DEVELOPING SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING DEVELOPING SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING
by John M. Read by John M. Read
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
There is a growing emphasis on life-long learning at national, institutional and company There is a growing emphasis on life-long learning at national, institutional and company levels in Singapore. Prime Minister of Singapore, Mr. Goh Chok Tong, said recently in levels in Singapore. Prime Minister of Singapore, Mr. Goh Chok Tong, said recently in one of many speeches on the topic: “Therefore, everyone must have a mindset of lifelong one of many speeches on the topic: “Therefore, everyone must have a mindset of lifelong learni
learning, not ng, not just willinjust willingness, but eagerness to gness, but eagerness to constaconstantly learn new ntly learn new thingthings s and upgradeand upgrade one
oneseselflf.” .” (P(Pririme me MiMininiststereriaial l SpSpeeeech ch MaMay y 1991999)9). . ThThe e SiSingangapopore re CoCommmmitittetee e onon Competitiveness established by the Singapore Ministry of Trade and Industry in 1999, Competitiveness established by the Singapore Ministry of Trade and Industry in 1999, re
recocognignisesed d ththe e imimpoportrtancance e of of lilife fe lolong ng leleararnining ng in in a a knknowowleledgdge e basbased ed ecoeconomnomyy.. Comp
Comprisrising ing sensenior ior reprepresresententatiatives ves of of indindustustry ry aloalong ng witwith h sensenior ior civcivil il serservantvants, s, thethe programs they have initiated include “measures [that] would also help inculcate lifelong programs they have initiated include “measures [that] would also help inculcate lifelong learning as a shared responsibility of the government employers, unions and workers.” learning as a shared responsibility of the government employers, unions and workers.” (Public Report EDB Singapore 1999).
(Public Report EDB Singapore 1999).
This program assumes that individuals will buy into their own life-long learning program. This program assumes that individuals will buy into their own life-long learning program. Defining the factors for success of self-direction in learning will help companies and Defining the factors for success of self-direction in learning will help companies and training managers to support this important form of learning and development. This paper training managers to support this important form of learning and development. This paper identifies the impact and value that self-directed learning can have as a form of learning identifies the impact and value that self-directed learning can have as a form of learning strategy. By reviewing the current experience of self-directed learning this paper will strategy. By reviewing the current experience of self-directed learning this paper will show that self-directed learning is an important avenue for staff training and development show that self-directed learning is an important avenue for staff training and development
as well as organisational learning. W
as well as organisational learning. We will scope the oe will scope the organisational frameworks needed torganisational frameworks needed to support this form of
support this form of learning to work elearning to work effectivelyffectively..
LEARNING ORGANISATIONS – CONTEXT FOR INDIVIDUAL LEARNING LEARNING ORGANISATIONS – CONTEXT FOR INDIVIDUAL LEARNING Inc
Increasreasinginglyly, , comcompanipanies es are are movmoving ing to to becbecome ome ‘le‘learnarning ing ororganiganisatsationions’ s’ aftafter er PetPeter er Senge’s seminal work on learning organisations (Senge 1990, Ryan 1995, Rubenson & Senge’s seminal work on learning organisations (Senge 1990, Ryan 1995, Rubenson & Schultze 1995). Consequently, they are moving to develop a framework for learning at Schultze 1995). Consequently, they are moving to develop a framework for learning at wor
work k (P(Pedleedler r et et al al 1991991, 1, 19971997). ). HarHarrisrison on & & LeiLeitch (2000) note tch (2000) note the importhe importanctance e of of increasing awareness of knowledge and learning as an intellectual response of business to increasing awareness of knowledge and learning as an intellectual response of business to its rapidly changing environment. The motive for companies to pursue this seems to be its rapidly changing environment. The motive for companies to pursue this seems to be both externally as well internally driven.
both externally as well internally driven.
Nonaka & Takeuchi (1996) found that few companies in their survey of the West know Nonaka & Takeuchi (1996) found that few companies in their survey of the West know
how to
how to manage or manage or exploiexploit knowledge hidden in t knowledge hidden in their workfotheir workforce. A company that favorsrce. A company that favors th
the e imimpoportrtanance ce of of leleararnining ng anand d knknowowleledgdge e is is momore re adadapaptitive ve to to itits s mamarkrket et anandd environment. Dovey (1997) noted that creating a learning organisation was a process, not environment. Dovey (1997) noted that creating a learning organisation was a process, not a goal with a predefined end-point. Companies he surveyed, found success to depend on a goal with a predefined end-point. Companies he surveyed, found success to depend on individual self-actualisation (internal individual change) rather than external prescription. individual self-actualisation (internal individual change) rather than external prescription. He found that companies successful in creating learning organisations had developed an He found that companies successful in creating learning organisations had developed an org
organianisatsationional al cultculture ure thathat t encencouraourages ges colcollablaboraorativtive e as as welwell l as as indiindividvidual ual learlearninning.g. Easterby-Smith (1997) and Wenger (1998) both support the roles of national culture, Easterby-Smith (1997) and Wenger (1998) both support the roles of national culture, organisational culture and work context as mediating variables of learning by a company organisational culture and work context as mediating variables of learning by a company and it’s employees. Sadler-Smith Et Al (2000) also noted that self-directed learning and it’s employees. Sadler-Smith Et Al (2000) also noted that self-directed learning projects are not as well recognised by HR managers as a valid learning mode, in their projects are not as well recognised by HR managers as a valid learning mode, in their
sample. This is not surprising if the age of the managers is considered, older employees sample. This is not surprising if the age of the managers is considered, older employees pr
prefeeferrirring ng socsocial interial interactaction ion as as a a priprimarmary y as as a a meanmeans s of of worwork k valvalidaidatiotion n and and stystylele (Kakabadse 1999). Older managers are more likely to look for socially recognised forms (Kakabadse 1999). Older managers are more likely to look for socially recognised forms of learning rather than initiative based, self-directed learning. One may also argue that of learning rather than initiative based, self-directed learning. One may also argue that this situation is reinforced by national cultural values here in Singapore. Importance of this situation is reinforced by national cultural values here in Singapore. Importance of hie
hierarrarchychy, , powpower er disdistanctance e and and colcolleclectivtivism ism are are recrecogniognised sed featfeatureures s of of the the natnationionalal Singapore culture (Trompenaars 1993) that may impact negatively on the willingness of Singapore culture (Trompenaars 1993) that may impact negatively on the willingness of individuals to initiate their own work-related learning. To build a strong self-directed individuals to initiate their own work-related learning. To build a strong self-directed learning context in their company local managers and senior managers will need to build learning context in their company local managers and senior managers will need to build a strong and consistent organisational culture that promotes life-long and self-directed a strong and consistent organisational culture that promotes life-long and self-directed learning (Pedler Et Al 19
learning (Pedler Et Al 1997, W97, Wegner 1998).egner 1998).
Elliott (2000) found in a recent study of the British Police Force, that although the Elliott (2000) found in a recent study of the British Police Force, that although the organisational context called for self-directed learning projects, officers would not start organisational context called for self-directed learning projects, officers would not start them due to their belief that the Chain of Command must approve their actions before them due to their belief that the Chain of Command must approve their actions before they could do so. (p.179). This contrasts with industrial and commercial settings where they could do so. (p.179). This contrasts with industrial and commercial settings where the pressure to continuously learn is
the pressure to continuously learn is a positively reinforced organisational demand (Willisa positively reinforced organisational demand (Willis 2000).
2000).
Work norms and work context appear to mediate self-directed and perhaps all forms of Work norms and work context appear to mediate self-directed and perhaps all forms of learning at work, according to Popper & Lipshitz (2000). A learning organisation, with a learning at work, according to Popper & Lipshitz (2000). A learning organisation, with a strong culture that seriously values learning across all levels is needed to support the strong culture that seriously values learning across all levels is needed to support the generation of individual learning and transfer this to organisational learning. In such a generation of individual learning and transfer this to organisational learning. In such a con
contetextxt, , seselflf-di-direrectcted ed leleararnining ng bebecomcomes es anoanothther er imimpoportrtanant t and and vavalilid d papaththwaway y toto individual and organisational learning (Popper & Lipshitz 2000).
Creating a positive learning culture calls for the company to define a framework for Creating a positive learning culture calls for the company to define a framework for learning by all levels in the company (Pedler et al 1997) as well to define systems and learning by all levels in the company (Pedler et al 1997) as well to define systems and pr
procesocesses ses for for tratransfnsfer er of of indindiviividual dual lealearnirning ng to to ororganiganisatsationional al learlearninning g (No(Nonaka naka && T
Takeuakeuchi chi 19961996). ). BefBefore ore detdetailailing ing thethese se fraframewmeworkorks s letlet’’s s conconsidsider er the the indindiviividualdual perspective for self-directed learning to gain a better insight into the processes at work perspective for self-directed learning to gain a better insight into the processes at work
here. here.
INDIVIDUAL LEARNING: THE PROCESS OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING INDIVIDUAL LEARNING: THE PROCESS OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING
Eliasson (1996) notes that by the late 80’s to early 90’s, detached, analytical thinking is Eliasson (1996) notes that by the late 80’s to early 90’s, detached, analytical thinking is out (according to his literature survey of management thought). This mode of thinking out (according to his literature survey of management thought). This mode of thinking being replaced by experimental rather than planned behavior of managers and workers being replaced by experimental rather than planned behavior of managers and workers alike as they move towards a more adaptive individual learning style. The rate of change alike as they move towards a more adaptive individual learning style. The rate of change in the business environment is one
in the business environment is one explanation Eliasson proposes for this shift.explanation Eliasson proposes for this shift.
Self-directed learning is defined by Clardy (2000) as learning initiated and controlled by Self-directed learning is defined by Clardy (2000) as learning initiated and controlled by the
the aduadult. lt. TTough ough (19(1971,71,19781978) ) foufound nd thathat t aduladults ts perperforformed med appapproxroximaimateltely y eigeight ht selself- f-directed learning projects per year on average. More recently, Cross (1981) found that directed learning projects per year on average. More recently, Cross (1981) found that most (9/10) working adults have at least four learning projects per year with professional most (9/10) working adults have at least four learning projects per year with professional having more than
having more than their skilltheir skills s based colleaguebased colleagues. Cross s. Cross noted that adults use noted that adults use selfself-dire-directedcted learning for job-related or vocational learning.
learning for job-related or vocational learning.
Explanations of self-directed learning at the level of the individual, have tended to be Explanations of self-directed learning at the level of the individual, have tended to be mixed. Senge (1992) defines individual learning as change of skills, knowledge and mixed. Senge (1992) defines individual learning as change of skills, knowledge and values acquired through
Tough (1971) noted that motive, curiosity and prior learning experiences were predictive Tough (1971) noted that motive, curiosity and prior learning experiences were predictive variables of individual propensity to learn. Sadler-Smith Et Al (2000) latest research variables of individual propensity to learn. Sadler-Smith Et Al (2000) latest research support Tough’
support Tough’s earlier findings that s earlier findings that motivation is an motivation is an important mediating variable, important mediating variable, alongalong with gender. Men and women were found in this and earlier studies (Curry 1983) to have with gender. Men and women were found in this and earlier studies (Curry 1983) to have differing cognitive styles: females more intuitive, males more cognitive, this influencing differing cognitive styles: females more intuitive, males more cognitive, this influencing their learning styles and their choice and participation in self-directed learning projects. their learning styles and their choice and participation in self-directed learning projects.
Ste
Steiner (1998) noted iner (1998) noted that indivthat individuidual al lealearnirning ng needneeds s to to be be intintegregrateated d witwith h team andteam and organisational learning, if it is not to become a barrier to learning by the organisation organisational learning, if it is not to become a barrier to learning by the organisation through inequity of power sharing. Poell (2000) suggests that work-based projects can be through inequity of power sharing. Poell (2000) suggests that work-based projects can be organ
organised flexiblyised flexibly. . They can They can be be selfself-dire-directed and cted and remairemain n contextcontextually bound, as ually bound, as well aswell as be directed towards specific work-related goals. Poell notes that “Employees are thus be directed towards specific work-related goals. Poell notes that “Employees are thus
reg
regardearded d as as selself-df-direirectected d lealearnerners rs in in the the concontext of text of a a grogroup up proprojecject.” t.” (p.(p.179179). ). NotNot surpr
surprisingisinglyly, , indiviindividual dual learnilearning ng mediatmediates es organorganisatisational ional learnlearning ing (Pop(Popper per & & LipshLipshitzitz 2000).
2000).
Clardy (2000) notes that prior an individual’s learning history is a good indicator of Clardy (2000) notes that prior an individual’s learning history is a good indicator of propensity to engage in self-directed learning. When this is matched to a supportive propensity to engage in self-directed learning. When this is matched to a supportive environment including opportunity, resources and commitment, it can create self-directed environment including opportunity, resources and commitment, it can create self-directed learning behavior in individuals and this can lead to organisational learning.
learning behavior in individuals and this can lead to organisational learning.
Self-directed learning calls for the learner to take increasing responsibility for their Self-directed learning calls for the learner to take increasing responsibility for their learning. It requires that the learner is able to travel some important tracks to achieve learning. It requires that the learner is able to travel some important tracks to achieve
their learning (Poell Et Al 1997). They must be able to identify their learning needs, or their learning (Poell Et Al 1997). They must be able to identify their learning needs, or even if externally identified, they need to understand how their learning fits back into even if externally identified, they need to understand how their learning fits back into their context and work environment (Popper & Lipshitz 2000). So they have to be aware their context and work environment (Popper & Lipshitz 2000). So they have to be aware of their role and performance in relation to say, a company’s mission, strategies and of their role and performance in relation to say, a company’s mission, strategies and perfo
performance objectirmance objectives. They have to ves. They have to see and see and be able be able to show others how to show others how their learnitheir learningng will bring better business and performance results (Popper & Lipshitz 2000). These will bring better business and performance results (Popper & Lipshitz 2000). These characteristics parallel the characteristics of adult learners elaborated recently by Caudron characteristics parallel the characteristics of adult learners elaborated recently by Caudron (2000). She reviewed the literature about adult-learning theory and coupled this with an (2000). She reviewed the literature about adult-learning theory and coupled this with an informal inquiry into how trainers train, finding deficiencies in many traditional forms of informal inquiry into how trainers train, finding deficiencies in many traditional forms of training. Caudron found these deficiencies are explained by a lack of grounding in adult training. Caudron found these deficiencies are explained by a lack of grounding in adult learning theory by trainers. This may also explain the lack of focus on learning (a need) learning theory by trainers. This may also explain the lack of focus on learning (a need) by the recent ASTD 2000 report into training expenditure and resourcing and their by the recent ASTD 2000 report into training expenditure and resourcing and their persistent focus on training as the solution to learning needs. Caudron identified five persistent focus on training as the solution to learning needs. Caudron identified five
important aspects of adult-learning theory: important aspects of adult-learning theory:
♦
♦ Adults learn best by experience - doing it, rather than just seeing itAdults learn best by experience - doing it, rather than just seeing it ♦
♦ Adults learn by reflecting and evaluating on their experience and modifying their Adults learn by reflecting and evaluating on their experience and modifying their
future performance accordingly, integrating their learning with their
future performance accordingly, integrating their learning with their prior experiencesprior experiences
♦
♦ Having a Mentor to guide learning is important (Possibly due to the HawthorneHaving a Mentor to guide learning is important (Possibly due to the Hawthorne
Effect) Effect)
♦
♦ Involving small group participation and support builds learning Involving small group participation and support builds learning experienceexperience ♦
♦ Reinforcement by connection with their context is needed to secure learning – settingReinforcement by connection with their context is needed to secure learning – setting
clear objectives for the learning and giving real-time opportunities to put the learning clear objectives for the learning and giving real-time opportunities to put the learning into practice are
notes that practice refines performance but reinforcement anchors learning to context notes that practice refines performance but reinforcement anchors learning to context and increases transfer of learning.
and increases transfer of learning.
Having a supportive and action learning environment are significant contextual factors to Having a supportive and action learning environment are significant contextual factors to successful learning strategies (Caudron 2000). The self-directed learner can be enabled or successful learning strategies (Caudron 2000). The self-directed learner can be enabled or dis
disablabled ed by by thethese se facfactortors s (P(Poppeopper r & & LipLipshishitz tz 2002000). 0). LetLet’’s s disdiscuscuss s the the prepreceptcepts s toto implementing organisational learning: the paradigms that frame our perspectives about implementing organisational learning: the paradigms that frame our perspectives about learning at work.
learning at work.
WORKPLACE LEARNING
WORKPLACE LEARNING - DOMINANT PARADI- DOMINANT PARADIGMSGMS
By reviewing the dominant paradigms existing in the workplace about learning we can By reviewing the dominant paradigms existing in the workplace about learning we can see what changes are needed to help improve the learning and performance of these see what changes are needed to help improve the learning and performance of these com
compapaninieses. . ThThe e lilink nk bebetwtween een leleararnining ng and and comcompanpany y peperfrforormamancnce e hahas s bebeen en wewellll established (see Popper & Lipshitz 2000 for an excellent review of the relationships established (see Popper & Lipshitz 2000 for an excellent review of the relationships between learning processes, learning structures, work processes and work structures to between learning processes, learning structures, work processes and work structures to
see how learning can be positioned to improve work performance). see how learning can be positioned to improve work performance). The
The ‘k‘knonowlwlededge ge babasesed d ecoeconomnomy’ is y’ is a a lalangunguagage e ththat at coconcenceptptualualisises es woworkrkerers s asas knowledge-reservoirs. In Singapore, the knowledge-based economy is the major lever knowledge-reservoirs. In Singapore, the knowledge-based economy is the major lever used to explain changes needed in management culture at work (see for example, the used to explain changes needed in management culture at work (see for example, the S
Siinnggaappoorre e PPrroodduuccttiivviitty y & & SSttaannddaarrdds s BBooaarrd d WWeebbssiitte e aatt http:/
http://www/www.psb.g.psb.govov.sg/a.sg/aboutusboutus/thru/thrusts/sts/thrusthrusts.htts.html). ml). KnowlKnowledge edge workerworkers s accordiaccording ng toto Peter Drucker (1999) are simply people who use
Peter Drucker (1999) are simply people who use their resident knowledge as the means of their resident knowledge as the means of meeting the needs of their company. They are viewed as a resource available to the meeting the needs of their company. They are viewed as a resource available to the
company to be tacitly mined. Workers are like data or memory chips that are simply company to be tacitly mined. Workers are like data or memory chips that are simply plugged in to support the core business of the company. This model of workers tends to plugged in to support the core business of the company. This model of workers tends to view workers (including management) as a passive storage of KSA’s or experience that view workers (including management) as a passive storage of KSA’s or experience that the company can directly access, as it requires. This is the dominant Western (American) the company can directly access, as it requires. This is the dominant Western (American) construct of knowledge workers is very different to the Japanese model developed so construct of knowledge workers is very different to the Japanese model developed so thoroughly by Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995). Our Japanese writers identify that knowledge thoroughly by Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995). Our Japanese writers identify that knowledge creation is the main need of a company and this is done by the knowledge creating crew. creation is the main need of a company and this is done by the knowledge creating crew. This crew comprises three roles:
This crew comprises three roles:
•
• Knowledge practitioners – who accumulate, generate, and update both tacitKnowledge practitioners – who accumulate, generate, and update both tacit
and
and explexpliciicit t knoknowlewledge. dge. TherThere e are are two two tytypes pes of of knowknowledledge ge prapractictitiotionerners:s: knowledge operators (daily tacit knowledge developers, using both heads and knowledge operators (daily tacit knowledge developers, using both heads and hand
hands) s) and and knoknowlewledge dge spespeciacialislists ts (mob(mobililise ise and and devedevelop lop welwell-sl-strutructucturedred explicit knowledge like scientific, technical or other quantifiable data and explicit knowledge like scientific, technical or other quantifiable data and methods
methods, , primarprimarily use ily use their heads their heads and and computcomputers)ers). . KnowlKnowledge edge practpractitionitionersers define ‘what
define ‘what is’ iis’ in and n and for the cofor the companympany..
•
• Knowledge engineers – convert new ideas and knowledge to reality, bridgeKnowledge engineers – convert new ideas and knowledge to reality, bridge
top management vision with bottom level market knowledge to create new top management vision with bottom level market knowledge to create new products and processes for the company. They are best at converting tacit products and processes for the company. They are best at converting tacit images and perspectives into explicit concepts; they synthesise knowledge. images and perspectives into explicit concepts; they synthesise knowledge. Knowledge engineers define how to make ‘what ought to be’ into ‘what is’. Knowledge engineers define how to make ‘what ought to be’ into ‘what is’. These are usually middle managers.
These are usually middle managers.
•
• Knowledge officers – top or senior management who produce and control theKnowledge officers – top or senior management who produce and control the
knowledge creating processes in the company. Knowledge Officers define knowledge creating processes in the company. Knowledge Officers define
‘what ought to be’. They define the value of knowledge created and developed ‘what ought to be’. They define the value of knowledge created and developed by the knowledge
by the knowledge creating crew.creating crew.
In this ‘new’ paradigm it becomes clear that business processes are the key as they help In this ‘new’ paradigm it becomes clear that business processes are the key as they help (or hinder) knowledge creation. In this model, workers are not data stores but information (or hinder) knowledge creation. In this model, workers are not data stores but information developers. Workers and management engage in specific interlocking processes that give developers. Workers and management engage in specific interlocking processes that give rise to knowledge wealth creation for the company. These processes create wealth in the rise to knowledge wealth creation for the company. These processes create wealth in the form of intellectual capital for the company. They constitute the heart and mind of the form of intellectual capital for the company. They constitute the heart and mind of the company
company, , ensuriensuring ng it’it’s s long-tlong-term erm survisurvival. Todayval. Today, , more than more than everever, , the the creatcreation ion andand development of intellectual capital is recognised as the most important paradigm needed development of intellectual capital is recognised as the most important paradigm needed by companies to compete globa
by companies to compete globally (Byrne 2000).lly (Byrne 2000).
Organisational learning is differentiated from individual learning by many researchers Organisational learning is differentiated from individual learning by many researchers and viewed as interdependent by others (Popper & Lipshitz 2000). Steiner (1998) notes and viewed as interdependent by others (Popper & Lipshitz 2000). Steiner (1998) notes that individual learning should be ideally integrated with team and organisation learning that individual learning should be ideally integrated with team and organisation learning or change, if they are not become barriers to learning. For our purposes here we can or change, if they are not become barriers to learning. For our purposes here we can differentiate individual and organisational learning by intent. Learning intended to lead to differentiate individual and organisational learning by intent. Learning intended to lead to change in work performance or the work context may be defined as a base ingredient for change in work performance or the work context may be defined as a base ingredient for organisational learning (Hedberg 1981). Learning not intended for specific integration organisational learning (Hedberg 1981). Learning not intended for specific integration within the current work context – could be career development based learning to facilitate within the current work context – could be career development based learning to facilitate jo
job b chanchange ge for for examexampleple, , is is not not conconsidsidereered d an an ingingrediredient ent in in ororganiganisatsationional al lealearnirning.ng. Although such learning may lead to organisational change when the person leaves!
Although such learning may lead to organisational change when the person leaves!
Traditionally, training has been something that someone else did to you (Caudron 2000). Traditionally, training has been something that someone else did to you (Caudron 2000). Usually, either because you asked for it or because someone else asked you to have it. Usually, either because you asked for it or because someone else asked you to have it.
This is the reactive, non-participative paradigm of training and development. This was This is the reactive, non-participative paradigm of training and development. This was how we learnt at work. Even on the job learning was called on the job training, and in how we learnt at work. Even on the job learning was called on the job training, and in certain cases was fully structured by the company or some other ‘competent’ authority. certain cases was fully structured by the company or some other ‘competent’ authority. Today, we have knowledge creating companies as discussed above and in the USA they Today, we have knowledge creating companies as discussed above and in the USA they too have begun to identify learning organisations. Senge (1990) and other writers now too have begun to identify learning organisations. Senge (1990) and other writers now draw down on concepts developed by Japanese industry. These concepts have, as one of draw down on concepts developed by Japanese industry. These concepts have, as one of their common features, a focus on business process development.
their common features, a focus on business process development.
In the case of the learning organisation and the knowledge creating company, such In the case of the learning organisation and the knowledge creating company, such companies are concerned with developing learning systems and processes at the macro companies are concerned with developing learning systems and processes at the macro level.
level.
In the Japanese Literature, writers like Masaaki Imai (developer of Kiazen Management In the Japanese Literature, writers like Masaaki Imai (developer of Kiazen Management pr
prininciciplples es – – ororigiiginatnator or of of TQTQM)M), , anand d KiyKiyososhi hi SuSuzakzaki i wrwrititining g aboabout ut mamanagnagememenentt dev
develelopmopment ent at at shshop op flfloor oor lelevel vel in in JaJapanpanesese e mamanunufafactctururining g inindusdustrtry y rereflflect ect ththee sig
signifnificaicantlntly y deepdeeper er focfocus us of of JapJapanesanese e manmanagemagement ent thetheory ory and and prapractictice ce on on proprocescesss management. From the shop floor to top management the Japanese have learnt and management. From the shop floor to top management the Japanese have learnt and defined more about learning in their companies than their American (and Singaporean) defined more about learning in their companies than their American (and Singaporean) coun
counterterparparts ts (May(Mayumuma a 19841984). ). One One can can tratrace ce thithis s bacback k to to the the difdifferferent ent culculturtural al andand episte
epistemologimological focus cal focus of the of the JapaneJapanese se on on contextcontext, , relatrelationshiionships ps and and holisholistic viewpointstic viewpoints.. Unlike the Americans who prefer to analyse rather than integrate people and learning. Unlike the Americans who prefer to analyse rather than integrate people and learning. Perhaps some of the accepted cultural differences here such as contextual priority and Perhaps some of the accepted cultural differences here such as contextual priority and relationship focus (Trompenaars 1993) mediate these differences. The Americans only relationship focus (Trompenaars 1993) mediate these differences. The Americans only recentl
recently began y began to consider the to consider the human cost/behuman cost/benefit as an nefit as an integintegral element of ral element of the businessthe business success equation and sought to maximise it by learning about it in lasting ways. An success equation and sought to maximise it by learning about it in lasting ways. An
individualist culture doesn’t promote or reward knowledge exchange; hence it does not individualist culture doesn’t promote or reward knowledge exchange; hence it does not learn very well over time. Rather it tends to repeat the learning process as each new learn very well over time. Rather it tends to repeat the learning process as each new individual goes through their company. Hirschhorn (1995) identifies the new learning individual goes through their company. Hirschhorn (1995) identifies the new learning opportunities that arise as technology and social structures in response to that technology opportunities that arise as technology and social structures in response to that technology change. He identifies that learning organisations are ones that are responding to the change. He identifies that learning organisations are ones that are responding to the pressures of change in these structures. Rylatt (1994) defines ‘double-loop’ learning as a pressures of change in these structures. Rylatt (1994) defines ‘double-loop’ learning as a
des
desirirablable e leleararnining ng ststraratetegy gy fofor r perpermamanennent t chachangnge e in in ororgaganinisasatitionsons: : chachangnge e in in ththee underlying business systems. In their recent review of organisational learning, Popper and underlying business systems. In their recent review of organisational learning, Popper and Lipshitz (2000) note that several factors that appear to mediate success in this area. They Lipshitz (2000) note that several factors that appear to mediate success in this area. They are:
are:
developing a continuous learning culture,developing a continuous learning culture,
having a high level of external environmental uncertaintyhaving a high level of external environmental uncertainty,,
costly potential errors where the cost of costly potential errors where the cost of failure to learn or pass on failure to learn or pass on previous learning isprevious learning is
very high very high
having a high level of intra-firm professionalism, andhaving a high level of intra-firm professionalism, and
having strong leadership commitment to learning.having strong leadership commitment to learning.
T
To o sumsummarmarise ise thethese se concconcepteptual ual fraframewmeworkorks s disdiscuscussed sed so so farfar, , we we lealearn rn thathat t modmodernern com
compapaninies es seseek ek to to crcreateate e and and susupppporort t dedevelvelopmopmenent t of of inintetellllecectutual al cacapipitatal. l. ThThisis responsibility calls for companies to alter their views of workers as tools or assets. They responsibility calls for companies to alter their views of workers as tools or assets. They are now better viewed as dynamic learning units that must be motivated to learn (Tough are now better viewed as dynamic learning units that must be motivated to learn (Tough 1971, 1979, Cross 2000), and their learnings integrated into their team, company and 1971, 1979, Cross 2000), and their learnings integrated into their team, company and society (Popp
the Japanese but seem more difficult if not impossible to translate directly into Singapore the Japanese but seem more difficult if not impossible to translate directly into Singapore workforce and management systems. There appears to be little motive to do so, and workforce and management systems. There appears to be little motive to do so, and insufficient support to translate the ‘knowledge based economy’ concept into newly insufficient support to translate the ‘knowledge based economy’ concept into newly spe
specifcified ied rolroles es at at worworkplkplace ace levlevel. el. ThiThis s scescenarnario io posposes es strstrong ong chachallellengenges s to to humhumanan resource management and others trying to develop life-long learning into organisationally resource management and others trying to develop life-long learning into organisationally useful modes. Self-directed learning is just one of those modes that suffers accordingly. useful modes. Self-directed learning is just one of those modes that suffers accordingly. Given these cultural constraints, any framework for self-directed learning needs to have Given these cultural constraints, any framework for self-directed learning needs to have superior framework supports built by the company. Starting with basic programs like superior framework supports built by the company. Starting with basic programs like mentoring, access to coaching, establishing a register of self-directed learning projects mentoring, access to coaching, establishing a register of self-directed learning projects and creating avenues to get ‘soft-support’ such as access to special knowledge, specialist and creating avenues to get ‘soft-support’ such as access to special knowledge, specialist staff and time-off to pursue the projects. In my experience, companies here are still stuck staff and time-off to pursue the projects. In my experience, companies here are still stuck in the ‘QC’ model, where all learning that takes place is organisationally directed and in the ‘QC’ model, where all learning that takes place is organisationally directed and team delivered in a single socially approved way (through the company QC scheme). team delivered in a single socially approved way (through the company QC scheme). Attitudes to organisational learning will need to be changed, beginning with human Attitudes to organisational learning will need to be changed, beginning with human res
resourource ce manmanagemagementent, , linline e manmanagemagement ent and and tratrainiining ng and and devedevelopmlopment ent stastaffff. . EveEvenn elsewhere, there is a problem of these
elsewhere, there is a problem of these participants and framework developers having suchparticipants and framework developers having such narrowly defined perceptions of learning at organisational, team and individual levels that narrowly defined perceptions of learning at organisational, team and individual levels that th
they ey arare e seseververely ely hamhampeperiring ng ththe e grgrowtowth h and and dedevevelolopmpmenent t of of ththe e leleararnining ng in in ththeieir r company (Caudron 2000, 2000 ASTD International Comparisons Report).
company (Caudron 2000, 2000 ASTD International Comparisons Report).
SINGAPORE SITUATION – APPLYING THEORY TO CONTEXT SINGAPORE SITUATION – APPLYING THEORY TO CONTEXT
In this macro-social context companies in Singapore and the region are seeking ways to In this macro-social context companies in Singapore and the region are seeking ways to innovative their learning needs to build upon the best that the east and west have to offer. innovative their learning needs to build upon the best that the east and west have to offer.
In
Incrcreaseasining g lolocal cal empemphahasisis s is is beibeing ng plplaceaced d on on a a knoknowlwlededge-ge-babasesed d ececonoonomy my as as ththee domi
dominannant t parparadiadigm gm todtodayay. . The The impimpliclicatiations ons for for lealearnirning ng strstrateategiegies s are are to to encoencourauragege workers and management to learn more about learning. In other words, to learn more workers and management to learn more about learning. In other words, to learn more about their roles as knowledge workers. Support for the learning organisation as an about their roles as knowledge workers. Support for the learning organisation as an emerging paradigm and embracing self-directed learning comes from newer American emerging paradigm and embracing self-directed learning comes from newer American writers such as Blanchard and Thacker (1999). Writers, Davis and Davis (1998) state: writers such as Blanchard and Thacker (1999). Writers, Davis and Davis (1998) state: “Perhaps the most important goal to accomplish in the re-framing of training is to shift “Perhaps the most important goal to accomplish in the re-framing of training is to shift the emphasis from training to learning.” p.52/53. This statement coming from their book the emphasis from training to learning.” p.52/53. This statement coming from their book titled: “Effective training strategies: a comprehensive guide to maximising learning in titled: “Effective training strategies: a comprehensive guide to maximising learning in organisations.” Robotham (1995) notes that learned helplessness can result from trainer organisations.” Robotham (1995) notes that learned helplessness can result from trainer lead training, this phenomena explaining at least some of the lack of transfer of training lead training, this phenomena explaining at least some of the lack of transfer of training to the workplace. Baldwin & Ford (1988) note that transfer of learning is inhibited by to the workplace. Baldwin & Ford (1988) note that transfer of learning is inhibited by poo
poor r worwork k envienvironronmenment-lt-learearninning g fifit, t, mismismatmatch ch betbetweeween n lealearnirning ng stystyles les and and lealearnirningng situation and personality of the trainee and trainer. Many of these problems can be situation and personality of the trainee and trainer. Many of these problems can be minimised or even eliminated by a proper self-directed learning paradigm operating in a minimised or even eliminated by a proper self-directed learning paradigm operating in a fully resourced environment such as Motorola, Safeway and other major companies have fully resourced environment such as Motorola, Safeway and other major companies have sought to create (Davis & Davis 1999). It can be argued that allowing the individual to sought to create (Davis & Davis 1999). It can be argued that allowing the individual to mediate in his own learning enables him to impose or select learning opportunities that mediate in his own learning enables him to impose or select learning opportunities that best reflect his own preferences (Caudron 2000
best reflect his own preferences (Caudron 2000).).
A learning organisation is one where everyone knows their learning needs (or at least A learning organisation is one where everyone knows their learning needs (or at least how to access them and does so) and is facilitated by various processes and menus for how to access them and does so) and is facilitated by various processes and menus for prioritising and meeting their needs. Everyone is at some stage or other of meeting their prioritising and meeting their needs. Everyone is at some stage or other of meeting their
lea
structured learning activities or programs that they are working on, maybe solo or in structured learning activities or programs that they are working on, maybe solo or in groups or teams, in a self planned but fully supported way. They may be working with groups or teams, in a self planned but fully supported way. They may be working with client
clients, suppliers or vendors in s, suppliers or vendors in a a strucstructured or tured or contrcontracted learning situatacted learning situation that ion that may bemay be visible to the other parties involved or hidden from them according to the needs and visible to the other parties involved or hidden from them according to the needs and circumstances involved (Popper & Lipshitz 2000).
circumstances involved (Popper & Lipshitz 2000). This example represents an e
This example represents an entirely fluid, continually adjusting learning organisation akinntirely fluid, continually adjusting learning organisation akin to that described b
to that described b y Popper and Lipshitz (2000), y Popper and Lipshitz (2000), as they adapted Kolb’s (1984) four-stageas they adapted Kolb’s (1984) four-stage model of learning. Allowing for corporate cultural constraints (this example is unlikely to model of learning. Allowing for corporate cultural constraints (this example is unlikely to apply in non-industrial highly regimented organisations like the military or police), the apply in non-industrial highly regimented organisations like the military or police), the example draws resources and opportunities for the knowledge creating crew members to example draws resources and opportunities for the knowledge creating crew members to develop in their roles and even beyond them for achievement and innovation purposes. develop in their roles and even beyond them for achievement and innovation purposes.
Examples like Honda and their ‘Tall Boy’ car or the bread-making machine developed by Examples like Honda and their ‘Tall Boy’ car or the bread-making machine developed by employees of Matsushita (National Panasonic brand owners) watching the master baker, employees of Matsushita (National Panasonic brand owners) watching the master baker, dem
demonsonstrtratates es ththe e susuccccesess s ththat at cacan n be be achachieieveved d by by hahaviving ng susuititablable e ororganganisisatatioionanall leadership and a learning context, coupled with willing learner-oriented workers (Nonaka leadership and a learning context, coupled with willing learner-oriented workers (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Human resource managers can help to create all of these elements, and Takeuchi 1995). Human resource managers can help to create all of these elements, beginning with leadership.
beginning with leadership.
LEARNING ORGANISTIONS TODAY – AN EMERGING PARADIGM LEARNING ORGANISTIONS TODAY – AN EMERGING PARADIGM A learning organisation is one that comprises employees who
A learning organisation is one that comprises employees who understand their knowledgeunderstand their knowledge management role, are familiar with the roles and language of business process and know management role, are familiar with the roles and language of business process and know how
contribution to organisational learning and effectiveness (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). contribution to organisational learning and effectiveness (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Everyone becomes his or her own learning manager. In an ideal situation employees Everyone becomes his or her own learning manager. In an ideal situation employees managers, everyone could access any range of relationships and situations that will help managers, everyone could access any range of relationships and situations that will help them and their company to learn the most from each situation motivated by their need to them and their company to learn the most from each situation motivated by their need to contribute to the profitability and effectiveness of their organisation. Action coaching, contribute to the profitability and effectiveness of their organisation. Action coaching, strategic mentoring, and other developmental alliances are just some of the modern strategic mentoring, and other developmental alliances are just some of the modern self-directed learning facilitation methods available. These methods appear to be increasing in directed learning facilitation methods available. These methods appear to be increasing in their application by modern companies in Singapore. Dovey (1997) noted that creating a their application by modern companies in Singapore. Dovey (1997) noted that creating a learning organisation is a learning process in
learning organisation is a learning process in itself and not an end-point. itself and not an end-point. Success relies onSuccess relies on self-development and self-actualisation of the members of the organisation (rather than self-development and self-actualisation of the members of the organisation (rather than external prescription). Singaporean managed companies may take longer to adjust to this external prescription). Singaporean managed companies may take longer to adjust to this ne
new w mimindnd-s-set et gigiveven n ththeieir r prprefefererenence ce fofor r buburereauaucrcracacy y anand d cocontntrorol l rarathther er ththanan empo
empowerwermenment t as as menmentaltal-mo-modelsdels. . PedPedler ler Et Et Al. Al. (19(1991, 91, 19971997) ) ideidentintify fy two two imimporportanttant elements of a learning company framework impacting self-directed learning: Learning elements of a learning company framework impacting self-directed learning: Learning Climate - where managers see their primary task as facilitating members experimentation Climate - where managers see their primary task as facilitating members experimentation and learning from experience, their strong acceptance of differences as essential for and learning from experience, their strong acceptance of differences as essential for learning. Secondly, self-development opportunities for all me
learning. Secondly, self-development opportunities for all me mbers of the mbers of the companycompany. Self-. Self-responsibility for learning is aided by making available self-directed learning materials, responsibility for learning is aided by making available self-directed learning materials, and access to subject matter experts inside and outside the company (notably within and access to subject matter experts inside and outside the company (notably within customers or suppliers). This is to supplement access to traditional courses and give customers or suppliers). This is to supplement access to traditional courses and give support for external courses. Along with these will come non-traditional opportunities support for external courses. Along with these will come non-traditional opportunities including development groups, one to one coaching and mentoring, peer level one to one including development groups, one to one coaching and mentoring, peer level one to one counseling and even 360 degree feedback. Singapore companies are just beginning to counseling and even 360 degree feedback. Singapore companies are just beginning to
addr
address ess thethese se matmatterters. s. OthOther er aveavenues nues sucsuch h as as on-on-linline e lealearnirning ng and and comcomputputerer-ba-basedsed training will have their applications too. On-line learning in the USA offers short courses training will have their applications too. On-line learning in the USA offers short courses in customer service as well supervisory skills and generic work skills such as time in customer service as well supervisory skills and generic work skills such as time ma
managnagemeementnt. . ThThis is is is in in adaddiditition on to to mamany ny UnUniviverersisitities es alall l ovover er ththe e woworlrld d who who araree beg
beginninning ing to to put put thetheir ir proprogragrams ms on-on-linline, e, supsupporported ted witwith h virvirtuatual l claclassssroom room teacteachinhing.g. Computer-based training is already in use by many companies, especially for skills Computer-based training is already in use by many companies, especially for skills training. Companies like BHP in Australia use it to provide many of their short technical training. Companies like BHP in Australia use it to provide many of their short technical cour
courses to ses to ststaff in aff in remremote ote loclocatiationsons, , indindeed eed anywanywherhere e they have they have an an ofofficfice e or or sitsite.e. Flexibility and a higher degree of self-directedness result from this form of learning, Flexibility and a higher degree of self-directedness result from this form of learning, suggesting that motivation is stronger to learn (Clardy 2000, Tough 1971,1978) with this suggesting that motivation is stronger to learn (Clardy 2000, Tough 1971,1978) with this format. Such media can facilitate motivation and provide greater opportunity. If you are format. Such media can facilitate motivation and provide greater opportunity. If you are planning to improve your technology it is worthwhile to keep in mind that technology is planning to improve your technology it is worthwhile to keep in mind that technology is meant to be enabling of your people rather then a magic bullet that will solve all of your meant to be enabling of your people rather then a magic bullet that will solve all of your problems (Malhotra 1998).
problems (Malhotra 1998).
The seeming freedom offered by this new paradigm, is a false impression. Roles created The seeming freedom offered by this new paradigm, is a false impression. Roles created as members of knowledge creating crews, line reporting structures and staff support as members of knowledge creating crews, line reporting structures and staff support functions like HRD all have roles to play to impose clear guidelines and ensure efficiency functions like HRD all have roles to play to impose clear guidelines and ensure efficiency as well as creativity in managing the learning
as well as creativity in managing the learning environment.environment.
Indeed, as Motorola prove, simply asking for it cannot create innovation – management Indeed, as Motorola prove, simply asking for it cannot create innovation – management commitment and leadership are essential to its success (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). commitment and leadership are essential to its success (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Rubenson and Schutze (1995) in a major review of training and development from an Rubenson and Schutze (1995) in a major review of training and development from an
economic value-added perspective note that “In order to make such integrated learning economic value-added perspective note that “In order to make such integrated learning possible and meaningful, work has to be organised in a way conducive to learning. Thus, possible and meaningful, work has to be organised in a way conducive to learning. Thus, the workplace has to be seen and organised as a learning environment … informal the workplace has to be seen and organised as a learning environment … informal learning (everyday learning) is the most important setting for continuous learning”. p.115 learning (everyday learning) is the most important setting for continuous learning”. p.115
Integrated learning is learning that takes place at every level of the company and within Integrated learning is learning that takes place at every level of the company and within all work groups, and teams. In this paradigm all interactions in the company are learning all work groups, and teams. In this paradigm all interactions in the company are learning opportunities, even if they are simply to practice a pre-existing skill, such as doing the opportunities, even if they are simply to practice a pre-existing skill, such as doing the monthly sales reports – all such work is open to continuous improvement. There are two monthly sales reports – all such work is open to continuous improvement. There are two basic improvement platforms: the things that are done (goals-objectives-tasks) and the basic improvement platforms: the things that are done (goals-objectives-tasks) and the
ways in which those things are don
ways in which those things are done (structures-methods).e (structures-methods).
W
We can always improve ane can always improve and seek to do d seek to do better things and do things better things and do things betterbetter. Both can . Both can lead tolead to cont
continuinuous ous impimprovrovemeement, nt, howhoweveever r the the firfirst st is is mormore e tratransfnsformormatiational onal in in efeffecfect t andand therefore more likely to lead to better outcomes for the company. Both are needed on a therefore more likely to lead to better outcomes for the company. Both are needed on a continuing basis, however, to protect against just making changes for their own sake, continuing basis, however, to protect against just making changes for their own sake, driving improvements rather than
driving improvements rather than just changes only.just changes only.
SEL
SELF-F-DIRDIRECTEECTED D LEALEARNIRNING NG IN IN THE THE NEW NEW ORGORGANIANISASATIOTIONALNAL-LE-LEARNARNINGING CONTEXT
CONTEXT Sel
Self-df-direirectected d lealearnirning ng can can vieviewed wed as as the the simsimpleplest st uniunit t of of lealearnirning: ng: the the selself-df-direirectectedd learner. And each individual represents a learning cell within the organisation. They are learner. And each individual represents a learning cell within the organisation. They are emp
evaluating their own learning strategies (Clardy 2000). There are organisational processes evaluating their own learning strategies (Clardy 2000). There are organisational processes whi
which ch supsupporport t thithis s typtype e of of lealearnirning ng sucsuch h as as coaccoachinhing, g, menmentortoringing, , actaction ion resresearcearch,h, developmental alliances, supervision and management roles, knowledge specialist and developmental alliances, supervision and management roles, knowledge specialist and know
knowledledge ge ofofficficers ers rolroles, es, and and fraframewmeworkorks s devedeveloploped ed to to helhelp p eaceach h rolrole e perperforform m itsits learning functions by HRD. Formally opening these learning facilitation processes up to learning functions by HRD. Formally opening these learning facilitation processes up to learner initiated learning is needed to facilitate formal and social integration of individual learner initiated learning is needed to facilitate formal and social integration of individual learners into the ‘mainstream’ of the company.
learners into the ‘mainstream’ of the company.
There are some barriers to successful achievement of this model in a company. These There are some barriers to successful achievement of this model in a company. These barriers include individual and company characteristics and competencies. For example barriers include individual and company characteristics and competencies. For example
many learners or their companies may do an
many learners or their companies may do an y or all of the following (Robotham 1995):y or all of the following (Robotham 1995):
•
• Choose not to learnChoose not to learn •
• May choose the wrong learning needsMay choose the wrong learning needs •
• Place inappropriate priorities for learningPlace inappropriate priorities for learning •
• Choose the incorrect method to optimise learningChoose the incorrect method to optimise learning •
• Fail to effectively learnFail to effectively learn •
• Fail to evaluate the learning effectively leading to repeat mistakes of learningFail to evaluate the learning effectively leading to repeat mistakes of learning •
• Stop learning for some reasonStop learning for some reason
These are not reasons not to do self-directed learning since they apply equally to any These are not reasons not to do self-directed learning since they apply equally to any form of learning self-directed or not, they are simply issues to be planned for as much as form of learning self-directed or not, they are simply issues to be planned for as much as possible.
Like any corporate strategy self-directed learning requires leadership, planning, resource Like any corporate strategy self-directed learning requires leadership, planning, resource allocation including time, expertise and support to ensure its effectiveness. It also needs allocation including time, expertise and support to ensure its effectiveness. It also needs to be measured in terms of deliverables for the company. Using a balance sheet approach to be measured in terms of deliverables for the company. Using a balance sheet approach (Kaplan and Norton 1996) comparing inputs, processes and outputs can be applied across (Kaplan and Norton 1996) comparing inputs, processes and outputs can be applied across all forms of learning in the company, especially for those interested in comparing the all forms of learning in the company, especially for those interested in comparing the ‘profit’ versus ‘value’ created by different forms of learning at work. Roles such as those ‘profit’ versus ‘value’ created by different forms of learning at work. Roles such as those of the knowledge worker, learning facilitator methodologies (coaching counseling and of the knowledge worker, learning facilitator methodologies (coaching counseling and ment
mentorioring)ng), , linline e manamanagemgement ent and and supsupervervisoisory ry lealearnirning ng supsupporport t rolroles es all all neeneed d to to bebe def
definedined, , comcommunmunicaicated ted and and comcompetepetency ncy in in thethem m crecreateated d to to make make the the syssystem tem worwork.k. Support systems like contract learning and necessary documentation for various learning Support systems like contract learning and necessary documentation for various learning activities to ensure they are approved, supported and evaluated properly are also needed activities to ensure they are approved, supported and evaluated properly are also needed to make this program work.
to make this program work.
In a recent study of these professionals in the UK, Sadler-Smith (2000) found that they In a recent study of these professionals in the UK, Sadler-Smith (2000) found that they preferred traditional forms of classroom learning as their preferred form of professional preferred traditional forms of classroom learning as their preferred form of professional development. They are likely to translate this perception into their work context such that development. They are likely to translate this perception into their work context such that classroom instruction is seen as the only preferred or ‘valid’ form of learning context. To classroom instruction is seen as the only preferred or ‘valid’ form of learning context. To the extent that this mind-set applies in Singapore, we need to improve the learning of the extent that this mind-set applies in Singapore, we need to improve the learning of adult learning theory by training and development professionals. Perhaps the Singapore adult learning theory by training and development professionals. Perhaps the Singapore Training and Development Association (STADA) can take a leading role in building this Training and Development Association (STADA) can take a leading role in building this new focus. Treating the focus of traininers on training as their sole service to learning new focus. Treating the focus of traininers on training as their sole service to learning (per the ASTD 2000 survey mind-set) does seem a worthwhile professional development (per the ASTD 2000 survey mind-set) does seem a worthwhile professional development
issue that will mediate acceptance of self-directed learning in Singapore workplaces (per issue that will mediate acceptance of self-directed learning in Singapore workplaces (per Caudron 2000).
Caudron 2000).
What do we have to do to prepare the learner to play their part well in self-directed What do we have to do to prepare the learner to play their part well in self-directed learning?
learning?
ADAPTING THE LEARNING TO THE LEARNER ADAPTING THE LEARNING TO THE LEARNER
Davis and Davis (1999) find that there is a set of rules that identify how to adapt learning Davis and Davis (1999) find that there is a set of rules that identify how to adapt learning to the learner. These rules include:
to the learner. These rules include:
1.
1. AdAdapt apt ththe e seselelectcted ed trtraiainining ng ststraratetegy gy to to ththe e lilifefe-cy-cyclcle e dedevelvelopmopmentental al neeneeds ds anandd interests of the learners.
interests of the learners. The
The FoForereigign n SeServrvicice e of of ththe e USUSA A fofor r exexamamplple e trtraiains ns whwholole e famfamililieies s fofor r ovovererseseasas assignments and puts each age group through different learning activities so as to address assignments and puts each age group through different learning activities so as to address both the learning styles and the learning needs of each learner. In a self-directed learning both the learning styles and the learning needs of each learner. In a self-directed learning environment this aspect may be addressed by the approving authorities and also the environment this aspect may be addressed by the approving authorities and also the support staff including the learners’ immediate supervisor and knowledge officers who support staff including the learners’ immediate supervisor and knowledge officers who must promote creative learning passages as valid learning
must promote creative learning passages as valid learning pathways for everyone.pathways for everyone.
2.
2. Adapt the trAdapt the training staining strategy trategy to the level of como the level of complexitplexity in thiny in thinking demonsking demonstratetrated by thed by the learner.
learner. Thi
This s aspaspect ect conconsidsiders ers the the cogncognitiitive ve abiabilitlity y and and funfunctictionioning ng of of the the lealearnernerr. . CleClearlyarly,, learning must be stimulating and interesting for the learner to motivate them to want to learning must be stimulating and interesting for the learner to motivate them to want to
learn. It must be compelling and mentally digestible so that they can learn, stretch but not learn. It must be compelling and mentally digestible so that they can learn, stretch but not exceed their
exceed their limilimits. In ts. In a a self-self-direcdirected learning environment the ted learning environment the approvapproval al authorauthorities canities can control this especially the knowledge engineers that are responsible for converting new control this especially the knowledge engineers that are responsible for converting new individual learnings into o
individual learnings into organisational learnings and, eventually, profit.rganisational learnings and, eventually, profit.
3.
3. Adapt thAdapt the learnie learning to the rang to the range of intnge of intelligelligence, aptience, aptitudes antudes and previoud previous achievs achievementsements of the learners.
of the learners.
Like the previous rule this one focuses upon the learners characteristics and aptitudes and Like the previous rule this one focuses upon the learners characteristics and aptitudes and it makes almost common sense to ensure that any learning activity involves challenge, it makes almost common sense to ensure that any learning activity involves challenge, likelihood of success and fail-safe modes within it. Self-directed learning is certainly no likelihood of success and fail-safe modes within it. Self-directed learning is certainly no different. There are six different forms of intelligence (according to Gardner cited in different. There are six different forms of intelligence (according to Gardner cited in Davi
Davis s and and DavDavis is 1991999). 9). TheThese se can can be be devedeveloploped ed and and utiutilislised ed durduring ing selself-df-direirectectedd lear
learninning: g: linlinguiguististic, c, musmusicalical, , loglogicaical-ml-matheathematmaticaical, l, spaspatiatial, l, bodibodilyly-ki-kinesnesthethetictic, , andand personal (interpersonal). Planning learning should seek to use more than one mode at a personal (interpersonal). Planning learning should seek to use more than one mode at a
time to encourage diversity of development and contribution. time to encourage diversity of development and contribution.
Adapting to the behavioral and cognitive styles and developing these is an important Adapting to the behavioral and cognitive styles and developing these is an important factor in all learning including self-directed learning.
factor in all learning including self-directed learning. 4.
4. TTake into acake into account thcount the motivae motivation and emtion and emotionaotional contrl control of the leol of the learnerarner..
Motivation is dependent upon locus of control (Bandura 1977). Self-directed learning Motivation is dependent upon locus of control (Bandura 1977). Self-directed learning offers the best form of control: internal control. Importantly, this depends provided on offers the best form of control: internal control. Importantly, this depends provided on having a suitable learning context (need for learning together with acxcess to learning having a suitable learning context (need for learning together with acxcess to learning resources). Better quality outcomes for the individual and the company are then equally resources). Better quality outcomes for the individual and the company are then equally possible. A few learners will not be motivated to do self-directed learning. Noe (1986) possible. A few learners will not be motivated to do self-directed learning. Noe (1986)
has
has alalso so ememphaphasisisesed d ththe e rorole le of of leleararnener r momotitivatvatioion n and and sisitutuatatioionanal l fafactctorors s to to ththee effectiveness of training. Dealing with these individual differences is another challenge effectiveness of training. Dealing with these individual differences is another challenge faced by the company in developing its learning orientation.
faced by the company in developing its learning orientation.
Robotham (1999) notes four reasons learners ma
Robotham (1999) notes four reasons learners may try to avoid self-directed learning:y try to avoid self-directed learning: 1.
1. Lack Lack of bof belielief ef in tin theiheir or own awn abilbilityity 2.
2. FailFailure by them ure by them to recogto recognise thanise that selft self-direc-direction is ntion is needed or preeded or preferaeferableble 3.
3. SettiSetting of an inappng of an inappropriropriate learate learning goal tning goal that faihat fails to act as ls to act as a posita positive motiive motivator vator 4.
4. PriPrior leaor learnirning and edng and educaucatiotional exnal experperieniencesces
T
To this I would o this I would add:add: 5.
5. SelfSelf-direc-directed learted learning is nning is not effot effectiveectively suply supported iported in the orn the organisatganisationion 6.
6. The persThe person is unon is unable to cable to completomplete the leae the learning drning due to otue to other worher work commik commitmentstments
Controlling these factors partly resides with the learner who must be able to articulate his Controlling these factors partly resides with the learner who must be able to articulate his needs and wants for the learning in relation to his over all job situation and the company needs and wants for the learning in relation to his over all job situation and the company who must ensure an
who must ensure an effeeffective balance between learnictive balance between learning and ng and doing (job performadoing (job performance andnce and job learning). Assessing readiness for self-directed learning of individuals can be done job learning). Assessing readiness for self-directed learning of individuals can be done using the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale developed by Guglielmino (1992). using the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale developed by Guglielmino (1992). Each learner can be moved towards self-directed learning as fast as they can cope with it, Each learner can be moved towards self-directed learning as fast as they can cope with it, and as they are read
