Note Taking Methods

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The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – TOJET April 2006 ISSN: 1303-6521 volume 5 Issue 2 Article 8 The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – TOJET April 2006 ISSN: 1303-6521 volume 5 Issue 2 Article 8

56 56 THE INFLUENCE OF TEACHING NOTE-TAKING AND INFORMATION MAPPING ON THE INFLUENCE OF TEACHING NOTE-TAKING AND INFORMATION MAPPING ON

LEARNING AND RECALLING IN SCIENCE LEARNING AND RECALLING IN SCIENCE

Mehmet ARSLAN Mehmet ARSLAN

Faculty of Education, Erciyes University, 38039 Kayseri, T Faculty of Education, Erciyes University, 38039 Kayseri, T urkeyurkey

Tel: +90-352-437 4901-37003, Fax: +90-352-437 8834 Tel: +90-352-437 4901-37003, Fax: +90-352-437 8834 [email protected] [email protected] ABSTRACT ABSTRACT

This work describes an experimental research on note taking and concept mapping in a science class of 5 graders This work describes an experimental research on note taking and concept mapping in a science class of 5 graders in Kayseri (Central Anatolia, Turkey) in the academic year 2002 - 2003. Gained results are in favor of in Kayseri (Central Anatolia, Turkey) in the academic year 2002 - 2003. Gained results are in favor of convictions that view note taking as an effective learning strategy. At least it was more effective than concept convictions that view note taking as an effective learning strategy. At least it was more effective than concept mapping in the experiments of the present study. A possible reason for this is that students benefited from their mapping in the experiments of the present study. A possible reason for this is that students benefited from their notes by recapitulating lesson contents whereas concept maps were not used in such a way. This assumption is notes by recapitulating lesson contents whereas concept maps were not used in such a way. This assumption is supported by other experimental evidence that ascribe the advantages of note taking to its function as external supported by other experimental evidence that ascribe the advantages of note taking to its function as external memory store that helps students to better

memory store that helps students to better process lesson contents.process lesson contents. Key words:

Key words: Note taking, concept mapping, experimental, science, and primary education Note taking, concept mapping, experimental, science, and primary education 1. INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION Note

Note taking taking is is a a general general learning learning strategy strategy that that has has been been well well studied studied in in a a variety variety of of different different learninglearning environments (Akinsanya and Williams, 2004). Patterson et al. (1992) classify note taking as an organizing and environments (Akinsanya and Williams, 2004). Patterson et al. (1992) classify note taking as an organizing and focusing strategy. Notes help to remember the important points of a lesson and can be used for revision and focusing strategy. Notes help to remember the important points of a lesson and can be used for revision and reference purposes. There are three benefits of note taking. First, it increases attention to the lesson. While reference purposes. There are three benefits of note taking. First, it increases attention to the lesson. While recording a set of notes it is impossible for a student to get bored or inattentive. Second, it aids memory for the recording a set of notes it is impossible for a student to get bored or inattentive. Second, it aids memory for the lesson. It is easier to remember noted lesson points than non-noted points. Third, it produces a set of notes lesson. It is easier to remember noted lesson points than non-noted points. Third, it produces a set of notes available for review. Since memory is fall

available for review. Since memory is fall ible, it is necessary to review ible, it is necessary to review the subject.the subject.

The results obtained from studies on note taking strategies are controversial. According to many studies, students The results obtained from studies on note taking strategies are controversial. According to many studies, students who take notes perform better than those who do not (Kiewra, 1985). Some researchers found that note taking is who take notes perform better than those who do not (Kiewra, 1985). Some researchers found that note taking is effective on recalling (Fisher and Harris, 1973; Kiewra et al., 1989; Rish and Kiewra 1990) and assists students’ effective on recalling (Fisher and Harris, 1973; Kiewra et al., 1989; Rish and Kiewra 1990) and assists students’ learning (Annis and Davis, 1975; DiVesta and Gray, 1972; Barnett et al., 1981; Kardash and Kroeker, 1989). learning (Annis and Davis, 1975; DiVesta and Gray, 1972; Barnett et al., 1981; Kardash and Kroeker, 1989). Note taking

Note taking assists student’s assists student’s learning during learning during both encoding and both encoding and storage stages. storage stages. The encoding effect The encoding effect is the is the resultresult of the process of attending to and recording important details of a lesson. It is argued that the storage effect is the of the process of attending to and recording important details of a lesson. It is argued that the storage effect is the result of the reviewing of notes. The combined effect of encoding and storage processing is said to be more result of the reviewing of notes. The combined effect of encoding and storage processing is said to be more beneficial than encoding on its own (Hartley, 1983; Kiewra et al., 1991, 1995; Peper and Mayer, 197

beneficial than encoding on its own (Hartley, 1983; Kiewra et al., 1991, 1995; Peper and Mayer, 1978, 1986).8, 1986). On the other hand, a number of other studies have found no advantage of taking notes. These studies indicate On the other hand, a number of other studies have found no advantage of taking notes. These studies indicate that note taking has no significant effect on the general performance of students (Lipsky, 1984). Peper and that note taking has no significant effect on the general performance of students (Lipsky, 1984). Peper and Mayer (1978) show that while note taking has no effect on general performance, it does have an effect for low Mayer (1978) show that while note taking has no effect on general performance, it does have an effect for low capacity students. Thus, the effect of note taking may depend on the level of students. Kiewra (1985) suggested capacity students. Thus, the effect of note taking may depend on the level of students. Kiewra (1985) suggested that these different results are due to the type of note taking practice. Sometimes students record exactly that these different results are due to the type of note taking practice. Sometimes students record exactly everything what a teacher says with very little engagement. At other times, students employ “conceptual note everything what a teacher says with very little engagement. At other times, students employ “conceptual note taking” (Rickards and McCormick, 1988), summarizing (King, 1992) or self-questioning (Spires, 1993). All taking” (Rickards and McCormick, 1988), summarizing (King, 1992) or self-questioning (Spires, 1993). All these latter types of note taking involve significant levels of engagement and are thus more effective (Trafton these latter types of note taking involve significant levels of engagement and are thus more effective (Trafton and Tricket, 2001).

and Tricket, 2001).

Concept maps are schematic diagrams that use a graphical/verbal system to illustrate the relation of one concept Concept maps are schematic diagrams that use a graphical/verbal system to illustrate the relation of one concept to another (Nowak and Gwin, 1984). Concept maps should not simply list information from text randomly, or to another (Nowak and Gwin, 1984). Concept maps should not simply list information from text randomly, or even in a linear fashion. Rather, they should depict the structure of knowledge in propositional statements that even in a linear fashion. Rather, they should depict the structure of knowledge in propositional statements that illustrate the relationships among the concepts in

illustrate the relationships among the concepts in a map. A concept map consists of ta map. A concept map consists of three basic elements:hree basic elements: 1.

1. Concept names written inside ovals, rectangles, or otConcept names written inside ovals, rectangles, or ot her shapes represent concepts.her shapes represent concepts. 2.

2. Linking lines (as in flow charts) or arrows (as in arrow diagrams) show the connections between twoLinking lines (as in flow charts) or arrows (as in arrow diagrams) show the connections between two concepts.

concepts. 3.

3. Linking phrases, which label linking lines, describe Linking phrases, which label linking lines, describe the relations between concepts.the relations between concepts.

Concept mapping is a learning strategy that can be expert, teacher and learner generated. Experts apply it to Concept mapping is a learning strategy that can be expert, teacher and learner generated. Experts apply it to textbook, instructional or multimedia design, for example (Johnsen et al., 2000). Teachers can take advantage of textbook, instructional or multimedia design, for example (Johnsen et al., 2000). Teachers can take advantage of concept maps to prepare e.g. lesson plans, teaching materials and learning aids. Learners can use it to represent concept maps to prepare e.g. lesson plans, teaching materials and learning aids. Learners can use it to represent

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57 57 and organize information to be able to better understand and remember the subject under consideration (Chularut and organize information to be able to better understand and remember the subject under consideration (Chularut and DeBacker, 2004). For them, concept maps are aids to summarize subjects as well as support discussion and and DeBacker, 2004). For them, concept maps are aids to summarize subjects as well as support discussion and reflection. The more a learner binds concepts and examples together in a concept map, the deeper they can reflection. The more a learner binds concepts and examples together in a concept map, the deeper they can understand a subject (Baroody and Bartels, 2001).

understand a subject (Baroody and Bartels, 2001).

The goal of the present study is to assess how much the two learning strategies concept mapping and note taking The goal of the present study is to assess how much the two learning strategies concept mapping and note taking are suitable and efficient in the given primary school context as described below.

are suitable and efficient in the given primary school context as described below. 2. METHOD

2. METHOD 2.1 Participants 2.1 Participants

The research was carried out with 135 students in three classes at grade 5 of Arif Eminoglu Primary School The research was carried out with 135 students in three classes at grade 5 of Arif Eminoglu Primary School located in the District of Kayseri in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It was applied during the first half of the academic located in the District of Kayseri in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It was applied during the first half of the academic year 2002-2003 over a study period of 4 weeks. One control group with 41 students and two study groups with year 2002-2003 over a study period of 4 weeks. One control group with 41 students and two study groups with 48 and 46 students were randomly selected.

48 and 46 students were randomly selected. 2.2 Materials

2.2 Materials Chapter.

Chapter. The chapter The chapter “Getting to Know Our Body” in the course book “Science Curriculum for Elementary“Getting to Know Our Body” in the course book “Science Curriculum for Elementary Students” (MEB, 1992) was studied.

Students” (MEB, 1992) was studied. Chapter Period.

Chapter Period. 24 lesson hours were given over a study period of 4 weeks (6 hours per week) corresponding to 24 lesson hours were given over a study period of 4 weeks (6 hours per week) corresponding to 4 units. For each unit,

4 units. For each unit, aims and objectives were established so aims and objectives were established so that the data gathering for the that the data gathering for the assessment could beassessment could be prepared.

prepared.

Prior Knowledge

Prior Knowledge..The Cognitive Entrance Behavior Test (CEBT) consisting of 28 multiple-choice questions andThe Cognitive Entrance Behavior Test (CEBT) consisting of 28 multiple-choice questions and the Level Determination Test (LDT) with 52 multiple-choice questions were prepared. The CEBT was applied the Level Determination Test (LDT) with 52 multiple-choice questions were prepared. The CEBT was applied after selecting the control and study groups at the beginning of the 5 weeks training period (Figure 1), which after selecting the control and study groups at the beginning of the 5 weeks training period (Figure 1), which proved that all

proved that all groups had really groups had really been at the been at the same learning level. same learning level. The LDT The LDT was implemented was implemented as a pre-tas a pre-test at theest at the beginning

beginning of of the the experiment experiment (Figure (Figure 1). 1). Of Of this this test, test, 19 19 questions questions pre-tested pre-tested knowledge, knowledge, 18 18 questionsquestions comprehension,

comprehension, and 15 and 15 questions application. questions application. The samples The samples of each of each type are type are shown in shown in Table 4. Table 4. Both tests Both tests havehave been deemed

been deemed adequate with adequate with regard to regard to scope and scope and validity by validity by a group a group of experts of experts on the on the program itself program itself in sciencein science and science education. The reliability coefficients of the instruments have been found as satisfying by using and science education. The reliability coefficients of the instruments have been found as satisfying by using KR-20 formulae; 0.83 and 0.89 respectively.

20 formulae; 0.83 and 0.89 respectively. Achievement Test.

Achievement Test. The same LDT was applied twice again as a post-test at the end of the study period of 4 The same LDT was applied twice again as a post-test at the end of the study period of 4 weeks, and as a delayed post-test to measure recognition levels after 6 weeks (Figure 1). Both tests were checked weeks, and as a delayed post-test to measure recognition levels after 6 weeks (Figure 1). Both tests were checked and approved by a group of experts in science education.

and approved by a group of experts in science education. Experimental

Experimental Design.Design. In this research the Control Group Pretest-Final Test type experimental design was In this research the Control Group Pretest-Final Test type experimental design was applied.

applied. Data Analysis.

Data Analysis.For this, a variance analysis was used. As the three groups were seen to be equal regarding theirFor this, a variance analysis was used. As the three groups were seen to be equal regarding their pre-learning

pre-learning status, status, the the differences differences between between their their averaged averaged post-test post-test scores scores were were examined examined to to measure measure theirtheir recognition level. The same differences of the delayed post-test were analyzed to measure their recognition recognition level. The same differences of the delayed post-test were analyzed to measure their recognition level again. Besides, the Scheffe Test (Pfaffenberger and Patterson, 1981) was applied to estimate group level again. Besides, the Scheffe Test (Pfaffenberger and Patterson, 1981) was applied to estimate group differences.

differences. .. 2.3 Procedure 2.3 Procedure

The following procedure was applied in this research. The 41 students of the control group continued their The following procedure was applied in this research. The 41 students of the control group continued their science course without any training on the learning strategies considered here. The 1

science course without any training on the learning strategies considered here. The 1stst_{study group was educated}_{study group was educated} in concept mapping (CM group), the 2

in concept mapping (CM group), the 2ndnd_{study group in note taking (NT group) over a training period of 5 weeks}_{study group in note taking (NT group) over a training period of 5 weeks} as shown in Figure 1.

as shown in Figure 1.

The 48 students of the CM started to work on concept maps prepared by the author in the beginning of the The 48 students of the CM started to work on concept maps prepared by the author in the beginning of the training period. Then they expanded the given concept maps to refine their contents. Afterwards, students were training period. Then they expanded the given concept maps to refine their contents. Afterwards, students were asked to create their own concepts maps both in a lesson and as homework, and then discuss the results with asked to create their own concepts maps both in a lesson and as homework, and then discuss the results with their classmates in class. Then they compared their own maps with the one prepared by the author. In time, their classmates in class. Then they compared their own maps with the one prepared by the author. In time, students of the CM group became more skilled

students of the CM group became more skilled in making their own concept maps.in making their own concept maps.

The 46 students of the TM group learnt to create note taking matrices, one of the note taking strategies. They The 46 students of the TM group learnt to create note taking matrices, one of the note taking strategies. They were trained in a similar way as the students of the CM group. In the beginning they worked on note taking were trained in a similar way as the students of the CM group. In the beginning they worked on note taking

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57 57 and organize information to be able to better understand and remember the subject under consideration (Chularut and organize information to be able to better understand and remember the subject under consideration (Chularut and DeBacker, 2004). For them, concept maps are aids to summarize subjects as well as support discussion and and DeBacker, 2004). For them, concept maps are aids to summarize subjects as well as support discussion and reflection. The more a learner binds concepts and examples together in a concept map, the deeper they can reflection. The more a learner binds concepts and examples together in a concept map, the deeper they can understand a subject (Baroody and Bartels, 2001).

understand a subject (Baroody and Bartels, 2001).

The goal of the present study is to assess how much the two learning strategies concept mapping and note taking The goal of the present study is to assess how much the two learning strategies concept mapping and note taking are suitable and efficient in the given primary school context as described below.

are suitable and efficient in the given primary school context as described below. 2. METHOD

2. METHOD 2.1 Participants 2.1 Participants

The research was carried out with 135 students in three classes at grade 5 of Arif Eminoglu Primary School The research was carried out with 135 students in three classes at grade 5 of Arif Eminoglu Primary School located in the District of Kayseri in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It was applied during the first half of the academic located in the District of Kayseri in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It was applied during the first half of the academic year 2002-2003 over a study period of 4 weeks. One control group with 41 students and two study groups with year 2002-2003 over a study period of 4 weeks. One control group with 41 students and two study groups with 48 and 46 students were randomly selected.

48 and 46 students were randomly selected. 2.2 Materials

2.2 Materials Chapter.

Chapter. The chapter The chapter “Getting to Know Our Body” in the course book “Science Curriculum for Elementary“Getting to Know Our Body” in the course book “Science Curriculum for Elementary Students” (MEB, 1992) was studied.

Students” (MEB, 1992) was studied. Chapter Period.

Chapter Period. 24 lesson hours were given over a study period of 4 weeks (6 hours per week) corresponding to 24 lesson hours were given over a study period of 4 weeks (6 hours per week) corresponding to 4 units. For each unit,

4 units. For each unit, aims and objectives were established so aims and objectives were established so that the data gathering for the that the data gathering for the assessment could beassessment could be prepared.

prepared.

Prior Knowledge

Prior Knowledge..The Cognitive Entrance Behavior Test (CEBT) consisting of 28 multiple-choice questions andThe Cognitive Entrance Behavior Test (CEBT) consisting of 28 multiple-choice questions and the Level Determination Test (LDT) with 52 multiple-choice questions were prepared. The CEBT was applied the Level Determination Test (LDT) with 52 multiple-choice questions were prepared. The CEBT was applied after selecting the control and study groups at the beginning of the 5 weeks training period (Figure 1), which after selecting the control and study groups at the beginning of the 5 weeks training period (Figure 1), which proved that all

proved that all groups had really groups had really been at the been at the same learning level. same learning level. The LDT The LDT was implemented was implemented as a pre-tas a pre-test at theest at the beginning

beginning of of the the experiment experiment (Figure (Figure 1). 1). Of Of this this test, test, 19 19 questions questions pre-tested pre-tested knowledge, knowledge, 18 18 questionsquestions comprehension,

comprehension, and 15 and 15 questions application. questions application. The samples The samples of each of each type are type are shown in shown in Table 4. Table 4. Both tests Both tests havehave been deemed

been deemed adequate with adequate with regard to regard to scope and scope and validity by validity by a group a group of experts of experts on the on the program itself program itself in sciencein science and science education. The reliability coefficients of the instruments have been found as satisfying by using and science education. The reliability coefficients of the instruments have been found as satisfying by using KR-20 formulae; 0.83 and 0.89 respectively.

20 formulae; 0.83 and 0.89 respectively. Achievement Test.

Achievement Test. The same LDT was applied twice again as a post-test at the end of the study period of 4 The same LDT was applied twice again as a post-test at the end of the study period of 4 weeks, and as a delayed post-test to measure recognition levels after 6 weeks (Figure 1). Both tests were checked weeks, and as a delayed post-test to measure recognition levels after 6 weeks (Figure 1). Both tests were checked and approved by a group of experts in science education.

and approved by a group of experts in science education. Experimental

Experimental Design.Design. In this research the Control Group Pretest-Final Test type experimental design was In this research the Control Group Pretest-Final Test type experimental design was applied.

applied. Data Analysis.

Data Analysis.For this, a variance analysis was used. As the three groups were seen to be equal regarding theirFor this, a variance analysis was used. As the three groups were seen to be equal regarding their pre-learning

pre-learning status, status, the the differences differences between between their their averaged averaged post-test post-test scores scores were were examined examined to to measure measure theirtheir recognition level. The same differences of the delayed post-test were analyzed to measure their recognition recognition level. The same differences of the delayed post-test were analyzed to measure their recognition level again. Besides, the Scheffe Test (Pfaffenberger and Patterson, 1981) was applied to estimate group level again. Besides, the Scheffe Test (Pfaffenberger and Patterson, 1981) was applied to estimate group differences.

differences. .. 2.3 Procedure 2.3 Procedure

The following procedure was applied in this research. The 41 students of the control group continued their The following procedure was applied in this research. The 41 students of the control group continued their science course without any training on the learning strategies considered here. The 1

science course without any training on the learning strategies considered here. The 1stst_{study group was educated}_{study group was educated} in concept mapping (CM group), the 2

in concept mapping (CM group), the 2ndnd_{study group in note taking (NT group) over a training period of 5 weeks}_{study group in note taking (NT group) over a training period of 5 weeks} as shown in Figure 1.

as shown in Figure 1.

The 48 students of the CM started to work on concept maps prepared by the author in the beginning of the The 48 students of the CM started to work on concept maps prepared by the author in the beginning of the training period. Then they expanded the given concept maps to refine their contents. Afterwards, students were training period. Then they expanded the given concept maps to refine their contents. Afterwards, students were asked to create their own concepts maps both in a lesson and as homework, and then discuss the results with asked to create their own concepts maps both in a lesson and as homework, and then discuss the results with their classmates in class. Then they compared their own maps with the one prepared by the author. In time, their classmates in class. Then they compared their own maps with the one prepared by the author. In time, students of the CM group became more skilled

students of the CM group became more skilled in making their own concept maps.in making their own concept maps.

The 46 students of the TM group learnt to create note taking matrices, one of the note taking strategies. They The 46 students of the TM group learnt to create note taking matrices, one of the note taking strategies. They were trained in a similar way as the students of the CM group. In the beginning they worked on note taking were trained in a similar way as the students of the CM group. In the beginning they worked on note taking

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58 58 matrices made by the author. After spending some time on their refinement, students began to prepare their own matrices made by the author. After spending some time on their refinement, students began to prepare their own matrices both in a lesson and as homework that were then discussed in class. Then they evaluated their own matrices both in a lesson and as homework that were then discussed in class. Then they evaluated their own matrices using the one created by the author. In this way, students of the TM group learnt how to produce matrices using the one created by the author. In this way, students of the TM group learnt how to produce matrices for note taking.

matrices for note taking.

Both study groups were tested at the end of the training period after completing small projects on concept Both study groups were tested at the end of the training period after completing small projects on concept mapping and note taking, respectively.

mapping and note taking, respectively. 3. RESULTS

3. RESULTS

As shown in Figures 2 illustrating the data of Table 1, no significant differences exist for the pre-test scores As shown in Figures 2 illustrating the data of Table 1, no significant differences exist for the pre-test scores between

between control control and and study study groups groups gained gained through through the the LDT, LDT, which which was was applied applied at at the the beginning beginning of of the the studystudy period (Figure

period (Figure 1). 1). Thus, Thus, the Cthe CEBT EBT results results were confirmed were confirmed that that all all groups were groups were equally selected equally selected with with regard toregard to their pre-study level.

their pre-study level.

Figure 2a. Pre-test scores of control

Figure 2a. Pre-test scores of control and study groupsand study groups Figure 2b. Post-test scores of control

Figure 2b. Post-test scores of control and study groupsand study groups Figure 2c. Delayed post-test scores of control and study groups Figure 2c. Delayed post-test scores of control and study groups

Table 1. Test scores of

Table 1. Test scores of control and study groupscontrol and study groups (M = Mean value, S =

(M = Mean value, S = Standard deviation, N = Number of students)Standard deviation, N = Number of students) Comparing the control and CM pre- and post-test

Comparing the control and CM pre- and post-test scores (Figure 2a and 2b), one observes that scores (Figure 2a and 2b), one observes that there is hardly anythere is hardly any difference between their scores. The same is true for the post- and delayed post-test scores (Figure 2b and 2c), difference between their scores. The same is true for the post- and delayed post-test scores (Figure 2b and 2c), meaning that concept mapping had no visible effect on the CM

meaning that concept mapping had no visible effect on the CM group in this experiment.group in this experiment.

Doing the same for the NT group, a significant difference is recognizable for the post-test knowledge score Doing the same for the NT group, a significant difference is recognizable for the post-test knowledge score (Figure 2b), and the delayed post-test knowledge and application score (Figure 2c). These results are confirmed (Figure 2b), and the delayed post-test knowledge and application score (Figure 2c). These results are confirmed by the F-values of

by the F-values of the variance analysis the variance analysis (Table 2) (Table 2) and the difference values and the difference values of the Scheffe of the Scheffe tests (Table tests (Table 3). Thus,3). Thus, one can conclude that note taking matrices had a positive

one can conclude that note taking matrices had a positive impact on the NT group in impact on the NT group in this experiment.this experiment. Table 2. F-values of variance analysis for di

Table 2. F-values of variance analysis for di fferent LDT categoriesfferent LDT categories (Largest F-values in bold without considering the Total) (Largest F-values in bold without considering the Total)

Table 3. Scheffe tests for

Table 3. Scheffe tests for control and study groupscontrol and study groups (D = Difference, S = Standard deviation, p = probability factor) (D = Difference, S = Standard deviation, p = probability factor)

(Largest D-values in bold without considering the Total) (Largest D-values in bold without considering the Total) 4. DISCUSSION

4. DISCUSSION

Considering the gained results the main question is why the CM study group did not do significantly better than Considering the gained results the main question is why the CM study group did not do significantly better than the control group in their post- and delayed post-tests. The following reasons or a combination of them may the control group in their post- and delayed post-tests. The following reasons or a combination of them may provide an answer:

provide an answer: 1.

1. Teaching of concept mapping was not sufficient in Teaching of concept mapping was not sufficient in terms of quality and quantity.terms of quality and quantity. 2.

2. Students of the CM group didn't learn concept mapping in depth because it's much harder to understand andStudents of the CM group didn't learn concept mapping in depth because it's much harder to understand and apply than note taking, especially for 5 graders (comp. Johnsen

apply than note taking, especially for 5 graders (comp. Johnsen et al., 2000).et al., 2000). 3.

3. The acquired CM knowledge was not giving any advantage for the post-tests because they only consistedThe acquired CM knowledge was not giving any advantage for the post-tests because they only consisted multiple-choice questions students couldn’t apply their CM knowledge to.

multiple-choice questions students couldn’t apply their CM knowledge to.

In the opinion of the author the first two reasons played more important roles, and discussions with students of In the opinion of the author the first two reasons played more important roles, and discussions with students of the CM group after the experiment confirmed this. Of course, other factors are also involved, for example, the the CM group after the experiment confirmed this. Of course, other factors are also involved, for example, the fact that the time period set aside for carrying out the experiment with training and study periods may be fact that the time period set aside for carrying out the experiment with training and study periods may be insufficient to produce the expected effects.

insufficient to produce the expected effects. 5. CONCLUSIONS

5. CONCLUSIONS

The goal of this work was to assess how much the two learning strategies concept mapping and note taking are The goal of this work was to assess how much the two learning strategies concept mapping and note taking are suitable and efficient in the context of a Turkish primary school. Obtained results from the experiment indicate suitable and efficient in the context of a Turkish primary school. Obtained results from the experiment indicate that note taking can help students to improve their levels of knowledge and maybe application. But this is not the that note taking can help students to improve their levels of knowledge and maybe application. But this is not the case for concept mapping, where no significant differences between control and study groups were observed. case for concept mapping, where no significant differences between control and study groups were observed. This is quite unsatisfactory and needs further reseach with various grade and subject levels over a longer study This is quite unsatisfactory and needs further reseach with various grade and subject levels over a longer study period in order to gain more insight and identify the real reasons.

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59 59 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I’d like to thank all colleagues and reviewers who somehow contributed to this manuscript by their insights, I’d like to thank all colleagues and reviewers who somehow contributed to this manuscript by their insights, proposals and corrections.

proposals and corrections. REFERENCES

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The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – TOJET April 2006 ISSN: 1303-6521 volume 5 Issue 2 Article 8

60 Figure 1. Time plan with periods/tests located above/below the time axis

Figure 2a. Pre-test scores of control and study groups

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61 Figure 2c. Delayed post-test scores of control and study groups

Table 1. Test scores of control and study groups

(M = Mean value, S = Standard deviation, N = Number of students)

Group N Pre-test Post-test Delayed post-test

M S M S M S Total 15.019 3.791 29.780 5.332 19.171 5.572 Knowled e 7.415 1.975 12.537 2.501 7.927 2.553 Com rehension 4.634 2.022 9.415 3.082 6.537 2.829 Control Application 41 3.000 1.844 7.829 1.787 4.707 1.965 Total 16.208 5.061 31.98 7.50 22.333 6.155 Knowled e 7.542 1.967 12.896 3.520 9.125 2.900 Com rehension 5.375 1.996 10.938 2.740 7.792 2.767 CM Application 48 3.333 2.309 8.146 2.484 5.417 2.172 Total 16.261 5.331 37.171 3.349 28.109 5.030 Knowledge 7.478 2.383 17.022 1.374 11.826 2.831 Com rehension 4.870 2.083 12.000 1.606 8.087 2.336 NT Application 46 3.913 4.896 8.152 1.897 8.196 1.655 Table 2. F-values of variance analysis for di fferent LDT categories

(Largest F-values in bold without considering the Total)

Total Knowledge Comprehension Application

Pre-test 0.867 0.040 1.566 2.300

Post-test 19.66*** 40.37*** 11.326** 0.332

Delayed post-test 28.67*** 22.90*** 4.133* 40.13***

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62 Table 3. Scheffe tests for control and study groups

(D = Difference, S = Standard deviation, p = probability factor) (Largest D-values in bold without considering the Total)

Differences of post-test results

Total Comparison D S p Control / CM 2.199 1.2113 >.05 Control / NT 7.394*** 1.2234 < .001** CM / NT 5.195*** 1.1753 < .001** Knowledge Comparison D S p Control / CM .3592 .5607 >.05 Control / NT 4.486*** .5663 < .001** CM / NT 4.126*** .5440 < .001** Comprehension Comparison D S p Control / CM 1.523 .5392 >.01 Control / NT 2.586*** .5446 < .001** CM / NT 1.063 .5232 >.05 Application Comparison D S p Control / CM --- --- ---Control / NT --- --- ---CM / NT --- ---

---Differences of delayed post-test results

Total Comparison D S p Control / CM 3.163 1.194 >.01 Control / NT 8.938*** 1.206 < .001** CM / NT 5.776*** 1.158 < .001** Knowledge Comparison D S p Control / CM 1.198 .5902 >.05 Control / NT 3.899*** .5961 < .001** CM / NT 2.701*** .5762 < .001** Comprehension Comparison D S p Control / CM 1.255 .5632 >.05 Control / NT 1.550* .5688 < .05* CM / NT .295 .5464 >.05 Application Comparison D S p Control / CM .709 .4136 >0.05 Control / NT 3.488** .4178 >0.01** CM / NT 2.779* .4013 <0.01** *p < .05 **p <.01 ***p <.001

Table 4. Level Determination Test Samples for each type.

LEVELS NO QUESTION

KNOWLEDGE 3

Which of the following is not the task of a skeleton? a.) Protects the inner organs

b.) Shapes the body

c.) Helps the inner organs to work d.) Helps the body movements

COMPREHENSION 28

Ali says ‘I can have the blood transfer from all people but I have no Rh in my blood’. What is the blood type of Ali?

a. 0 Rh (+) b. AB Rh (+)

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63 d. AB Rh (-)

APPLICATION 47

According to the table above, which following is incorrect? a. Ömer can have the blood tranfer from Ali

b. Veli can have the blood transfer from Kaya c. Kaya can have the blood transfer from Veli d. Ali can never have blood transfer from the others

BLOOD TYPE Rh

Ali 0 +

Veli AB

-Ömer A +

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- A Research Based Approach to Encouraging Eﬀective

Note-taking: Best Practices and Supporting Technologies

In recent years, the increased deployment of computer labs, laptop initiatives, and pen-based computers in both K-12 and higher education classroom

settings has made it possible to provide more interactive and student-centered lectures and classroom presentations. Ideally, the use of these technologies should also support students as they engage in proven study techniques such as note-taking and note-review. This article explores previous research related to the bene�ts of note-taking and the methods that are used to facilitate eﬀective note-taking, and then discusses DyKnow Vision™, a tool that can be used to enhance the note-taking experience as well as to foster an interactive classroom environment. In a recent survey of 81 students who had used

DyKnow Vision in a total of 431 courses, 64 students (79%) indicated that there was “signi�cant value” in the DyKnow Vision approach to note-taking while an additional 15 students (19%) rated the approach as having “moderate value”. In total, 79 of the 81 students found value in using DyKnow Vision for note-taking.

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According to an enormous body of research developed over the last quarter-century, useful note-taking provides two main bene�ts. First, note-taking serves as an encoding mechanism, allowing the learner to store information in a useful way by interpreting material and associating it with prior experiences. Second, note-taking provides a mechanism for external storage, allowing students to use their notes as a resource for later review. The following sections discuss research on each of these functions.

2.1.1 Encoding: Learning While Taking Notes

According to the “encoding” hypothesis, knowledge is stored in mental structures unique to every individual. When new information is learned, it is added to an existing “mental model”. If the new information is novel enough, a new mental model is created. The structure of mental models is in�uenced by the way material is initially presented, as well as by the learner’s own unique thought process and experiences with similar information in the past. Researchers believe that note-taking aﬀects the way that models are created. Note-taking appears to help students to pay attention, develop individual ideas, and organize material better in their own minds (Einstein et al., 1985).

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Eﬀective note-taking appears to have a particularly positive impact on a student’s ability to answer questions that require higher-level thinking. In a study of note-taking in science lectures, Peper and Mayer (1986) found that students who take notes perform better at critical thinking exercises and exercises that require transfer of knowledge to other areas, as compared to students who listen without taking notes. Another study showed that students who review their own notes after a class session also perform better then those who review notes created by others (Kenneth A. Kiewra et al., 1991). This is likely explained by the theory that students will recall conceptual information best when retrieval “cues” match those they formed when they �rst learned material. Providing possible support for this theory, an investigation of student notes indicated that students do not merely record factual information verbatim. Instead, diagrams, arrows, and other mechanisms are often used by students to record notes in a way that matches their own encoding mechanisms (Peper & Mayer, 1986).

The impact of active note -taking on factual recall is less uniform. In fac t, some evidence shows that studying from notes provided by the instructor may be as good or better than using student-taken notes, especially for reviewing factual material (Kenneth A. Kiewra, 1985b). This is probably because student notes are often incomplete or inaccurate. On the other hand, when accurate note taking is achieved, it has proven to be an important factor in correctly absorbing factual information in many studies. In one of the studies most supportive of note-taking for factual recall, for example, students listened to a lecture while taking notes at their own discretion. After the lecture, the students took a recall test without being given any opportunity to review their notes. Even though no note-review was permitted, students had a 40% chance of recalling material which could be found in their notes, as compared to a 7% chance of recalling material that they did not record (Einstein et al., 1985). This appears to indicate that students retain more of the factual information they include in their notes as compared to information they do not record (Einstein et al., 1985).

The use of eﬀective practices that help students create complete and useful notes will be discussed in section 3.2, “Facilitating Good Note-taking”. Section 4 of this paper illustrates how software systems can be used to support these practices.

2.1.2 External Storage: Learning from Reading Notes

In addition to the bene�t of allowing students to be actively involved with material during class, notes are often used as a way to record information for later review. In fact, the review process itself may be an opportunity for further encoding of information (Kenneth A. Kiewra, 1985a). Several researchers have demonstrated the eﬀectiveness of studying from previously taken notes. In one

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study, for example, students were given a recall test one week after taking notes on a lecture. Students who were allowed to review their notes prior to the test recalled four times as much information as those who were not allowed to review their notes (Einstein et al., 1985).

Similar results have been demonstrated in other settings. For example, in a study of undergraduate college students taking a performance test (consisting of cued recall, factual recognition, and transfer related questions) one week after being presented material, students who received notes to study performed dramatically better then those who received no notes. For the test questions that required transfer of knowledge to a new situation, students who studied outline notes that they took themselves earned almost twice as many points as those who did not review any notes. On a “cued recall” test which measured the retention of factual knowledge, students who were allowed to brie�y study outline notes were able to record 21.09 important points (out of 121 possible topics) when asked to note all items recalled, while students who had no notes to study only recorded 2.82 items (Kenneth A. Kiewra et al., 1988).

2.1.3 Additional Issues to Keep in Mind Regarding Note-Taking

Students, particularly those at early ages, need guidance in order to take useful notes. For example, a study of �fth graders creating notebooks as part of a hands-on science curriculum determined that the type of notebook entries made by children is highly dependant on instructions given by teachers. Students recorded information (such as procedures and results) when speci�cally prompted by

teachers, but did not record thoughtful re�ection, interesting class discussions, or their own questions (Baxter et al., 2001). The authors conclude that notebooks can be used to facilitate learning, but only if the teacher explains what is expected from the students. Encouraging students to take notes of examples, discussions, and their own critical thinking processes and questions can help them to take more comprehensive and useful notes.

Even at the college level, not all students appear to have acquired good note-taking skills. In one study, successful students (who maintained a high GPA in college courses) appeared to be better able to distinguish highly important material from less important material, and overall noted more highly important items in their notes then did less successful students (Einstein et al., 1985). This indicates that not all students are equally adept at taking good notes. Suggestions for helping students take better notes are provided in the following section of this document.

2.2 Facilitating Good Note-taking

Research suggests many ways to encourage good note-taking by students. Although all of these techniques require fore-thought on the part of teachers, the impact on student learning may make these techniques well worth the eﬀort. One method for helping students create a complete and useful set of notes is

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the use of “guided notes”. Guided notes are often presented as handouts that correspond to the instructor’s teaching notes or slides. These guided notes are constructed with key pieces of content left out. Students may use the guided notes as a framework, �lling in the missing pieces as class progresses. A large body of evidence shows that the use of some form of guided notes helps students to encode better, and also results in notes that are more useful for student review. For example, in a study of college-level psychology students, the use of guided notes was shown to signi�cantly improve student note-taking. When visual aids (such as slides) and guided notes are both used, students record more critical points and more examples than in more traditional lecture formats. In one study, 60% of relevant examples are accurately noted by students using guided notes, while only 26% are recorded by students attending a lecture with slides, and a mere 13% of these examples are recorded by students who attend the lecture only (Austin et al., 2004). Similar results were noted in earlier studies across

diverse groups of students, including high school students, incarcerated juveniles (aged 13-19), college-level students with learning disabilities, and mainstream high school and college students (Austin et al., 2004).

There are several ways to provide guided notes. One technique involves the use of “skeletal notes”, which consist of an incomplete outline of the instructor’s notes. Skeletal notes can be a good way to combine the full advantages of detailed, well-structured instructor notes with the encoding bene�ts that stem from taking and studying self-created notes (Kenneth A. Kiewra, 1985b). Research has shown that well-designed skeletal notes are more eﬀective than free-form notes or complete instructor notes handed out before the class session (Hartley, 1976).

Skeletal notes usually take the form of the instructor’s notes with details left out. However, there are other forms of guided notes that have proven even more successful in some settings. Most of these strategies use visual and/or spatial representations which help the student to understand and mentally organize concepts. For instance, linear outlines help organize the information by listing topics and related sub-topics in a way that indicates their relationship but leaves space for students to �ll in details. Notes in the form of a matrix allow the learner to identify and understand relationships between and within categories of

information(Kenneth A. Kiewra et al., 1988). Hierarchical diagrams allow students to understand the relationship between concepts by displaying them as a tree (Kenneth A. Kiewra & DuBois, 1992). Sequential representations, which use layout, arrows, and other graphical techniques, allow cause and eﬀect or a sequence of events to be illustrated clearly (Kenneth A. Kiewra & DuBois, 1992). Graphical organizers use white-space and the placement of text to indicate relationships between concepts. Knowledge maps or concepts maps work similarly, using notes and lines to indicate the relationship between concepts. These visual representations can be used eﬀectively when partially completed, allowing students to take some of their own notes while modeling an alternative strategy for note-taking (Katayama & Robinson, 2000).

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6

Finally, a few minutes spent carefully introducing the material before presenting it, as well as providing time for students to work with material after it has been presented, can have great bene�ts. Advanced organizers (written summaries of what will be discussed) presented before a lesson can help learners to retain more factual information as well as come to a higher-level understanding of the relationship between concepts learned. Advanced organizers may be a simple list of topics or an outline of topics and sub-topics, or a matrix that presents a group of concepts with a complex relationship (Kenneth A. Kiewra & Mayer, 1997). Immediate review or testing of material following presentation appears to also strengthen associations made by the learner and aid in retention (Di Vesta & Gray, 1972). Practice or hands-on exercises may be engaging to students, as well as providing an additional mechanism to assist in encoding new material. These can be built into guided notes, by providing plenty of room for students to work out their own solutions and annotate them during discussion.

3 The Role of DyKnow Vision in Facilitating Note-taking

With the increasing availability of computers in K-12 and college classrooms in the United States, research related to computer-aided note-taking has become increasingly popular. In this section we focus on a software system known as DyKnow Vision, which is being used successfully in K-12 classrooms as well as higher-education institutions. DyKnow Vision can be used in traditional computer labs, or in any classroom with portable laptops, Tablet PCs, or other pen-based note-taking devices. Data indicates that students believe the system improves their ability to take notes and increases their con�dence that they leave class with a well-organized and accurate set of notes for studying. Students frequently report that they believe they learn more in courses facilitated with DyKnow software.

Concerned that students spent most of their time and energy copying down notes rather than interacting with the material during a traditional lecture,

Dr. Dave Berque, a Computer Science Professor at DePauw University, designed a prototype system to help students interact more directly with the teacher and the material during class. One objective of the system was to facilitate eﬀective note taking, by allowing students to spend less time copying down complex diagrams and mechanically transcribing what the teacher was saying, while also helping students to avoid taking errors. Rather than eliminating student note-taking, the goal was to transform the nature of student note-taking from rote copying to higher level analysis. Students could annotate on top of or alongside the teacher’s notes, allowing for the bene�ts of active note-taking (Berque, 2005). An enhanced and extended version of this software is now called DyKnow Vision. DyKnow Vision allows teachers to use prepared class materials, or to design class material on the �y using a laptop computer, Tablet PC or other personal computing device. Regardless of whether materials are prepared in advance

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or extemporaneously during class, DyKnow Vision allows the students and teacher to share them easily and naturally. For example, the teacher can extemporaneously draw sketches directly on the sur face of a pen-based

computer or electronic whiteboard. Alternatively, the teacher can use a keyboard to type material, and can import material (including graphics, PowerPoint slides, and live Web content) that was prepared ahead of time. All information sketched, typed, or imported by the teacher immediately appears on each student’s display, where students can then use a keyboard, mouse, or stylus to annotate directly on top of the material, or within a private notes pane. While the software has many additional features, especially those that promote classroom interaction, a full description is beyond the scope of this paper (the interested reader is referred to www.dyknow.com). In the remainder of this paper we focus on the relationship of DyKnow to note-taking.

3.1 Using DyKnow to Support Eﬀective Note-Taking

Because DyKnow software allows teachers to transmit notes for students to complete or annotate, it can provide the bene�ts that stem from allowing students to augment partial notes structured by the teacher, without many of the limitations associated with using paper-based guided notes. For example, while paper-based guided notes must be prepared in advance, guided notes delivered with DyKnow Vision can also include material that is developed extemporaneously during class (perhaps in response to a student question or comment). In addition, paper-based guided notes are most conveniently delivered to students in packets that cover one or more class periods. On the other hand, guided notes delivered with DyKnow Vision can be electronically released to students on a page by page basis. This helps students stay on task, and prevents them from looking ahead in the notes to �nd answers to questions that the teacher wants the students to grapple with during class.

Students see the value in the DyKnow Vision approach. In a recent survey of students who have used DyKnow Vision, 95% of students indicated that the use of DyKnow Vision software in the classroom provides a moderate or signi�cant value in enhancing their understanding of material during class, and 98% indicated that they gained moderate or signi�cant value by adding their own notes to teacher content (Berque, 2005).

DyKnow software is uniquely suited to the use of skeletal or partially completed notes for augmentation by students. Whether the teacher pre-prepares notes or creates them extemporaneously, it is easy for the teacher to accommodate student annotations. By adjusting the amount of material sent to students’ own electronic notebooks, the teacher can allow students to bene�t from interacting with the material during class time, without requiring them to frantically

transcribe each item. Students may annotate directly on the teacher’s notes, or add additional notes to a private notes area attached to each page the teacher

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provides. Through use of the private notes pane as well as multiple “ink” and “highlighter” colors, students can easily distinguish personal notes from those the teacher or other students created. In the sur vey of computer science students using DyKnow Vision, 87% of students indicated that they sometimes or frequently use the highlighter and pen tools to emphasize material written by the teacher, while 93% use pen or keyboard to make further annotations on material presented by the teacher (Berque, 2005). According to a student in a another recent survey, “Being able to distinguish between what the teacher said and what I was thinking is a nice thing that is hard to reproduce in a [traditional] notebook”(Mitra-Kirtley, 2005). Using DyKnow Vision, teachers can also provide complex diagrams or other visual aids, without fear that students will make errors in transcription or be so busy copying that they miss essential discussion of the illustrations. Survey results demonstrate that students especially appreciate this feature. One hundred percent of students indicated that use of DyKnow Vision has moderate or signi�cant value in “providing an accurate set of notes”, and 86% indicated that the use of the system eases the note-taking process by not forcing them to copy everything down.

According to one student, “I think that it is sometimes a burden to take detailed notes- especially when involving complex graphs, tables, stats, etc. … [DyKnow Vision] would save time and provide more accurate and detailed notes- speci�cally graphs” (Berque, 2005). Students can also use the graphical features of DyKnow Vision to highlight important facts, connect concepts using arrows or lines, or sketch their own diagrams. Adding graphics or screen-captures of other applications is also easy for both students and teachers, allowing for a variety of graphical content to be included in the note books and further annotated.

DyKnow can also be very helpful to students who do not have fully developed note-taking skills, or who can not take their own notes well because of cognitive or other disabilities. Students who do not normally take notes bene�t from having at least a framework to study from after class. According to one student, “I focus much more in DyKnow classes than I do in standard classes, and because I don’t take notes often outside of DyKnow classes it gives me something to look back on when I really need it.” (Berque, 2005)

Even more excitingly, DyKnow Vision can also be a useful tool in assisting students in developing good note-taking skills of their own. For example, a recent workshop for at-risk students used DyKnow Vision to teach students how to take better notes. As the workshop began, an instructor presented a mock class and the students took notes using DyKnow Vision. Next, the D yKnow Vision system was used to electronically collect the student notes, so that they could be displayed at the front of the room. A note-taking specialist then used the sample notes to stimulate a discussion about good note-taking strategies (Berque, 2005). The ability to collect student work, including student notes, allows instructors to provide constructive feedback for all students, including young students or those who need remedial

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support. This is also a good way to monitor student use of new note-taking strategies being presented, such as the use of skeletal or matrix guided notes. If desired, teachers may even collect work anonymously, which can help reduce anxiety for some students.

3.2 Using DyKnow to support Useful Note Review

DyKnow notebooks from current and prior classes can be accessed at any time from any Internet-enabled computer. According to students surveyed, DyKnow notebooks have become an important resource for studying for exams, doing homework, or even referencing relevant material during subsequent lectures or subsequent courses. Notebooks are organized by class and date, and students can save notebooks with meaningful �lenames. Many students appreciate the way DyKnow Vision allows them to keep all their course material together. According to a student video on DyKnow use in high school level classes, “Paper notes are often messy and unwieldy. It is diﬃ cult to keep notes together and organized... With DyKnow, students need not worry about loosing notes, as organization is made easy, and accessing older notes for review is painless” (Ritz, 2005).

As another advantage, DyKnow Vision notebooks provide a shared artifact that combines the structure and details provided by the teacher with each student’s own guided notes and insights. This makes DyKnow notebooks a good source of material for review. The ability to continue interacting with the notebooks after class makes them an even more powerful study tool. Students may modify in-class notes or copy notes from multiple notebooks into a new, comprehensive set of notes while studying. The ability to augment notes outside of class time allows students to think through the material one more time. In a recent survey, 58% of students indicated that they sometimes or frequently add annotations to DyKnow notebooks while studying outside of class. One student commented “I like being able to access my notes universally from on or oﬀ campus, I like being able to access the DyKnow network from my own personal computer, and I enjoy being able to go over my notes and modify them endlessly” (Berque, 2005).

Paper notes are static documents that capture content rather than process. For example, imagine that a chemistry teacher wanted to explain an electrolysis experiment1_{. The teacher could draw several molecules on a black-board. Then,}

using an eraser, the teacher could break the bonds between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms and redraw the bonds, showing the new hydrogen and oxygen molecules created. The instructor might then wish to add another layer of complexity, showing how the experiment can be improved by adding a salt which ionizes in the water. In order to record this process in their paper-based note books, students will have to draw multiple pictures or risk losing part of the process that was shown.

9

1 Electrolysis involves using a current to split water molecules, resulting in the creation of hydrogen and oxygen ions which recombine at electrodes to form hydrogen and oxygen molecules and can be collected in the form of gas bubbles

Note Taking Methods

- A Research Based Approach to Encouraging Eﬀective

Note-taking: Best Practices and Supporting Technologies

Table of Contents