8087, Email: ckamga@utrc2.org Anil Yazici, Ph.D.*

Senior Researcher, Region 2 University Transportation Research Center Marshak Hall, Suite J-910, 138th Street & Convent Avenue, New York, NY 10031

Phone: (212)650-8071, Email: yazici@utrc2.org Abhishek Singhal, M.E.

Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Civil Engineering, City College of New York Marshak Hall, Suite J-910, 138th Street & Convent Avenue, New York, NY 10031

Phone: (212)650-8071, Email: asingha00@ccny.cuny.edu. * Corresponding Author

November 15, 2011

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ABSTRACT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

This paper provides an evaluation of existing taxi dispatching procedures at New York City’s John F. Kennedy International Airport. Curbside data collection and interviews with airport stakeholders were conducted to describe and quantify existing conditions for taxi drivers and passengers at JFK. A literature review was also performed to identify operational similarities and differences between JFK and other high-volume airports with centralized taxi dispatching, and to identify potential solutions for application at JFK. The outcomes of this study include: 1) characterization of existing relationships between airport-wide and terminal-level passenger demands and available taxi supply at JFK; 2) identification of sources of inefficiency in existing taxi dispatching procedures and taxi operations; and 3) identification of potential approaches to address supply-demand imbalances, and next steps in evaluating these potential solutions.

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INTRODUCTION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

The aviation industry is an important sector of the United States (US) economy, as it generates over $1.2 trillion in economic activity annually. According to the Federal Aviation

Administration (FAA), the industry contributes approximately 5% of US Gross Domestic Product (1). Effective ground transportation plays an important role in maintaining airport accessibility, which is vital to air transportation competitiveness with other modes. Commercial airport ground transportation includes public vehicle services, such as taxis, buses and airport shuttles, and private vehicle services, such as rental cars, prearranged cars, limousines, company buses and courtesy vehicles.

Taxis provide airline passengers with door-to-door service between airports and final destinations without prearrangement. Studies reveal that taxis globally provide a substantial share of airport ground transportation, especially at large international airports. In the United Kingdom, taxis constitute 27% and 24% of modal share at London Heathrow and Manchester Airports (2). At Hong Kong International Airport, taxi share is 13%, including 20% share for business travelers (3). Taxis carry 19% and 18% of passengers at Boston Logan and Chicago O’Hare Airports, where they are the second most commonly chosen mode after private vehicles. At Atlanta and Miami International airports, taxis rank third behind private and rental cars and carry 8% and 6% of passengers (4). In 2010, close to 3 million taxis were dispatched from John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK) (5). Of passengers leaving the airport by commercial ground transportation or from paid parking areas, an estimated 37% traveled by taxi.

Streamlined taxi operations contribute to the overall efficiency of airport ground transportation; however, managing taxi operations requires regulation, development of operational procedures, and implementation of technology systems. Taxi regulations vary greatly from airport to airport, just as general taxi regulations often differ from city to city (6). Different regulations may apply to the taxi fleet serving an airport, as markets range from controlled access airports, which are served by a dedicated fleet, to free market airports served by any available taxi.

Vehicle staging is an important component of taxi regulation at large airports. Results from a 1996 survey of US airport managers found that 100% of 28 large airports and 94% of 34 medium-sized airports utilized dedicated taxi staging areas (7). At these airports, managers dedicate specific physical space for taxis to wait for passenger pick-ups. Taxi staging areas are usually located within close proximity of airport terminals so that taxis can reach all terminals within a reasonable time frame. Depending on the airport passenger volume, the number of terminals, and available physical space at terminals, taxi staging locations may consist of a central airport-wide vehicle staging area, multiple smaller staging areas at terminals, or a

combination of both. When central staging is employed, taxis enter a central staging area before been dispatched to terminals to pick up passengers. For terminal staging areas, taxis proceed directly to the terminal upon arrival at the airport.

Dispatchers in central staging areas, whether working manually or supported by technological tools, distribute the airport taxi supply among terminals. Central staging and dispatching ensures that vehicles entering the airport are assigned to terminals on a first-in-first-out (FIFO) basis. A central staging area can help to mitigate traffic congestion on terminal access roads as it eliminates unnecessary taxi cruising at the terminals, and to maintain lower levels of air pollution at terminals, since waiting vehicles can park at a distant location rather than idle with engines running on terminal access roads.

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The primary goal of dispatching operations from a central taxi staging area is basic in theory. An operator seeks to maintain taxi supply to meet the passenger demand at terminals, and to ensure fairness in driver processing. However, in practice, achieving this balance and fairness is challenging. Through case study of JFK Airport, this project aims: 1) to understand the existing taxi operations at a major airport operating a central staging area, 2) to identify causes of inefficiency in taxicab operations, and 3) to recommend strategies that may improve these operations.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

To understand taxi operations at JFK airport and identify challenges and the scope for

operational improvement, existing operations were examined in detail and compared with the state-of-the-practice at comparable airports. At JFK, three types of data were obtained and analyzed: 1) terminal curbside operations data, 2) dispatching data from the computerized taxi dispatch system, and 3) interviews with airport taxi operation stakeholders.

Terminal curbside observations and data collection were carried out at one airport terminal over six time periods. Data collection times were chosen to target hours with expected high flight-arrival-volumes. Data were collected on the following days and times:

• Monday, 7:30AM to 10:30AM and 2PM to 5PM • Friday, 7PM to 10PM (on two separate Fridays) • Saturday, 1PM to 4PM

• Sunday, 2PM to 10PM

Collected data included simultaneous counts of the number of taxis in the terminal taxi loading/waiting area and the number of waiting customers at the curb, as well as detailed passenger waiting, loading, and departure times under different dispatcher scenarios.

Hourly dispatch data from the central taxi hold (CTH) were obtained from the airport operator for 15 days, including those corresponding to the dates of curbside data collection. Dispatch data included hourly counts of vehicles dispatched from the CTH to individual

terminals. Quantitative data collection was supplemented by field interviews with stakeholders involved in taxi operations at JFK. Interviewed stakeholders included the airport operator - the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ), the company managing dispatching operations - Gateway Group One, airline personnel, terminal traffic management and security personnel, and taxi drivers at the CTH.

JFK operations were then compared to those at similar US airports to draw comparison and analyze the interdependence between regulations, management structure, taxi operations, fare policies and technology acceptance. This review examined operations at the other major airports in the NYC metropolitan area, as well as five high-volume US airports with central taxi dispatching operations. After completion of this review, recommendations for improving central dispatching operations and evaluating alternatives were developed.

OPERATIONS AND REGULATION AT JFK AND OTHER MAJOR US AIRPORTS

JFK is an international airport located in the borough of Queens in New York City (NYC), about 12 miles southeast of Lower Manhattan. It is among the highest passenger-volume airports in the US, and is the nation’s busiest international air passenger gateway, handling more traffic from abroad than any other North American airport (8). JFK has eight terminals of which seven are currently in use. The airport is operated by PANYNJ. JFK is served by NYC medallion

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taxicabs, whose general operations are regulated by the NYC Taxi and Limousine Commission (TLC). Within the airport, a private operator, Gateway Group One, under contract with

PANYNJ, performs airport-wide taxi dispatching at the terminals and at the CTH.

In addition to JFK, the NYC region is served by two other major commercial airports, LaGuardia (LGA), which like JFK is located in Queens, and Newark Liberty (EWR), which is located across the Hudson River from Manhattan in Newark, NJ. These airports are also managed by PANYNJ, and their taxi operations are managed by Gateway Group One. Among the busiest US airports in passenger enplanements (9), five additional airports were identified as employing a central taxi holding area like JFK; these include Hartsfield Jackson Atlanta

International (ATL), Chicago O'Hare (ORD), Los Angeles International (LAX), Dallas/Fort Worth International (DFW), and Las Vegas McCarran (LAS). TABLE 1 summarizes the general taxi operational characteristics for each airport.

TABLE 1 Airport Taxi Operating Characteristics

(Sources: (10), (11), (12), (13), (Site Visit to JFK, March 25, 2011))

Airport # of licensed taxis in the city Taxi Holding Area Capacity Daily Taxi Trips AVI-based Taxi Dispatch System AVI-based GTMS Number of Terminals/ Taxi stands

MAJOR US AIRPORTS WITH CTH OPERATIONS

Atlanta, GA (ATL) 1,600 300 1,645 -- Yes 1

Chicago, IL (ORD) 6,803 450 5,000 Yes Yes 4

Dallas/Ft. Worth, TX

(DFW) 2,150 300 3,000 -- Yes 5

Las Vegas, NV (LAS) 2,024 200 9,000 Yes Yes 2

Los Angeles, CA (LAX) 2,303 100 4,100 Yes Yes 9

METROPOLITAN NYC AIRPORTS

Newark, NJ (EWR) 600 (Newark) 200 NA No No 3

New York, NY (JFK) 13,087 500-550 7,000 No No 8

New York, NY (LGA) 13,087 Multiple NA No No 5

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Fleet Regulation

Both major airports located in Queens, JFK and LGA, are served by the city’s medallion taxi fleet. Any medallion cab can pick up passengers at any time at these airports as long it follows the appropriate airport operations procedures. Private taxi services cannot pick up passengers in the terminal taxi areas, although they can be called by individual passengers for pick-up in the general arrivals areas. Although NYC medallion cabs can drop off to EWR, passenger pick-up is limited to taxis regulated by the Newark Taxi Commission at Terminals B and C, and taxis regulated by the Elizabeth Taxi Commission at Terminal A (14).

Fleet regulations at ORD, ATL, and LAS are very similar to those at JFK; however, the volume of available cabs in these cities is much smaller than in New York (Table 1). Taxis at ORD are regulated by the City of Chicago; all city taxis can pick up passengers in the designated terminal taxi loading area, while suburban cab companies can be called to pick up passengers in the general arrivals area (15). In Atlanta, taxis with a City of Atlanta operators permit or special

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permit issued by the ATL ground transportation department can pick up passengers at the designated loading area (16). In Las Vegas (17), LAS is served by 16 taxi companies regulated by the Nevada Taxicab Authority (11). LAX (18) is also served primarily by a city designated taxi fleet. However, while LAX is served by the nine taxi companies franchised by the City of Los Angeles, their taxis cannot operate at the airport every day (17). Rather, each authorized taxi serves the airport on one out of every five days. If demand at LAX significantly exceeds the capacity of the designated daily fleet, the airport operator can shift to conditional operations that allow the other taxis to operate outside their approved day of operation. In Dallas, only drivers holding a permit issued by the airport are eligible to pick up passengers at the terminals (19). In 2008, Dallas City Council approved a proposal to limit the fleet of taxis designated for airport operation at DFW to eight hundred cabs (from a previous fleet of about 2,300) (20).

Fare Structure

At JFK, passengers pay a flat rate for trips to Manhattan, and a metered fare to other destinations. In Atlanta (22), Dallas (23), and Los Angeles (17), passengers also pay a flat rate to the central business district and metered fare elsewhere. In Chicago (21) and Las Vegas (18), and at LaGuardia, passengers pay a metered fare to any destination. In Newark, passengers pay a flat rate to most destinations, including specified areas of Manhattan, as well as a peak-hour surcharge for trips to New York. The major NYC area airports are unique among the airports reviewed as they do not charge drivers a surcharge for airport pick-ups. In Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, Dallas, and Las Vegas, drivers pay a surcharge ranging from $1.50 to $4.50, which is generally passed through as a cost to the passenger. According to Lukic (10), revenues from this surcharge provide the airport with a funding mechanism for airport operations and offset the taxicab dispatching costs. Passengers traveling by TLC taxi from NYC to Newark do pay a $15 fee plus two-way tolls; however, this charge is implemented by TLC, not the airport.

Generally, taxi users pay fare directly to the driver at the termination of their trip. Cities may allow passengers to pre-pay for their trip; however, prepayment can only be implemented where the cost of all trips is a flat rate. In 2007, EWR pilot tested a prepayment technology at Terminal A in Elizabeth (24); however, this technology has not been implemented airport-wide.

Management and Dispatching CTH Dispatching Operations at JFK

The overall procedure for taxi dispatching and terminal taxi loading at JFK is shown in Figure 1. Taxis arriving to JFK are first required to enter the CTH, from where they are

dispatched to the terminals. The CTH, which can hold about 500 to 550 taxis, is located two to 2.5 miles from the airport terminals. After entering the CTH, taxis join a queue and are

dispatched to individual terminals on a FIFO basis using a computerized dispatch system. As a taxi arrives to an exit booth from a waiting lane, the CTH dispatcher enters the taxi's medallion number into the computerized system. The system then assigns the taxi to a specific terminal and prints out a paper ticket, which indicates the date, the taxi’s medallion number, and its assigned terminal. The dispatcher then hands over this printed ticket to the taxi driver as he/she exits the CTH.

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FIGURE 1 Taxi operations at JFK

The computerized taxi dispatch system is administered by a head dispatcher in the CTH control room. The system requires two types of input to determine terminal assignments: taxi demand requested at each terminal and a priority level for each terminal. Requested taxi volumes are communicated via radio by terminal taxi dispatchers to the head dispatcher. The CTH dispatcher manually assigns priority levels of high, medium, or low to individual terminals based on requested taxi demands and past experience. The CTH dispatcher may also adjust taxi demands and/or priority levels to account for terminal space limitations. Once demands and priority levels are entered into the computerized system, an algorithm allocates taxis to terminals, with those terminals assigned a higher priority having a higher likelihood of receiving taxis.

After taxis are dispatched, their medallion numbers remain in the system until they pick up a passenger and leave their assigned terminal. Terminal taxi dispatchers intermittently report the medallion number of the last taxi leaving the terminal to the CTH dispatcher. Once a

medallion number is reported, any taxi assigned to that terminal from the CTH before the reported taxi is assumed to have left the terminal. The CTH dispatchers can track the waiting time of any taxi that has not left the terminal, and can re-assign that taxi once it has reached a maximum wait time limit of 20 minutes at an individual terminal.

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Terminal Dispatching Operations at JFK 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

Terminal taxi demands are estimated at the discretion of the terminal taxi dispatcher based on the observed waiting passenger queue and anticipated flight arrivals. Terminal

dispatchers monitor flight arrival screens to estimate passenger arrival times. However, at some terminals, these screens are not visible from the passenger loading area and can only be viewed when dispatchers are able to leave their other duties to check the screen.

As the taxi arrives at a terminal to pick up a passenger, the terminal dispatcher checks the printed ticket to verify conformity. The dispatch ticket is then handed to the taxi passenger to provide identifying information for the taxi in case of lost property or the desire to report on the driver’s performance. If the entering passenger's destination is in close proximity to JFK (within a pre-defined area) the terminal dispatcher issues a "short-return" ticket to the driver. If the driver returns to JFK within 90 minutes in possession of a valid “short-return" ticket, he or she can enter an expedited queue at the CTH for prioritized dispatching.

Dispatching at Other US Airports

In Atlanta, taxi operations are performed by a private management company under contractual agreement with the airport authority. The CTH is shared by taxis, prearranged, and contracted vehicles, and separate lanes are provided for taxis equipped with credit card machines and prearranged vehicles. At the terminal, like at JFK, drivers can be issued a "local ticket" for expedited dispatching upon return to the airport (with a maximum return time of 45 minutes). Up to ten taxis exit the holding area at once, including five regular taxis, three local taxis, and two credit card taxis. To accommodate peak passenger periods, more than ten taxis can be dispatched at the discretion of the terminal dispatcher (25). The taxi dispatch process in Atlanta is simplified by the fact that there is only one airport terminal to serve.

In Chicago, a large commercial vehicle staging area provides storage for taxicabs and limousines, and smaller, separate staging areas are provided for suburban cabs, regional buses and airport shuttles. The taxi operations are managed by a private company on behalf of the airport. A unique feature at the Chicago airport is the presence of an exclusive roadway, known as the Commercial Vehicle Road which is dedicated just for taxi and limousine access from the central staging area to the terminal curbsides (15). At ORD, taxis are dispatched to four

terminals.

In Los Angeles, the taxi operations are controlled and supervised by the Authorized Taxicab Supervision, Inc. (ATS) under terms of a concession agreement with the Los Angeles World Airports (LAWA) (17). ATS performs dispatching operations at the central staging area as well as nine airport terminals. In Dallas, the CTH taxi operations are managed directly by airport personnel with taxis being dispatched on demand to five terminals (26). Taxi operations in Las Vegas are also managed by airport employees; however, all taxis are dispatched to serve only one taxi stand (18). In Newark, cabs also stage in a central holding area, but are dispatched manually rather than through an automated system (Site Visit to JFK, March 31, 2011). At LaGuardia, taxis do not enter a central holding pen, but rather wait at separate holding areas for each terminal.

The capacities of the central staging areas vary from as few as 100 vehicles in Los Angeles up to 450 vehicles in Chicago (Table 1). Notably, all of these capacities are smaller than JFK’s CTH, which can hold up to about 550 vehicles, although the CTH in Chicago does also provide additional space for holding 225 limousines.

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Technology Use 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

A variety of advanced technologies are in use at major US and international airports for

managing taxi operations. The most common technology system for taxi dispatch is automatic vehicle identification (AVI). Taxi dispatching can be semi- or fully-automated using AVI systems, including radio frequency identification (RFID) (27) or license plate reader (LPR) technologies (28). RFID technologies use radio frequency waves to transfer data between a reader and unique electronic tag for the purpose of detection, identification, and tracking. LPR is an image processing technology that uses optical character recognition to identify a vehicle's license plate number. AVI systems can be employed in a central staging area to automate entry of identifying information to a central dispatching system, to enforce access restrictions (such as entry to a "short-return" lane), to implement user charging, to communicate terminal assignments to drivers, and to monitor vehicle volumes in the holding area. By reducing processing times, implementation reduces vehicle congestion at the airport. At the terminal curbside, handheld computers/printers can also be integrated for implementation and enforcement of curbside taxi procedures (13). AVI technologies can also be integrated with other technologies for

commercial vehicle operations, access control, and security as part of a comprehensive airport-wide ground transportation management system (GTMS). At least 16 US airports use standalone taxi dispatch AVI systems (12), and at least 31 have implemented GTMS (12).

Currently, CTH taxi operations at JFK do not utilize AVI or other advanced technologies, except for use of a computerized taxi dispatching system for terminal assignment. Vehicles are identified and entered manually into the computerized system. Vehicle volumes in the CTH are manually counted by CTH personnel. At the terminal curbside, terminal taxi demands are estimated manually by terminal dispatchers, and other operations and enforcement are performed manually. PANYNJ is currently pilot testing LPR for vehicle identification in the CTH, and has issued an RFP for a new management system that is expected to include other advanced

technologies such as handheld computers for dispatchers and electronic card readers (Site Visit to JFK, March 31, 2011).

In Chicago, the GTMS integrates a variety of technologies; RFID enables access control, vehicle tracking, and collection of the airport surcharge, as well as automated dispatch using variable message signs(13). Monitors also provide taxi information at the curbside, and handheld computers are used by security personnel for automated enforcement (13). ATL and DFW also utilize GTMS technology, and LAX and LAS employ GTMS systems with dedicated taxi dispatch modules (12). LAX and DFW use RFID technology for congestion reduction, revenue management and collection of airport fees from drivers (27). In Dallas, RFID tags are interoperable with tags used in parking garages and on local toll roads.

CHALLENGES IN CENTRAL DISPATCHING AT JFK

There are two primary actors in airport taxi operations: the taxi drivers, who supply service, and the passengers who demand that service. A major goal of airport taxi operations is to maintain a balance between this passenger demand, measured by the number of passengers (adjusted based on vehicle occupancy), and taxi supply, measured by the number of available taxis. An

imbalance results in additional waiting time for the passengers or for the taxis. More waiting time for passengers may result in less passenger satisfaction in the short term and fewer taxi users in the long term. During curbside observation, JFK passenger wait times were found to increase from an average of 39 seconds during low-demand periods to about 9 minutes during high demand periods, even reaching as long 21 minutes for some passengers. From the taxi

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drivers’ perspective, more waiting time means less profit and leads to fewer drivers choosing to come to the airport to pick up passengers. Despite JFK airport policy requirements for re-assignment after 20 minutes of waiting at a terminal, taxis were observed waiting for as long as 26 minutes in addition to time spent in the central taxi hold.

Supply-demand imbalances occur under two major circumstances: 1) when the total taxi supply at the airport is inadequate to meet passenger demands and 2) when delay in dispatching or misallocation of taxis to individual terminals leads to a supply-demand mismatch at the terminal. These events may occur independently or simultaneously. In order to avoid

inadequate airport taxi supply, measures must be taken to attract taxi drivers to the airport. Only implementation of an optimal dispatching scheme can prevent terminal-level inefficiencies. An optimal dispatching scheme may be even more vital during inadequate taxi supply, when resources are scarce.

Airport Taxi Supply

Although hourly vehicle volumes are not adequate to quantitatively characterize CTH

occupancy, during site visits, numerous stakeholders reported that the JFK CTH is occasionally emptied, especially during periods of high demand. This problem is particularly apparent during extreme weather events such as rain or snow, when demand increases significantly in Manhattan and many drivers choose to stay in the CBD rather than travel to the airport for passenger pickup. Even if an optimal central dispatching system is employed, scarcity of taxi supply at the airport results in a failure to meet terminal-level demands and excessive passenger waiting.

An underlying cause of airport-wide taxi shortages, as identified in a study of Regina International Airport in Canada, is unattractiveness of airport trips compared to other regional fares (29). Since taxis are independent private entities and their availability is limited, airport trips must compete to "win" available services. The attractiveness of JFK taxi trips varies based on several factors including time of day, weather conditions, and taxi drivers’ perceived demand at the airport. Under normal operating conditions, JFK airports trips are generally considered by drivers to be a good fare, as pickups are guaranteed and there is a high likelihood of a large fare. In uncongested traffic, average trip length from Manhattan to JFK is 25 minutes. Drivers

indicated that the flat rate of $45 to Manhattan is a competitive fare and that the trip is usually worth waiting up to an hour and a half at JFK. Many drivers also mentioned that they live in Queens and prefer serving JFK (especially in early mornings) due to its close proximity with their homes.

From Manhattan and other more distant points in NYC, an empty trip to the airport is very expensive to drivers in terms of gas, tolls, and travel time. During periods of peak traffic congestion, a Manhattan to JFK trip can take more than 1.5 hours. Although average trip lengths in Manhattan are much shorter than airport trips, very high demand leads to little down time and makes Manhattan a competitive area for earning comparable revenue. Drivers are unlikely to make an empty trip to the airport unless they can avoid traffic congestion and long wait times at JFK.

Recognizing that time and fare uncertainty may deter drivers from JFK, PANYNJ does provide services to reduce the likelihood of lost revenue. The "short-return" ticket gives drivers the opportunity for expedited dispatching on a second trip to the airport within 90 minutes if they pick up only a local metered fare. PANYNJ also facilitates a taxi hotline that provides drivers with an update on the status of the CTH at JFK. This hotline provides drivers with hourly-estimated volume of taxis waiting at the CTH, as well as an hourly-estimated dispatching time. The

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goal of this system is to allow drivers to accurately predict their trip time; however, drivers indicated that infrequent updates limit the reliability of this information. During field observations, it was observed that hourly updates of the hotline were not frequent enough to capture the dynamic flow of taxis and constant changes of airport taxi supply, especially during peak flight arrival periods.

Terminal Taxi Supply

Even when adequate taxi supply is maintained for the airport overall, the misallocation of

vehicles to individual terminals or failure to communicate terminal demands to the CTH can lead to a terminal-level supply-demand mismatch. In theory, taxis at JFK are distributed according to passenger demand. Over 15 days of observation, JFK’s three busiest terminals, Terminals 5 and 8, which are primarily operated by major US carriers, and Terminal 4, the international terminal, received between 53 and 60 percent of daily taxi allocations. However, observed passenger and taxi count data demonstrate that there is a frequent mismatch between available taxi supply and passenger demand. Since taxi occupancy is variable, the number of passengers and number of taxis cannot be compared directly. However, space utilization, changes in queue length, and extreme events, including zero-taxi and zero-passenger instances, can be observed.

Figure 2 shows passenger and taxi counts collected at a terminal curbside on a Monday between 2:20 PM and 5:10 PM and on a Sunday between 2:15 PM and 5:00 PM. On Monday from 2:35 PM until slightly after 3:00 PM, and again from 3:20 PM until 4:20 PM and after 4:50 PM, long passenger queues form while passengers arrive more quickly than they can be loaded into taxis. During the first peak, taxi supply remains relatively steady, with between 10 and 15 taxis at the terminal and full utilization of the taxi loading area. However, during the second peak, taxi supply rarely exceeds five vehicles. Observed taxi queues of less than seven indicate that the full capacity of the loading areas is not being utilized, and that taxi supply is inadequate. A few points (circled) can even be observed when the taxi supply is completely depleted. When taxi supply is inadequate or depleted, time that could be used loading passengers is instead spent waiting for taxi arrival.

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FIGURE 2 Terminal taxi and passenger counts

In periods with no flight arrivals, an opposite situation is observed. Between 4:15 PM and 5:00 PM on Monday, when no passenger queues are observed, a long taxi queue forms and for most of the period, waiting taxis idle at the terminal. A slight queue length decrease indicates minimal passenger activity. On Sunday at 2:45 and again at 4:40, the number of taxis waiting for passengers even exceeds the taxi waiting area capacity. In this situation, passenger demand is served instantly with no extensive passenger waiting times; however this is achieved at the expense of taxi wait times. Excessive taxi idling at individual terminals leads to a variety of negative impacts including the loss of time, fuel, and potential revenue for drivers as well as increased emissions in the terminal waiting area. Extension of the queue beyond the taxi waiting area leads to stopped vehicles on the terminal access road, which are a safety hazard and inhibit

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through vehicle flows. Taxis idling at individual terminals could also be serving passengers at other terminals; when airport taxi supply is low, idling at one terminal may prevent provision of service to passengers at another terminal.

Dispatching and Loading Efficiency

The speed with which terminal dispatchers load passengers and process taxis impacts passenger throughput; however, terminal dispatcher responsibilities are myriad. Terminal dispatcher responsibilities include: estimating the number of taxis needed at any given time; communicating that need to the central dispatcher at the CTH; greeting passengers; answering passenger queries; guiding passengers to taxis; collecting CTH dispatch tickets from taxi drivers, checking them, and handing them to passengers; and issuing "short-return" tickets. Currently, all of these tasks are performed manually with no advanced technologies. During our observations, many terminal taxi dispatchers were observed to be overwhelmed by multiple independent tasks, especially during peak flight arrival periods.

According to Gateway Group One, a single terminal dispatcher can load three taxis at once. During curbside observation, the average passenger loading time, defined as the time from when the passenger leaves the queue until the taxi door closes upon entry, was observed to be 45 seconds, although loading times of close to seven minutes were observed when larger or

accessible vehicles were required. The departure and exit time, defined as the time from when the door closed until the taxi exited the loading area, averaged 18 seconds, although larger values were observed when other taxis or passenger vehicles obstructed vehicle exit from the curb or the loading area. Private vehicles illegally soliciting passengers at the terminal curbside were observed to obstruct taxi departures, and were identified as a problem for both taxi flow and passenger safety by dispatchers and security personnel. In general, loading and processing times were observed to be lower with two dispatchers working together than with a single dispatcher; however efficiency gains are dependent on an effective loading strategy and internal protocol for sharing responsibilities. Although on average two dispatchers outperform one, during data collection, a single extremely efficient dispatcher was observed to load passengers more efficiently than other dispatchers working in teams.

Both taxis and passengers arrive in batches following a flight arrival. In order to properly anticipate demand, the dispatcher must not only monitor the passenger queue but also monitor anticipated flight arrivals. Where arrival screens are not visible from the passenger loading area, terminal dispatchers must leave their post, possibly even traveling into the terminal, to view the arrivals screen. During high-demand periods, dispatchers are often unable to leave the curbside, leading to unanticipated flight arrivals. Following multiple flight arrivals, the passenger queue grows very quickly, reaching lengths of up to 80 passengers in only a few minutes. If demand is underestimated, the terminal taxi dispatcher must call for more taxis and the loading process can be delayed until vehicles arrive from the CTH. While some terminal taxi dispatchers can

anticipate demands reasonably well based on past experience; variability in dispatcher judgments may lead to incorrect estimates.

The number of taxis needed at the terminal and the dispatch priority level manually determined by the CTH dispatcher are entered into the computerized dispatch system, which estimates the share of available taxis sent to each terminal and performs terminal assignment. Detailed information on the algorithm used for dispatching is not available, so it is unclear if the system theoretically optimizes terminal assignments. Terminal and CTH dispatchers

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protocols for how to estimate the terminal demand and assign priority to terminals. Both the terminal dispatcher demand estimate and CTH dispatcher priority assignment are heavily influenced by personal judgments.

Dispatching inefficiency not only affects passenger waiting times and passenger

satisfaction, but also increases taxi driver idling. Drivers indicated that while they do not mind waiting in the CTH, they find waiting at the terminal extremely onerous. Drivers believe that taxis dispatched to other terminals behind them can pick up passengers while they are still waiting, which violates the fairness expected from the central dispatching scheme. To address this concern, dispatching policy allows taxis to request assignment to another terminal after waiting for more than 20 minutes. This policy helps mitigate the impacts of suboptimal dispatching; however drivers argue that this policy is not exercised as required.

Overall, it is clear that CTH dispatching procedures impact both the overall airport taxi supply and the supply-demand balance at individual terminals. A failure to maintain the appropriate balance between available cabs and waiting passengers impacts both passenger and driver satisfaction, which in turn affects passenger mode choice and driver willingness to serve the airport. Terminal curbside operations, procedures and technologies implemented at the CTH, and communication protocols between terminal and CTH dispatchers are all integral parts of efficient central taxi dispatching. Optimization of taxi operations is possible only by addressing each of these components.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Currently, taxi dispatching operations at JFK are primarily manual. With limited available personnel, central and terminal taxi dispatchers must struggle to complete all of the tasks required to ensure efficient dispatching and passenger loading and to provide information and service to both taxis and passengers. Because of the centralized nature of dispatching operations, major improvements in taxi operational performance require airport-wide policy, procedural, and technological upgrades. Suggested improvements for implementation at JFK are listed below.

1. Employ effective airport operational policies to maintain driver satisfaction.

The JFK taxi hotline is not fully utilized by drivers, mainly due to its perceived unreliability. With more frequent and consistent updates, the hotline could more effectively provide airport taxi inventory information to taxi drivers for decision making. Intelligent transportation systems, including AVI, could enable real-time monitoring of the CTH taxi supply and automate the process of information dissemination.

JFK currently employs a taxi re-routing policy to prevent excessive waiting times and perceived unfairness that may result from suboptimal dispatching to individual terminals. It is unclear if the existing maximum wait time of 20 minutes is effective in ensuring fairness, as according to drivers, this policy is not enforced. A more extensive study of terminal taxi waiting times is necessary to determine if the maximum wait time needs to be adjusted to prevent long-term impacts on airport taxi supply.

2. Provide additional incentives to taxi drivers to increase the attractiveness of airport trips.

In general, the "short-return" ticket option for short distance rides and lucrative flat rate for Manhattan-bound trips from JFK are adequate to attract the needed taxi supply to the JFK.

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However, taxi shortages do occur, and are most severe during peak flight arrival periods, driver shift changes, and inclement weather events that increase demand in Manhattan. Incentives are needed to attract taxi drivers to the airport during these periods. Examples might include direct economic incentives such as time- or- event-specific surcharges, or rewards programs that allow drivers making frequent airport trips during critical periods to utilize the “short-return” lane regardless of trip length.

Implementing incentives will require pre-analysis to identify critical periods with peak passenger demand and insufficient taxi supply, as well as to identify feasible policy alternatives. JFK CTH taxi dispatch data can be used along with airport flight arrival data to develop a

passenger demand model for taxi trips. This model can be used to estimate the passenger demand for taxis during different time periods. Once the critical periods are identified, policy options can be developed to incentivize taxi trips to the airport under different scenarios. A model sensitive to both policy and changing supply and demand conditions, including extreme weather scenarios, could then be developed using dispatch data and driver surveying to predict the impact of proposed changes.

3. Implement communications protocols for more efficient and consistent dispatching.

Terminal passenger demand estimation and CTH terminal prioritization require terminal taxi dispatchers to monitor existing flight arrival screens and make personal judgments about the taxi volume needed to meet the expected demand. Specific protocols should be defined and

documented by experienced dispatchers for demand estimation and terminal prioritization under various operating scenarios. Implementation of a consistent procedure will reduce uncertainty for dispatchers and will reduce inconsistencies between terminal and CTH dispatcher decisions.

4. Develop better terminal-level communications to improve passenger demand estimation.

Since the taxis at JFK are centrally dispatched, the potential for terminal-level improvements to improve operations is limited. However, terminal-level demand estimates could be improved through better communications between the airlines operating the terminals and the dispatchers communicating demands to the CTH. At a relatively low cost, dispatcher demand estimates could be improved by increasing the visibility of flight arrival monitors from the taxi passenger loading areas. At a much higher cost, to maximize available information, passengers could be asked as part of the check-in process whether or not they will require a taxi upon arrival at JFK, providing real-time demand estimates for each flight that could be communicated along with expected arrival times to CTH dispatchers. The feasibility of such a system would require detailed analysis, as implementation would require upgrade of existing systems for passenger check-in, as well as potentially add time to the check-in process. At the curbside, ITS

technologies could also be deployed in the passenger queue to automate person counting.

5. Upgrade central dispatching technologies.

According to PANYNJ and Gateway Group One, the Port Authority is currently in the process of developing an RFP for a new taxi dispatching system for JFK. The anticipated system would make use of more advanced technologies such as handheld computers for dispatchers and electronic card readers. During the CTH site visit, a pilot visual pattern recognition system which reads the taxi medallion number from cameras was also observed. It is clear from the experience of other major US airports that these technologies should improve CTH dispatching

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efficiency. However an assessment of airport-specific benefits should be performed for each technology to identify the most effective technology implementations.

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